Recent advances in electron imaging, image interpretation and applications: Environmental scanning electron microscopy

Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society A: Mathematical, Physical and Engineering Sciences

Volumn 361, Issue 1813, 2003, Pages 2771-2787

  Stokes, Debbie J ^a  

^a UNIVERSITY OF CAMBRIDGE   (United Kingdom)

Author keywords

Dynamic charge related phenomena; Environmental scanning electron microscopy; ESEM; Gaseous signal amplification; Insulators; Secondary electron contrast

Indexed keywords

EID: 0348233814     PISSN: 1364503X     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1098/rsta.2003.1279     Document Type: Review

References (57)

1. Akkerman, A., Boutboul, A., Breskin, A., Chechik, R., Gibrekhterman, A. & Lifshitz, Y. 1996 Inelastic electron interactions in the energy range 50 eV to 10 keV in insulators: alkali halides and metal oxides. Physica Status Solidi B 198, 769-784.
2. Ashok, J. & Varaprasad, L. H. 1991 Handbook of optical constants of solids. II. (ed. E. D. Palik). Academic.
3. Baroni, T. C., Griffin, B. J., Browne, J. R. & Lincoln, F. J. 2000 Correlation between charge-contrast imaging and the distribution of trace impurities in Gibbsite. Microsc. Microanalysis 6, 49-58.
4. Bishop, H. 1974 Electron-solid interactions and energy dissipation. In Quantitative scanning electron microscopy (ed. D. Holt, M. Muir, P. Grant & I. Boswarva). Academic.
5. Burke, E. A. 1980 Secondary emission from polymers. IEEE Trans. Nucl Sci. 27, 1760-1764.
6. Cameron, R. E. & Donald, A. M. 1994 Minimising sample evaporation in the environmental scanning electron microscope. J. Microsc. 173, 227-237.
7. - irradiated insulators. J. Appl. Phys. 85, 1137-1147.
8. Craven, J. P., Baker, F. S., Thiel, B. L. & Donald, A. M. 2002 Consequences of positive ions upon imaging in low-vacuum SEM. J. Microsc. 205, 96-105.
9. Danilatos, G. D. 1988 Foundations of environmental scanning electron microscopy. In Advances in electronic and electron physics, vol. 71, pp. 109-249. Academic.
10. Danilatos, G. D. 1990 Theory of the gaseous detector device in the environmental scanning electron microscope. In Advances in electronic and electron physics, vol. 78, pp. 1-102. Academic.
11. Danilatos, G. D. & Robinson, V. N. E. 1979 Principles of scanning electron microscopy at high specimen pressures. Scanning 2, 72-82.
12. Doehne, E. 1997 A new correction method for high-resolution energy-dispersive X-ray analyses in the environmental scanning electron microscope. Scanning 18, 75-78.
13. Doehne, E. 1998 Charge contrast: some ESEM observations of a new/old phenomenon. Microsc. Microanalysis 4, 292-293.
14. Durkin, R. & Shah, J. S. 1993 Amplification and noise in high pressure scanning electron microscopy. J. Microsc. 169, 33-51.
15. Echlin, P. 1992 Low-temperature microscopy and analysis. Plenum.
16. Ellis, R. J. 2001 Macromolecular crowding: obvious but underappreciated. Trends Biochem. Sci. 26, 597-604.
17. Farley, A. N., Becket, A. & Shah, J. S. 1990 A comparison of beam damage of hydrated biological specimens in high-pressure scanning electron microscopy and low-temperature scanning electron microscopy. In Proc. XIIth Int. Congr. Electron Microsc., pp. 386-387. San Francisco Press.
18. Fletcher, A. L., Thiel, B. L. & Donald, A. M. 1997 Amplification measurements of potential imaging gases in environmental SEM. J. Phys. D 30, 2249-2257.
19. Ganachaud, J. & Mokrani, A. 1995 Theoretical study of the secondary electron emission of insulating targets. Surf. Sci. 334, 329-241.
20. Gauvin, R. 1999 Some theoretical considerations on X-ray microanalysis in the environmental or variable pressure scanning electron microscope. Scanning 21, 388-393
21. Goldstein, J., Newbury, D., Echlin, P., Joy, D. C., Romig Jr, A. D., Lyman, C. E., Fiori, C. & Lifshin, E. 1992 Scanning electron microscopy and X-ray microanalysis. Plenum.
22. Grais, K. & Bastawros, A. 1982 A study of secondary electron emission in insulators and semiconductors. J. Appl. Phys. 53, 5239-5242.
23. Griffin, B. J. 1997 A new mechanism for the imaging of non-conductive materials: an application of charge-induced contrast in the environmental scanning electron microscope (ESEM). Microsc. Microanalysis 3, 1197-1198.
24. Griffin, B. J. 2000 Charge-contrast imaging of material growth and defects in environmental scanning electron microscopy-linking electron emission and cathodoluminescence. Scanning 22, 234-242.
25. He, C. & Donald, A. M. 1996 Morphology of core-shell polymer lattices during drying. Langmuir 12, 6250-6256.
26. Howie, A. 1995 Recent developments in secondary electron imaging. J. Microsc. 180, 192-203.
27. Jenkins, L. M. & Donald, A. M. 1997 Use of the environmental scanning electron microscope for the observation of the swelling behaviour of cellulosic fibres. Scanning 19, 92-97.
28. Joy, D. C. & Joy, C. S. 1998 A study of the dependence of E2 energies on sample chemistry. Microsc. Microanalysis 4, 475-480.
29. Keddie, J. L., Meredith, P., Jones, R. A. L. & Donald, A. M. 1995 Kinetics of film formation in acrylic lattices studied with multiple-angle-of-incidence ellipsometry and environmental SEM. Macromolecules 28, 2673-2682.
30. Kitching, S. & Donald, A. M. 1998 Beam damage of polypropylene in the environmental scanning electron microscope: an FTIR study. J. Microsc. 190, 357-365.
31. La Verne, J. & Pimblott, S. 1995 Electron energy-loss distributions in solid and gaseous hydrocarbons. J. Phys. Chem. 99, 10540-10548.
32. Lide, D. R. (ed.) 1991 CRC handbook of chemistry and physics. Boca Raton, FL: CRC Press.
33. Meredith, P. & Donald, A. M. 1996 Study of 'wet' polymer latex systems in environmental scanning electron microscopy: some imaging considerations. J. Microsc. 181, 23-35.
34. Moncrieff, D. A., Robinson, V. N. E. & Harris, L. B. 1978 Gas neutralisation of insulating surfaces in the SEM by gas ionisation. J. Phys. D 11, 2315-2325.
35. Moncrieff, D. A., Barker, P. R. & Robinson, V. N. E. 1979 Electron scattering by gas in the scanning electron microscope. J. Phys. D 12, 481-488.
36. Parsons, D. 1975 Radiation damage in biological materials. In Physical aspects of electron microscopy and microbeam analysis (ed. B. Siegel & D. Beaman), pp. 259-265. Wiley.
37. Reimer, L. & Tollkamp, C. 1980 Measuring the backscattering coefficient and secondary electron yield inside an SEM. Scanning 3, 35-42.
38. Rizzieri, R., Baker, F. S. & Donald, A. M. 2003 A study of the large strain deformation and failure behaviour of mixed bioploymer gels via in situ ESEM. Polymer 44, 5927-5935.
39. Royall, C. P., Thiel, B. L. & Donald, A. M. 2001 Radiation damage of water in environmental scanning electron microscopy. J. Microsc. 204, 185-195.
40. Scholtz, J. J., Schmitz, R. W. A., Hendriks, B. H. W. & de Zwart, S. T. 1997 Description of the influence of charging on the measurement of the secondary electron yield of MgO. Appl. Surf. Sci. 111, 259-264.
41. Stelmashenko, N. A., Craven, J. P., Donald, A. M., Terentjev. E. & Thiel, B. L. 2001 Topographic contrast of partially wetting water droplets in environmental scanning electron microscopy. J. Microsc. 104, 172-183.
42. Stokes, D. J. & Donald, A. M. 2000 In situ mechanical testing of dry and hydrated breadcrumb using environmental SEM. J. Mater. Sci. 35, 599-607.
43. Stokes, D. J., Thiel, B. L. & Donald, A. M. 1998 Direct observations of water/oil emulsion systems in the liquid state by environmental scanning electron microscopy. Langmuir 14, 4402-4408.
44. Stokes, D. J., Thiel, B. L. & Donald, A. M. 2000 Dynamic secondary electron contrast effects in liquid systems studied by environmental SEM (ESEM). Scanning 22, 357-365.
45. Stokes, D. J., Mugnier, J.-Y. & Clarke, C. J. 2003a Static and dynamic experiments in cryoelectron microscopy: comparative observations using high vacuum, low voltage and low vacuum. J. Microsc. (In the press.)
46. Stokes, D. J., Rea, S. M., Best, S. M. & Bonfield, B. 2003b Electron microscopy of mammalian cells in the absence of fixing, drying, freezing or specimen coating. Scanning 24, 181-184.
47. Tabor, D. 1991 Gases, liquids and solids, and other states of matter. Cambridge University Press.
48. Tai, S. S. W. & Tang, X. M. 2001 Manipulating biological samples for environmental scanning electron microscopy observation. Scanning 23, 267-272.
49. Thiel, B. L. & Donald, A. M. 1998 In situ mechanical testing of fully hydrated carrots (Daucus carota) in the environmental SEM. Ann. Botany 82, 727-733.
50. Thiel, B. L., Bache, I. C., Fletcher, A. L., Meredith, P. & Donald, A. M. 1997 An improved model for gaseous amplification in the environmental SEM. J. Microsc. 187, 143-157.
51. Thiel, B. L. & Toth, M. 2003 Secondary electron contrast mechanisms in low vacuum SEM characterization of dielectric substances. (Submitted.)
52. Toth, M., Kucheyev, S. O., Williams, J. S., Jagadish, C., Phillips, M. R. & Li, G. 2000 Imaging charge trap distributions in GaN using environmental scanning electron microscopy. Appl. Phys. Lett. 77, 1342-1344.
53. Toth, M., Phillips, M. R., Craven, J. P., Thiel, B. L. & Donald, A. M. 2002a Electric fields produced by electron irradiation of insulators in a low-vacuum environment. J. Appl. Phys. 91, 4492-4499.
54. Toth, M., Phillips, M. R., Thiel, B. L. & Donald, A. M. 2002b Electron imaging of dielectrics under simultaneous electron-ion irradiation. J. Appl. Phys. 91, 4479-4491.
55. Toth, M., Thiel, B. L. & Donald, A. M. 2002c On the role of electron-ion recombination in low-vacuum SEM. J. Microsc. 205, 86-95.
56. von Engel, A. 1965 Ionized gases. Oxford: Clarendon.
57. Weiss, T. F. 1996 Solvent transport. In Cellular biophysics. Cambridge, MA: MIT Press.