Synthetic glucocorticoids: Antenatal administration and long-term implications

Current Pharmaceutical Design

Volumn 11, Issue 11, 2005, Pages 1459-1472

  Sloboda, D M ^a,b   Challis, J R G ^c   Moss, T J M ^a,b   Newnham, J P ^a,b  

^a UNIVERSITY OF WESTERN AUSTRALIA   (Australia)

^b Women and Infants Research Foundation   (Australia)

^c UNIVERSITY OF TORONTO   (Canada)

Author keywords

Antenatal; Betamethasone; Dexamethasone; Disease; Fetus; Glucocortocoids; Growth; Programming

Indexed keywords

BECLOMETASONE; BETAMETHASONE; BETAMETHASONE ACETATE PLUS BETAMETHASONE SODIUM PHOSPHATE; BETAMETHASONE SODIUM PHOSPHATE; DEXAMETHASONE; GLUCOCORTICOID; HYDROCORTISONE; PREDNISOLONE;

BEHAVIOR DISORDER; BIRTH WEIGHT; BRAIN DISEASE; CHRONIC DRUG ADMINISTRATION; CLINICAL TRIAL; COGNITIVE DEFECT; CORTICOSTEROID THERAPY; DISEASE PREDISPOSITION; DRUG ABSORPTION; DRUG EFFICACY; DRUG MECHANISM; DRUG MEGADOSE; DRUG RESEARCH; DRUG SAFETY; ENDOCRINE DISEASE; EVIDENCE BASED MEDICINE; FEMALE; FETUS; FETUS DEVELOPMENT; FETUS DISEASE; FETUS MATURITY; FOLLOW UP; HIGH RISK PREGNANCY; HUMAN; HYPOTHALAMUS HYPOPHYSIS ADRENAL SYSTEM; INTRAUTERINE GROWTH RETARDATION; LOW BIRTH WEIGHT; MENTAL DISEASE; METABOLIC DISORDER; NEONATAL RESPIRATORY DISTRESS SYNDROME; NEWBORN; NEWBORN MORBIDITY; NEWBORN MORTALITY; NONHUMAN; NUTRITIONAL STATUS; OUTCOMES RESEARCH; PLACENTA DISORDER; POSTNATAL DEVELOPMENT; PREDICTION; PREMATURE LABOR; PRENATAL CARE; PRENATAL DEVELOPMENT; PRENATAL DRUG EXPOSURE; PRIORITY JOURNAL; REVIEW; RISK BENEFIT ANALYSIS; RISK REDUCTION;

FEMALE; FETUS; GLUCOCORTICOIDS; HUMANS; INFANT, NEWBORN; PREGNANCY; RESPIRATORY DISTRESS SYNDROME, NEWBORN; TIME FACTORS;

EID: 17844406864     PISSN: 13816128     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.2174/1381612053507873     Document Type: Review

References (193)

1. Esteban NV, Loughlin T, Yergey AL, Zawadzki JK, Booth JD, Winterer JC, et al. Daily cortisol production rate in man determined by stable isotope dilution/mass spectrometry. J Clin Endocrinol Metab 1991; 72(1): 39-45.
2. Speight TM. Endocrine Diseases. In: Speight TM, editor. Avery's Drug Treatment. Principles and practice of clinical pharmacology and therapeutics. 3 ed. Auckland: ADIS Press Ltd 1987; p. 564.
3. Siebe H, Baude G, Lichtenstein I, Wang D, Buhler H, Hoyer B-A, et al. Metabolism of Dexamethasone: sites and activity in mammalian tissues. Renal Physiol Biochem 1993; 16: 79-88.
4. Englebienne P. The serum steroid transport proteins: biochemistry and clinical significance. Mol Aspects Med 1984; 7(4): 313-96.
5. Perrot-Applanat M, David-Ferreira JFD, David-Ferreira KL. Immunohistochemical localization of corticoteroid-binding globulin (CBG) in guinea pig hepatocytes. Endocrinology 1981; 109(5): 1625-1633.
6. Berdusco ETM, Hammond GL, Jacobs RA, Grolla A, Akagi K, Langlois DA, et al. Glucocorticoid induced increase in plasma corticosteroid-binding globulin levels in fetal sheep is associated with increased biosynthesis and alterantions in glycosylation. Endocrinology 1993; 132: 2001-2008.
7. Pepe GJ, Hodgert Jury H, Hammond GL, Albrecht ED. Developmental regulation of corticosteroid-binding globulin biosynthesis in the baboon fetus. Endocrinology 1996; 137(8): 3323-3328.
8. Hammond GL, Smith CL, Underhill DA. Molecular study of corticosteroid binding globulin structure, biosynthesis and function. J Steroid Biochem Mol Biol 1991; 40(4-6): 755-762.
9. Seralini GE. Regulation factors of corticosteroid - binding globulin: lesson from ontogenesis. Horm Res 1996; 45: 192-196.
10. Pugeat MM, Dunn JF, Nisula BC. Transport of steroid hormones: interaction of 70 drugs with testosterone binding globulin and corticosteroid binding globulin in human plasma. J Clin Endocrinol Metab 1981; 53: 69-75.
11. Yang K. Ovine 11 beta -hydroxysteroid dehydrogenase: from gene to function. Endocr Res 1995; 21(1&2): 367-377.
12. Stewart PM, Krozowski Z. 11 beta hydroxysteroid dehydrogenase. Vitam Horm 1999; 57: 249-324.
13. Krozowski Z. The 11beta hydroxysteroid dehydrogenases: functions and physiological effects. Mol Cell Endocrinol 1999; 25(151): 121-127.
14. Stewart PM, Rogerson FM, Mason JI. Type 2 11β hydroxysteroid dehydrogenase messenger ribonucleic acid and activity in human placenta and fetal membranes: its relationship to birth weight and putative role in fetal adrenal steroidogenesis. J Clin Endocrinol Metab 1995; 80: 885-890.
15. Jamieson PM, Chapman KE, Edwards CRW, Seckl JR. 11β hydroxysteroid dehydrogenase is an exclusive 11β reductase in primary cultures of rat hepatocytes: effect of physicochemical and hormonal manipulations. Endocrinology 1995; 136(11): 4754-4761.
16. Jamieson PM, Walker BR, Chapman KE, Andrew R, Rossiter S. 11β - hydroxysteroid dehydrogenase type 1 is a predominant 11β-reductase in the intact perfused rat liver. J Endocrinol 2000; 165: 685-692.
17. Yang K, Hammond GL, Challis JRG. Characterization of an ovine glucocorticoid receptor cDNA and developmental changes in its mRNA levels in the fetal sheep hypothalamus, pituitary gland and adrenal. J Mol Endocrinol 1992; 8: 173-180.
18. Ricketts ML, Verhaeg JM, Bujalska I, Howie AJ, Rainey WE, Stewart PM. Immunohistochemical localization of type 1 11β hydroxysteroid dehydrogenase in human tissues. J Clin Endocrinol Metab 1998; 83: 1325-1335.
19. Patel FA, Sun K, Challis JRG. Local modulation by 11β-hydroxysteroid dehydrogenase of glucocorticoid effects on the activity of 15-hydroxyprostaglandin dehydrogenase in human chorion and placental trophoblast cells. J Clin Endocrinol Metab 1999; 84(2): 395-400.
20. Fetal and Maternal Clinical Pharmacology. In: Speight TM, editor. Avery's Drug Treatment: Principles and practice of clinical pharmacology and theraputics. Auckland: ADIS press 1988; p. 81-82.
21. Liggins GC. Premature delivery of fetal lambs infused with glucocorticoids. J Endocrinol 1969; 45(4): 515-523.
22. Liggins GC, Howie RN. A controlled trial of antepartum glucocorticoid treatment for prevention of the respiratory distress syndrome in premature infants. Pediatrics 1972; 50(4): 515-525.
23. Bauer CR, Morrison JC, Poole WK, Korones SB, Boehm JJ, Rigatto H, et al. A decreased incidence of necrotizing enterocolitis after prenatal glucocorticoid therapy. Pediatrics 1984; 73(5): 682-8.
24. Bolt RJ, van Weissenbruch MM, Lafeber HN, Delemarre-van de Waal HA. Glucocorticoids and lung development in the fetus and preterm infant. Pediatr Pulmonol 2001; 32(1): 76-91.
25. Willet KE, McMenamin P, Pinkerton K, Ikegami M, Jobe A, Gurrin L, et al. Lung morphology and collagen and elastin content: changes during normal development and after prenatal hormone exposure in sheep. Pediatr Res 1999; 45: 615-625.
26. Jobe AH, Polk D, Ikegami M, Newnham J, Sly P, Kohen R, et al. Lung responses to ultrasound-guided fetal treatments with corticosteroids in preterm lambs. J Appl Physiol 1993; 75(5): 2099-105.
27. Ikegami M, Jobe AH, Newnham J, Polk DH, Willet KE, Sly P. Repetitive prenatal glucocorticoids improve lung function and decrease growth in preterm lambs. Am J Respir Crit Care Med 1997; 156(1): 178-184.
28. Grover TR, Ackerman KG, Le Cras TD, Jobe AH, Abman SH. Repetitive prenatal glucocorticoids increase lung endothelial nitric oxide synthase expression in ovine fetuses delivered at term. Pediatr Res 2000; 48(1): 75-83.
29. Moss TJ, Harding R, Newnham JP. Lung function, arterial pressure and growth in sheep during early postnatal life following single and repeated prenatal corticosteroid treatments. Early Hum Dev 2002; 66(1): 11-24.
30. Doyle LW, Ford GW, Rickards AL, Kelly EA, Davis NM, Callanan C, et al. Antenatal corticosteroids and outcome at 14 years of age in children with birth weight less than 1501 grams. Pediatrics 2000; 106(1): E2.
31. Ballard PL, Granberg P, Ballard RA. Glucocorticoid levels in maternal and cord serum after prenatal betamethasone therapy to prevent respiratory distress syndrome. J Clin Invest 1975; 56: 1548-1554.
32. Anderson AB, Gennser G, Jeremy JY, Ohrlander S, Sayers L, Turnbull AC. Placental transfer and metabolism of betamethasone in human pregnancy. Obstet Gynecol 1977; 49(4): 471-4.
33. Levitz M, Jansen V, Dancis J. The transfer and metabolism of corticosteroids in the perfused human placenta. Am J Obstet Gynecol 1978; 132(4): 363-6.
34. Petersen MC, Nation RL, Ashley JJ, McBride WG. The placental transfer of betamethasone. Eur J Clin Pharmacol 1980; 18(3): 245-7.
35. Moss TJ, Doherty DA, Nitsos I, Harding R, Newnham JP. Pharmacokinetics of betamethasone after maternal or fetal intramuscular administration. Am J Obstet Gynecol 2003; 189(6): 1751-7.
36. Ballabh P, Lo ES, Kumari J, Cooper TB, Zervoudakis I, Auld PA, et al. Pharmacokinetics of betamethasone in twin and singleton pregnancy. Clin Pharmacol Ther 2002; 71(1): 39-45.
37. Kari MA, Hallman M, Eronen M, Teramo K, Virtanen M, Koivisto M, et al. Prenatal Dexamethasone treatment in conjunction with rescue therapy of human surfactant: a randomized placebo-controlled multicenter study. Pediatrics 1994; 93(5): 730-736.
38. Ballard RA, Ballard PL. Antenatal hormone therapy for improving the outcome of the preterm infant. J Perinatol 1996; 16(5): 390-396.
39. Anyaegbunam WI, Adetona AB. Use of Antenatal corticosteroids for fetal maturation in preterm infants. Am Fam Physician 1997; 56(4): 1093-1096.
40. Crowley PA. Antenatal corticosteroid therapy: a meta-analysis of the randomized trials, 1972 to 1994. Am J Obstet Gynecol 1995; 173(1): 322-35.
41. Effect of corticosteroids for fetal maturation on perinatal outcomes. NIH Consensus Development Panel on the Effect of Corticosteroids for Fetal Maturation on Perinatal Outcomes. JAMA 1995; 273(5): 413-8.
42. Gardner MO, Goldenberg RL. The Clin use of antenatal corticosteroids. Clin Obstet Gynecol 1995; 38(4): 746-754.
43. The Vermont-Oxford Trials Network: very low birth weight outcomes for 1990. Investigators of the Vermont-Oxford Trials Network Database Project. Pediatrics 1993; 91(3): 540-5.
44. Bronstein JM, Goldenberg RL. Practice variation in the use of corticosteroids: a comparison of eight data sets. Am J Obstet Gynecol 1995; 173(1): 296-8.
45. Leviton LC, Baker S, Hassol A, Goldenberg RL. An exploration of opinion and practice patterns affecting low use of antenatal corticosteroids. Am J Obstet Gynecol 1995; 173(1): 312-6.
46. Quinlivan JA, Evan SF, Dunlop SA, Beazley LD, Newnham J. Use of corticosteroid by australian obstetricians-a survey of Clin practice. Australian and New Zealand Obstetrics and Gynecology 1998; 38(1): 1-7.
47. Brocklehurst P, Gates S, McKenzie-McHarg K, Alfirevic Z, Chamberlain G. Are we prescribing multiple courses of antenatal corticosteroids? A survey of practice in the UK. Br J Obstet Gynecol 1999; 106(9): 977-979.
48. Meadow WL, Bell A, Sunstein CR. Statistics, not memories: what was the standard of care for administering antenatal steroids to women in preterm labor between 1985 and 2000? Obstet Gynecol 2003; 102(2): 356-62.
49. Barker DJP, Osmond C. Infant mortality, childhood nutrition, and ischaemic heart disease in England and Wales. Lancet 1986(i): 1077-1081.
50. Barker DJP. The fetal origins of adult disease. Fetal and Maternal Medicine Review 1994; 6: 71-80.
51. Seckl JR, Miller WL. How safe is long-term prenatal glucocorticoid treatment? JAMA 1997; 277(13): 1077-1079.
52. Davies M, Norman R. Programming and reproductive functioning. Trends Endocrinol Metab 2002; 13(9): 386.
53. Matthews S. Early programming of the hypothalamo-pituitary-adrenal axis. Trends Endocrinol Metab 2002; 13(9): 373.
54. Young J. Programming of sympathoadrenal function. Trends Endocrinol Metab 2002; 13(9): 381.
55. Holt R. Fetal programming of the growth hormone-insulin-like growth factor axis. Trends Endocrinol Metab 2002; 13(9): 392.
56. Barker DJP, Winter PD, Osmond C, Margetts B, Simmonds SJ. Weight in infancy and death from ischaemic heart disease. Lancet 1989; 8663: 577-580.
57. Osmond C, Barker DJP, Winter PD, Fall CHD, Simmonds SJ. Early growth and death from cardiovascular disease in women. British Medical Journal 1993; 307: 1519-1524.
58. Hales CN, Barker DJP, Clark PMS, Cox LJ, Fall CHD, Osmond C, et al. Fetal and infant growth and impaired glucose tolerance at age 64. Br Med J 1991; 303: 1019-1022.
59. Phipps K, Barker DJP, Hales CN, Fall CHD, Osmond C, Clark PMS. Fetal growth and impaired glucose tolerance in men and women. Diabetologia 1993; 36: 225-228.
60. Phillips DIW, Barker DJP, Hales CN, Hirst S, Osmond C. Thinness at birth and insulin resistance in adult life. Diabetologia 1994; 37: 150-154.
61. Phillips DIW, Hirst S, Clark PMS, Hales CN, Osmond C. Fetal growth and insulin secretion in adult life. Diabetologia 1994; 37: 592-596.
62. Lithell HO, McKeigue PM, Berglund L, Mohsen R, Lithell UB, Leon DA. Relation of size at birth to non-insulin dependent diabetes and isnulin concentrations in men aged 50-60 years. British Medical Journal 1996; 312: 406-410.
63. Chiarelli F, di Ricco L, Mohn A, De Martino M, Verrotti A. Insulin resistance in short children with intrauterine growth retardation. Acta Pediatria Supplement 1999; 428: 62-65.
64. Barker DJP, Hales CN, Fall CHD, Osmond C, Phipps K, Clark PMS. Type 2 (non-insul in-dependant) diabetes melllitus, hypertension and hyperlipidaimia (syndrome X) : relation to reduced fetal growth. Diabetologia 1993; 36: 62-67.
65. McCance DR, Pettitt DJ, Hanson RL, Jacobsson LTH, Knowler WC, Bennett HPJ. Birth weight and non-insulin dependent diabetes: thirfty genotype, thrifty phenotype, or surviving small baby genotype. British Medical Journal 1994; 308: 942-945.
66. Levitt NS, Lambert EV, Woods D, Hales CN, Andrew R, Seckl JR. Impaired glucose tolerance and elevated blood pressure in low birth weight, nonobese, young south african adults: early programming of cortisol axis. J Clin Endocrinol Metab 2000; 85: 4611-4618.
67. Reaven GM. Role of insulin resistance in human disease. Diabetes 1988; 37: 1595-1607.
68. Phillips DIW, Walker BR, Reynolds RM, Flanagan DE, Wood PJ, Barker DJP, et al. Low birth weight predicts elevated plasma cortisol concentrations in adults from 3 populations. Hypertension 2000; 36(6): 1301-1306.
69. Reynolds RM, Walker BR, Syddall HE, Andrew R, Wood PJ, Whorwood CB, et al. Altered control of cortisol secretion in adult men with low birth weight and cardiovascular risk factors. J Clin Endocrinol Metab 2001; 86: 245-250.
70. Liggins GC. The role of cortisol in preparing the fetus for birth, Reprod Fertil Dev 1994; 6: 141-150.
71. Fowden AL, Szemere J, Hughes P, Gilmour RS, Forhead AJ. The effects of cortisol on the growth rate of the sheep fetus during late gestation. J Endocrinol 1996; 151(97): 105.
72. Seckl JR. Glucocorticoids, feto - placental 11β hydroxysteroid dehydrogenase type 2, and the early life origins of adult disease. Steroids 1997; 62: 89-94.
73. Goland RS, Jozak S, Warren WB, Conwell IM, Stark RI, Tropper PJ. Elevated levels of umbilical cord plasma corticotrpoin-releasing hormone in growth retarded fetuses. J Clin Endocrinol Metab 1993; 77: 1174-1179.
74. Tonolo G, Fraser G, Connell JM, Kenyon CJ. Chronic low dose infusions of dexamethasone in rats: effects on blood pressure, body weight and plasma atrial natriuretic peptide. J Hyperten 1988; 6(1): 25-31.
75. Dodic M, Wintour EM. Effects of prolonged (48h) infusion of cortisol on blood pressure, renal function and fetal fluids in the immature ovine foetus. Clin Exp Pharmacol Physiol 1994; 21(12): 971-980.
76. Uno H, Lohmiller L, Thieme C, Kemnitz JW, Engle MJ, Roecker EB, et al. Brain damage induced by prenatal exposure to dexamethasone in fetal rhesus macaques. I. hippocampus. Dev Brain Res 1990; 53: 157-167.
77. Weinstock M, Matlina E, Maor GI, Rosen H, McEwen BS. Prenatal stress selectively alters the reactivity of the hypothalamic-pituitary adrenal system in the female rat. Brain Res 1992; 595: 195-200.
78. Lindsay RS, Lindsay RM, Waddell BJ, Seckl JR. Prenatal glucocorticoid exposure lead to offspring hyperglycemia in the rat: studies with the 11β hydroxysteroid dehydrogenase inhibitor carbenoxolone. Diabetologia 1996; 39: 1299-1305.
79. Welberg LAM, Seckl JR. Prenatal stress, glucocorticoids and the programming of the brain. J Neuroendocrinol 2001; 13: 113-128.
80. Phillips DIW, Barker DJP, Fall CHD, Seckl JR, Whorwood CB, Wood PJ, et al. Elevated plasma cortisol concentrations: a link between low birthweight and the insulin resistance syndrome. J Clin Endocrinol Metab 1998; 83: 757-760.
81. Aghajafari F, Murphy K, Matthews S, Ohlsson A, Amankwah K, Hannah M. Repeated doses of antenatal corticosteroids in animals: a systematic review. Am J Obstet Gynecol 2002; 186(4): 843-9.
82. Johnson JWC, Mitzner W, Beck JC, London WT, Sly DL, Lee PA, et al. Long-term effects of betamethasone on fetal development. Am J Obstet Gynecol 1981; 141: 1053-1064.
83. Bakker JM, Schmidt ED, Kroes H, Kavelaars A, Heijnen CJ, Tilders FJH et al. Effects of short-term dexamethasone treatment during pregnancy on the development of the immune system and the hypothalamo - pituitary adrenal axis in the rat. J Neuroimmunol 1995; 63: 183-191.
84. Levitt NS, Lindsay RS, Holmes MC, Seckl JR. Dexamethasone in the last week of pregnancy attenuates hippocampal glucocorticoid receptor gene expression and elevates blood pressure in the adult offspring in the rat. Neuroendocrinology 1996; 64: 412-419.
85. Nyirenda MJ, Lindsay RM, Kenyon CJ, Burchell A, Seckl JR. Glucocorticoid exposure in late gestation permanently programs rat hepatic phosphoenolpyruvate carboxykinase and glucocoritcoid receptor expression and causes glucose intolerance in adult offspring. J Clin Invest 1998; 101: 2174-2181.
86. Thakur A, Sase M, Lee JJ, Thakur V, Buchmiller TL. Effect of dexamethasone on insulin-like growth factor-1 expression in a rabbit model of growth retardation. J Pediatr Surg 2000; 35(6): 898-905.
87. Jobe AH, Wada N, Berry LM, Ikegami M, Ervin MG. Single and repetitive maternal glucocorticoid expsoures reduce fetal growth in sheep. Am J Obstet Gynecol 1998; 178: 880-885.
88. Newnham JP, Evans SF, Godfrey M, Huang W, Ikegami M, Jobe A. Maternal, but not fetal, administration of corticosteroids restricts fetal growth. J Matern Fetal Med 1999; 8(3): 81-7.
89. Sloboda DM, Newnham J, Challis JRG. Effects of repeated maternal betamethasone administration on growth and hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal function of the ovine fetus at term. J Endocrinol 2000; 165: 79-91.
90. Moss TJ, Sloboda DM, Gurrin LC, Harding R, Challis JRG, Newnham J. Programming effects in sheep of prenatal growth restriction and glucocorticoid exposure. Am J Physiol 2001; 281: R960-R970.
91. Ozdemir H, Guvenal T, Cetin M, Kaya T, Cetin A. A Placebo-Controlled Comparison of Effects of Repetitive Doses of Betamethasone and Dexamethasone on Lung Maturation and Lung, Liver, and Body Weights of Mouse Pups. Pediatr Res 2003; 53(1): 98-103.
92. Huang WL, Beazley LD, Quinlivan JA, Evans S, Newnham J, Dunlop SA. Effect of corticosteroids on brain growth in fetal sheep. Obstet Gynecol 1999; 94: 213-218.
93. Moss TJM, Doherty D, Nitsos I, Sloboda DM, Harding R, Newnham SP. Effects into adulthood & single or repeated antenatal coricosteroids in sheep. Am J Obst Gynecol 2005 (in press).
94. Price WA, Stiles AD, Moats-Staats BM, D'Ercole AJ. Gene expression of insulin-like growth factors (IGFs), the type 1 IGF receptor, and IGF binding proteins in dexamethasone induced fetal growth retardation. Endocrinology 1992; 130: 1424-1432.
95. Li J, Saunders JC, Gilmour RS, Silver M, Fowden AL. Insulin-like growth factor II messenger ribonucleic acid expression in fetal tissues of the sheep during late gestation: effects of cortisol. Endocrinology 1993; 132(5): 2083-2089.
96. Fowden AL. The insulin-like growth factors and feto-placental growth. Placenta 2003; 24(8-9): 803-12.
97. Lassarre C, Hardouin S, Daffos F, Forestier F, Frankenne F, Binoux M. Serum insulin-like growth factors and insulin-like growth factor binding proteins in the human fetus. Relationships with growth in normal subjects and in subjects with intrauterine growth retardation. Pediatr Res 1991; 29(3): 219-25.
98. Jensen EC, Gallaher BW, Breier BH, Harding JE. The effect of a chronic maternal cortisol infusion on the late-gestation fetal sheep. J Endocrinol 2002; 174(1): 27-36.
99. Mohan S, Baylink DJ. IGF-binding proteins are multifunctional and act via IGF-dependent and -independent mechanisms. J Endocrinol 2002; 175(1): 19-31.
100. Hill DJ. Fetal programming of the pancreatic β cells and the implications for postnatal diabetes. Semin Neonat 1999; 4: 99-113.
101. Whorwood CB, Sheppard MC, Stewart PM. Licorice inhibits 11β hydroxysteroid dehydrogenase messenger ribonucleic acid levels and potentiates glucocorticoid hormone action. Endocrinology 1993; 132: 2287-2292.
102. Cox DB, Brubaker P, Fraser M, Whittle W, Challis JRG. The effect of maternal dexamethasone during early pregnancy on fetal growth, HPA development and the control of glucose homeostasis. J Soc Gynecol Invest 1999; 6(1 suppl): 110A.
103. Hill DJ, Duvillie B. Pancreatic development and adult diabetes. Pediatr Res 2000; 48(3): 269-274.
104. Fischer B, Rausch U, Wollny P, Westophal H, Seitz J, Aumuller G. Immunohistochemical localization of the glucocorticoid receptor in pancreatic β-cells of the rat. Endocrinology 1990; 126(5): 2635-2641.
105. Lambillotte C, Gilon P, Henquin JC. Direct glucocorticoid inhibition of insulin secretion. J Clin invest 1997; 99: 414-423.
106. Sander M, Neubuser A, Kalamaras J, Ee HC, Martin GR, German MS. Genetic analysis reveals that PAX-6 is required for normal transcription of pancreatic hormone genes and islet development. Genes Development 1997; 11(13): 1662-1673.
107. Hill DJ, Petrik J, Arany E. Growth factors and the regulation of fetal growth. Diabetes Care 1998; 21(2S): 60B-69B.
108. Petrik J, Arany E, McDonald TJ, Hill DJ. Apoptosis in the pancreatic islet cells of the neonatal rat is associated with a reduced expression of insulin-like growth factor II that may act as a survival factor. Endocrinology 1998; 139: 2994-3004.
109. Blondeau B, Lesage J, Czernichow P, Dupouy JP, Breant B. Glucocorticoids impair fetal beta-cell development in rats. Am J Physiol Endocrinol Metab 2001; 281(3): E592-9.
110. Sloboda DM, Newnham J, Challis JR. Maternal betamethasone administration and fetal pancreatic development. In: Society for Gynecological Investigation; 2002; Los Angeles, California 2002; p. 290A.
111. Sloboda DM, Newnham JP, Challis JR. Repeated maternal glucocorticoid administration and the developing liver in fetal sheep. J Endocrinol 2002; 175(2): 535-43.
112. Kotelevtsev YV, Holmes MC, Burchell A, Houston PM, Schmoll D, Jamieson PM, et al. 11β hydroxysteroid dehydrogenase type 1 knockout mice show attenuated glucocorticoid inducible responses and resist hyperglycemia on obesity or stress. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 1997; 94: 14924-14929.
113. Ballard PL, Kitterman JA, Bland RD, Clyman RI, Gluckman PD, Platzker ACF, et al. Ontogeny and regulation of corticosteroid binding globulin capacity in plasma of fetal and newborm lambs. Endocrinology 1982; 110: 359-366.
114. Cleasby ME, Kelly PAT, Walker BR, Seckl JR. Programming of Rat Muscle and Fat Metabolism by in Utero Overexposure to Glucocorticoids. Endocrinology 2003; 144(3): 999-1007.
115. Lee C-H, Olson P, Evans RM. Minireview: Lipid Metabolism, Metabolic Diseases, and Peroxisome Proliferator-Activated Receptors. Endocrinology 2003; 144(6): 2201-2207.
116. Gurnell M, Savage DB, Chatterjee VKK, O'Rahilly S. The Metabolic Syndrome: Peroxisome Proliferator-Activated Receptor {gamma} and Its Therapeutic Modulation. J Clin Endocrinol Metab 2003; 88(6): 2412-2421.
117. Sewter CP, Blows F, Vidal-Puig A, O'Rahilly S. Regional differences in the response of human pre-adipocytes to PPARgamma and RXRalpha agonists. Diabetes 2002; 51(3): 718-23.
118. Cleasby ME, Livingstone DE, Nyirenda MJ, Seckl JR, Walker BR. Is programming of glucocorticoid receptor expression by prenatal dexamethasone in the rat secondary to metabolic derangement in adulthood? Eur J Endocrinol 2003; 148(1): 129-138.
119. Matthews SG. Antenatal glucocorticoids and the developing brain: mechanisms of action. Semin Neonatol 2001; 6(4): 309-17.
120. Dunlop SA, Archer MA, Quinlivan JA, Beazley LD, Newnham JP. Repeated prenatal coricosteriods delay myelination in the ovine central nervous system. J Matern Fetal Med 1997; 6: 309-313.
121. Quinlivan JA, Dunlop SA, Newnham J, Evans SF, Beazley LD. Repeated, but not single, maternal administration of corticosteroids delays myelination in the brain of fetal sheep. Prenat Neonatal Med 1999; 4: 47-55.
122. Antonow-Schlorke I, Schwab M, Li C, Nathanielsz PW. Glucocorticoid exposure at the dose used clinically alters cytoskeletal proteins and presynaptic terminals in the fetal baboon brain. J Physiol (Lond) 2003; 547(1): 117-123.
123. Bertram CE, Hanson MA. Prenatal programming of postnatal endocrine responses by glucocorticoids. Reproduction 2002; 124(4): 459-67.
124. Dallman MF, Akana SF, Cascio CS, Darlington DN, Jacobson L, Levin N. Regulation of ACTH secretion: Variations on a theme of B. Recent Prog Horm Res 1987; 43: 113-173.
125. Matthews SG, Challis JRG. Regulation of the hypothalamo-pituitary-adrenocortical axis in fetal sheep. Trends Endocrinol Metab 1996; 7: 239-246.
126. Keller-Wood ME, Dallman MF. Corticosteroid inhibition of ACTH secretion. Endocr Rev 1984; 5(1): 1-24.
127. Fowden AL, Li J, Forhead AJ. Glucocorticoids and the preparation for life after birth: are there Ion-term consequences of the life insurance? Proc Nutr Soc 1998; 57: 113-122.
128. Challis JRG, Sloboda DM, Matthews SG, Holloway A, Alfaidy N, Howe DC, et al. Fetal hypothalamic-pituitary adrenal (HPA) development and activation as a determinant of the timing of birth, and of postnatal disease. Endocr Res 2000; 26(4): 489-504.
129. Jacobson L, Sapolsky RM. The role of the hippocampus in feedback regulation of the hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenocortical axis. Endocr Rev 1991; 12(2): 118-134.
130. De Kloet ER, Reul JMHM, Sutanto W. Corticosteroids and the brain. J Steroid Biochem Mol Biol 1990; 37(3): 387-394.
131. De Kloet ER, Vreugdenhil E, Oitzl MS, Joels M. Brain corticosteroids receptor balance in health and disease. Endocr Rev 1998; 19(3): 269-301.
132. Meijer O, De Kloet ER. Corticosterone and serotonergic neurotransmission in the hippocampus: functional implications of central corticosteroid receptor diversity. Crit Rev Neurobiol 1998; 12(1&2): 1-20.
133. Reul JMHM, De Kloet ER. Two receptor systems for corticosterone in rat brain: microdistribution and differential occupation. Endocrinology 1985; 117(6): 2505-2511.
134. Dean F, Matthews SG. Maternal dexamethasone treatment in late gestation alters glucocorticoid and mineralocorticoid receptor mRNA in the fetal guinea pig brain. Brain Res 1999; 846: 253-259.
135. Uno H, Eisele S, Sakai A, Shelton S, Baker E, DeJesus O, et al. Neurotoxicity of glucocorticoids in the primate brain. Horm Behav 1994; 28: 336-348.
136. Lingas R, Dean F, Matthews SG. Maternal nutient restriction (48H) modifies brain corticosteorid receptor expression and endocrine function in the feal guinea pig. Brain Res 1999; 846: 236-242.
137. Takahashi LK, Kalin NH. Early developmental and temporal characteristics of stress-induced secretion of pituitary adrenal hormones in prenatally stressed rat pups. Brain Res 1991; 558: 75-78.
138. Benediktsson R, Lindsay RS, Noble JM, Seckl JR, Edwards CRW. Glucocorticoid exposure in utero: new model for adult hypertension. Lancet 1993; 341: 339-341.
139. Sloboda DM, Moss TJ, Gurrin LC, Newnham J, Challis JRG. The effect of prenatal betamethasone administration on postnatal ovine hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal function. J Endocrinol 2002; 172(1): 71-81.
140. Sloboda DM, Moss T, Nitsos I, Doherty DA, Challis JRG, Newnham JP. Antenatal glucocorticoid treatment in sheep results in adrenal suppression in adulthood. J Soc Gynecol Investig 2003; 10(2): 233A.
141. Dinan TG. Serotonin and the regulation of hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal axis function. Life Sci 1996; 58(20): 1683-94.
142. Lowry CA. Functional subsets of serotonergic neurones: implications for control of the hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal axis. J Neuroendocrinol 2002; 14(11): 911-23.
143. Hanley NR, Van de Kar LD. Serotonin and the neuroendocrine regulation of the hypothalamic - pituitary-adrenal axis in health and disease. Vitam Horm 2003; 66: 189-255.
144. Muneoka K, Mikuni M, Ogawa T, Kitera K, Kamei K, Takigawa M, et al. Prenatal dexamethasone exposure alters brain monoamine metabolism and adrenocortical response in rat offspring. Am J Physiol 1997; 273(5 Pt 2): R1669-75.
145. Laplante P, Diorio J, Meaney MJ. Serotonin regulates hippocampal glucocorticoid receptor expression via a 5-HT7 receptor. Brain Res Dev Brain Res 2002; 139(2): 199-203.
146. Edwards CRW, Benediktsson R, Lindsay RM, Seckl JR. Dysfunction of placental glucocorticoid barrier: link between fetal environment and adult hypertension? FEBS 1993; 341: 355-357.
147. Brown RW, Chapman KE, Edwards CRW, Seckl JR. Human placental 11β hydroxysteroid dehydrogenase: evidence for and partial purification of a distinct NAD-dependant isoform. Endocrinology 1993; 132: 2614-2621.
148. Saegusa H, Nakagawa Y, Liu YJ, Ohzeki T. Influence of placental 11β-hydroxysteroid dehydrogenase (11β HSD) inhibition on glucose metabolism and 11β HSD regulation in adult offspring of rats. Metabolism 1999; 48(12): 1584-1588.
149. Welberg LAM, Seckl JR, Holmes MC. Inhibition of 11β-hydroxysteroid dehydrogenase, the fetal-placental barrier to maternal glucocorticoids, permanenetly programs amygdala GRmRNA expression and anxiety-like behaviour in the offspring. Eur J Neurosci 2000; 12: 1047-1054.
150. Kerzner LS, Stonestreet BS, Wu KY, Sadowska G, Malee MP. Antenatal dexamethasone: effect on ovine placental 11beta-hydroxysteroid dehydrogenase type 2 expression and fetal growth. Pediatr Res 2002; 52(5): 706-12.
151. Shams M, Kilby MD, Somerset DA, Howie AJ, Gupta A, Wood PJ, et al. 11β-hydroxysteroid dehydrogenase type 2 in human pregnancy and reduced expression in intrauterine growth restriction. Hum Reprod 1998; 13(4): 799-804.
152. McTernan CL, Draper N, Nicholson H, Chalder SM, Driver P, Hewison M, et al. Reduced Placental 11 {beta}-Hydroxysteroid Dehydrogenase Type 2 mRNA Levels in Human Pregnancies Complicated by Intrauterine Growth Restriction: An Analysis of Possible Mechanisms. J Clin Endocrinol Metab 2001; 86(10): 4979-4983.
153. Kajantie E, Dunkel L, Turpeinen U, Stenman U-H, Wood PJ, Nuutila M, et al. Placental 11β-Hydroxysteroid Dehydrogenase-2 and Fetal Cortisol/Cortisone Shuttle in Small Preterm Infants. J Clin Endocrinol Metab 2003; 88(1): 493-500.
154. Challis JR, Sloboda DM, Alfaidy N, Lye SJ, Gibb W, Patel FA, et al. Prostaglandins and mechanisms of preterm birth. Reproduction 2002; 124(1): 1-17.
155. 2 on the concentration of cortisol in the plasma of newborn lambs. J Endocrinol 1978; 76: 177-178.
156. 2. Nature 1976; 264: 797-799.
157. Young IR, Deayton JM, Hollingsworth SA, Thorburn GD. Continuous intrafetal infusion of prostaglandin E2 prematurely activates the hypothalamo-pituitary-adrenal axis and induces parturition in sheep. Endocrinology 1996; 137(6): 2424-2431.
158. Whittle W, Holloway A, Lye SJ, Gibb W, Challis JRG. Prostaglandin production at the onset of ovine parturition is regulated by both estrogen-independant and estrogen-dependent pathways. Endocrinology 2000; 141: 3783-3791.
159. Brooks AN, Hagan DM, Howe DC. Neuroendocrine regulation of pituitary-adrenal function during fetal life. Eur J Endocrinol 1996; 135: 153-165.
160. Yeshaya A, Orvieto R, Ben-Shem E, Dekel A, Peleg D, Dicker D, et al. Uterine activity after betamethasone administration for the enhancement of fetal lung maturation. Fur J Obstet Gynecol Reproduc Biol 1996; 67: 139-141.
161. French NP, Evans SF, Godfrey KM, Newnham JP. Repeated antenatal corticosteroids: size at birth and subsequent development. Am J Obstet Gynecol 1999; 180(1): 114-121.
162. Bloom SL, Sheffield JS, McIntire DD, Leveno KJ. Antenatal dexamethasone and decreased birth weight. Obstet Gynecol 2001; 97(4): 485-90.
163. Thorp JA, Jones AM, Hunt C, Clark R. The effect of multidose antenatal betamethasone on maternal and infant outcomes. Am J Obstet Gynecol 2001; 184(2): 196-202.
164. Thorp JA, Jones PG, Peabody JL, Knox E, Clark RH. Effect of antenatal and postnatal corticosteroid therapy on weight gain and head circumference growth in the nursery. Obstet Gynecol 2002; 99(1): 109-15.
165. Modi N, Lewis H, Al-Naqeeb N, Ajayi-Obe M, Dore CJ, Rutherford M. The effects of repeated antenatal glucocorticoid therapy on the developing brain. Pediatr Res 2001; 50(5): 581-5.
166. Gale CR, Walton S, Martyn CN. Foetal and postnatal head growth and risk of cognitive decline in old age. Brain 2003; 126(Pt 10): 2273-8.
167. Stathis SL, O'Callaghan M, Harvey J, Rogers Y. Head circumference in ELBW babies is associated with learning difficulties and cognition but not ADHD in the school-aged child. Dev Med Child Neurol 1999; 41(6): 375-80.
168. Nilsson PM, Nyberg P, Ostergren P. Increase susceptibility to stress at a psycholocial assessment of stress tolerance is associated with mparied fetal growth. Int J Epidemiol 2001; 30: 75-80.
169. French NP, Hagan R, Evans SF, Mullan A, Newnham JP. Repeated antenatal corticosteroids: effects on cerebral palsy and childhood behaviour. Am J Obstet Gynecol 2004; 190: 588-95.
170. Cotter D, Pariante CM. Stress and the progression of the developmental hypothesis of schizophrenia. Br J Psychiatry 2002; 181: 363-5.
171. Kofman O. The role of prenatal stress in the etiology of developmental behavioural disorders. Neurosci Biobehav Rev 2002; 26(4): 457-70.
172. Field T, Diego M, Hernandez-Reif M, Schanberg S, Kuhn C, Yando R, et al. Pregnancy anxiety and comorbid depression and anger: effects on the fetus and neonate. Depress Anxiety 2003; 17(3): 140-51.
173. Jackson JR, Kleeman S, Doerzbacher M, Lambers DS. The effect of glucocorticosteroid administration on fetal movements and biophysical profile scores in normal pregnancies. J Matern Fetal Neonatal Med 2003; 13(1): 50-3.
174. Dessens AB, Haas HS, Koppe JG. Twenty-year follow-up of antenatal corticosteroid treatment. Pediatrics 2000; 105(6): E77.
175. Hendershott CM, Dullien V, Goodwin TM. Serial betamethasone administration: Effect on maternal slivary estriol levels. Am J Obstet Gynecol 1999; 180: 219S-222S.
176. Parilla BV, Logan JY. Multiple courses of betamethasone do not appear to decrease fetal adrenal steroidogeneis. Prenat Neonatal Med 1999; 4: 312-316.
177. Reinisch JM, Simon NG, Karow WG, Gandelman R. Prenatal exposure to prednisone in humans and animals retards intrauterine growth. Science 1978; 202: 436-438.
178. Economides DL, Nicolaides KH, Campbell S. Metabolic and endocrine findings in appropriate and small for gestational age fetuses. J Perinat Med 1991; 19: 97-105.
179. Clark PMS, Hindmarsh PC, Shiell AW, Law CM, Honour JW, Barker DJP. Size at birth and adrenocortical function in childhood. Clin Endocrinol 1996; 45: 721-726.
180. Tenhola S, Martikainen A, Rahiala E, Parviainen M, Halonen P, Voutilainen R. Increased adrenocortical and adrenomedullary hormonal activity in 12-year-old children born small for gestational age. J Pediatr 2002; 141(4): 477-82.
181. Phillips DIW, Bennett F, Wilks R, Boyne M, Forrester T. Maternal Size, Fetal Growth and Offspring Blood Pressure: Role of HPA Axis. In: The Endocrine Society 2003; p. 25.
182. Fernald LC, Grantham-McGregor SM. Growth retardation is associated with changes in the stress response system and behavior in school-aged jamaican children. J Nutr 2002; 132(12): 3674-9.
183. Sloboda DM, Moss TJ, Gurrin LC, Newnham J, Challis JRG. Postnatal ovine hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal (HPA) axis function is altered following prenatal betamethsone exposure. J Soc Gynecol Investig 2001; 8(1): 108A.
184. Ogueh O, Johnson MR. The metabolic effect of antenatal corticosteroid therapy. Hum Reprod Update 2001; 6(2): 169-176.
185. Smith GN, Kingdom JC, Penning DH, Matthews SG. Antenatal corticosteroids: is more better? Lancet 2000; 355: 251-252.
186. Crowley P. Prophylactic corticosteroids for preterm birth. Cochrane Database Syst Rev 2000(2): CD000065.
187. Guinn DA, Atkinson MW, Sullivan L, Lee M, MacGregor S, Parilla BV, et al. Single vs weekly courses of antenatal corticosteroids for women at risk of preterm delivery: A randomized controlled trial. JAMA 2001; 286(13): 1581-7.
188. Antenatal corticosteroids revisited: repeat courses - National Institutes of Health Consensus Development Conference Statement, August 17-18, 2000. Obstet Gynecol 2001; 98(1): 144-50.
189. Crowther CA, Harding J. Repeat doses of prenatal corticosteroids for women at risk of preterm birth for preventing neonatal respiratory disease. Cochrane Database Syst Rev 2003(3): CD003935.
190. KJ mclaughlin CC, N Walker, JE Harding. Effects of a single course of corticosteroids given more that 7 days before birth: A systematic review. Australian and New Zealand Obstetrics and Gynecology 2003; 43: 101-106.
191. Goldenberg RL, Wright LL. Repeated courses of antenatal corticosteroids. Obstet Gynecol 2001; 97(2): 316-7.
192. Crowley P. Antenatal corticosteroids - current thinking. BJOG 2003; 110 Suppl 20: 77-8.
193. Aghajafari F, Murphy K, Ohlsson A, Amankwah K, Matthews S, Hannah ME. Multiple versus single courses of antenatal corticosteroids for preterm birth: a pilot study. J Obstet Gynaecol Can 2002; 24(4): 321-9.