The ketogenic diet for the treatment of epilepsy : A challenge for nutritional neuroscientists

Nutritional Neuroscience

Volumn 6, Issue 2, 2003, Pages 67-79

  Stafstrom, Carl E ^a   Bough, Kristopher J ^b  

^a UNIVERSITY OF WISCONSIN SCHOOL OF MEDICINE AND PUBLIC HEALTH   (United States)

^b EMORY UNIVERSITY SCHOOL OF MEDICINE   (United States)

Author keywords

Animal models; Developing brain; Epilepsy; Ketogenic diet; Seizure

Indexed keywords

CARBOHYDRATE; FAT; PROTEIN;

BRAIN FUNCTION; CARBOHYDRATE DIET; CELL FUNCTION; CHILD; HUMAN; INTRACTABLE EPILEPSY; KETOGENIC DIET; LIPID DIET; MEDICAL RESEARCH; NERVE CELL MEMBRANE; NERVE CELL NETWORK; NEUROSCIENCE; NONHUMAN; NUTRITION; PRIORITY JOURNAL; PROTEIN DIET; RETROSPECTIVE STUDY; REVIEW;

AGE FACTORS; ANIMALS; BRAIN; CHILD, PRESCHOOL; COGNITION; DIETARY CARBOHYDRATES; DIETARY FATS; DIETARY PROTEINS; ENERGY INTAKE; EPILEPSY; HUMANS; INFANT; KETONE BODIES; NUTRITION PHYSIOLOGY; TREATMENT OUTCOME;

ANIMALIA;

EID: 0037386997     PISSN: 1028415X     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1080/1028415031000084427     Document Type: Review

References (121)

1. Al-Mudallal, A.S., LaManna, J.C., Lust, W.D. and Harik, S.I. (1996) "Diet-induced ketosis does not cause cerebral acidosis", Epilepsia 37, 258-261.
2. Appleton, D.B. and DeVivo, D.C. (1974) "An animal model for the ketogenic diet", Epilepsia 15, 211-217.
3. Arakawa, T., Goto, T. and Okada, Y. (1991) "Effect of ketone body (D-3-hydroxybutyrate) on neural activity and energy metabolism in hippocampal slices of the adult guinea pig", Neuroscience Letters 130, 53-56.
4. Boles, R.G., Seashore, M.R., Mitchell, W.G., Kollros, P.R., Mofidi, S. and Novotny, E.J. (1999) "Glucose transporter type 1 deficiency: a study of two cases with video-EEG", European Journal of Pediatrics 158, 978-983.
5. Bouchard, L., Robert, M.F., Vinarov, D., Stanley, C.A., Thompson, G.N., Morris, A., Leonard, J.V, Quant, P., Hsu, P.Y., Boneh, A., Boukaftane, Y., Ashmarina, L., Wang, S., Miziorko, H. and Mitchell, G.A. (2001) "Mitochondrial 3-hydroxy-3-methylglutaryl-CoA synthase deficiency: clinical course and description of causal mutations in two patients", Pediatric Research 49, 326-331.
6. Bough, K.J. and Eagles, D.A. (1999) "A ketogenic diet increases the resistance to pentylenetetrazole-induced seizures in the rat", Epilepsia 40, 138-143.
7. Bough, K.J. and Eagles, D.A. (2001) "Comparison of the anticonvulsant efficacies and neurotoxic effects of valproic acid, phenytoin, and the ketogenic diet", Epilepsia 42, 1345-1353.
8. Bough, K., Chen, R. and Eagles, D.A. (1999a) "Path analysis shows that increasing ketogenic ratio, but not beta-hydroxybutyrate, elevates seizure threshold in the rat", Developmental Neuroscience 21, 400-406.
9. Bough, K.J., Valiyil, R., Han, F.T. and Eagles, D.A. (1999b) "Seizure resistance is dependent upon age and caloric restriction in rats fed a ketogenic diet", Epilepsy Research 35, 21-28.
10. Bough, K.J., Matthews, P.J. and Eagles, D.A. (2000a) "A ketogenic diet has different effects upon seizures induced by maximal electroshock and by pentylenetetrazole infusion", Epilepsy Research 38, 105-114.
11. Bough, K.J., Yao, S.G. and Eagles, D.A. (2000b) "Higher ketogenic diet ratios confer protection from seizures without neurotoxicity", Epilepsy Research 38, 15-25.
12. Bruce-Keller, A., Umberger, G., McFall, R. and Mattson, M. (1999) "Food restriction reduces brain damage and improves behavioral outcome following excitotoxic and metabolic insults", Neurology 45, 8-15.
13. Coppola, G., Veggiotti, P., Cusmai, R., Bertoli, S., Cardinali, S., Dionisi-Vici, C., Elia, M., Lispi, M.L., Sarnelli, C., Tagliabue, A., Toraldo, C. and Pascotta, A. (2002) "The ketogenic diet in children, adolescents and young adults with refractory epilepsy: an Italian multicentric experience", Epilepsy Research 48, 221-227.
14. Couch, S.C., Schwarzman, F., Carroll, J., Koenigsberger D., Nordli, D.R., Deckelbaum, R.J. and DeFelice, A.R. (1999) "Growth and nutritional outcomes of children treated with the ketogenic diet", Journal of the American Dietetic Association 99, 1573-1575.
15. Cullingford, T.E., Dolphin, C.T., Bhakoo, K.K., Peuchen, S., Canevari, L., J, B. and Clark,. (1998) "Molecular cloning of rat mitochondrial 3-hydroxy-3-methylglutaryl-coA lyase and detection of the corresponding mRNA and of those encoding the remaining enzymes comprising the ketogenic 3-hydroxy-3-methylglutaryl-coA cycle in central nervous system of the suckling rat", Biochemical Journal 329, 373-381.
16. Cullingford, T.E., Eagles, D.A. and Sato, H. (2002) "The ketogenic diet upregulates expression of the gene encoding the key ketogenic enzyme mitochondrial 3-hydroxy-3-methyl-glutaryl-CoA synthase in rat brain", Epilepsy Research 49, 99-107.
17. Dahlquist, G., Persson, U. and Persson, B. (1972) "The activity of D-beta-hydroxybutyrate dehydrogenase in fetal, infant and adult rat brain and the influence of starvation", Biology of the Neonate 20, 40-50.
18. Dekaban, A.S. (1966) "Plasma lipids in epileptic children treated with the high fat diet", Archives of Neurology 15, 177-184.
19. Dell, C.A., Likhodii, S.S., Musa, K., Ryan, M.A., Burnham, W.M. and Cunnane, S.C. (2001) "Lipid and fatty acid profiles in rats consuming different high-fat ketogenic diets", Lipids 36, 373-378.
20. DeVivo, D.C., Malas, K.L. and Leckie, M.P. (1975) "Starvation and seizures", Archives of Neurology 32, 755-760.
21. DeVivo, D.C., Leckie, M.P., Ferrendelli, J.S. and McDougal, D.B. (1978) "Chronic ketosis and cerebral metabolism", Annals of Neurology 3, 331-337.
22. DeVivo, D.C., Trifiletti, R.R., Jacobson, R.I., Ronen, G.M., Behmand, R.A. and Harik, S.I. (1991) "Defective glucose transport across the blood-brain barrier as a cause of persistent hypoglycorrhachia, seizures, and developmental delay", New England Journal of Medicine 325, 703-709.
23. Dodson, W.E., Prensky, A.L., DeVivo, D.C., Goldring, S. and Dodge, P.R. (1976) "Management of seizure disorders: selected aspects, Part II", Journal of Pediatrics 89, 695-703.
24. Erecinska, M., Nelson, D., Daikhin, Y. and Yudkoff, M. (1996) "Regulation of GABA level in rat synaptosomes: fluxes through enzymes of the GABA shunt and effects of glutamate, calcium, and ketone bodies", Journal of Neurochemistry 67, 2325-2334.
25. Freeman, J.M. (2001) "The ketogenic diet and epilepsy", Nestle Nutrition Workshop Series Clinical & Performance Program 5, 307-321.
26. Freeman, J.M. and Vining, E.P.G. (1999) "Seizures decrease rapidly after fasting: preliminary studies of the ketogenic diet", Archives of Pediatrics and Adolescent Medicine 153, 946-949.
27. Freeman, J., Vining, E., Pillas, D., Pyzik, P., Casey, J. and Kelly, M. (1998) "The efficacy of the ketogenic diet - 1998: a prospective evaluation of intervention in 150 children", Pediatrics 102, 1358-1363.
28. Freeman, J.M., Freeman, J.B. and Kelly, M.T. (2000) The Ketogenic Diet - A Treatment for Epilepsy (Demos Publications, New York).
29. Furth, S.L., Casey, J.C., Pyzik, P.L., Neu, A.M., Docimo, S.G., Vining, E.P.G., Freeman, J.M. and Fivush, B.A. (2000) "Risk factors for urolithiasis in children on the ketogenic diet", Pediatric Nephrology 15, 125-128.
30. Geyelin, H. (1921) "Fasting as a method for treating epilepsy", Medical Record 99, 1037-1039.
31. Gilbert, D.L., Pyzik, P.L. and Freeman, J.M. (2000) "The ketogenic diet: seizure control correlates better with serum beta-hydroxybutyrate than with urine ketones", Journal of Child Neurology 15, 787-790.
32. Greene, A.E., Todorova, M.T., McGowan, R. and Seyfried, T.N. (2001) "Caloric restriction inhibits seizure susceptibility in epileptic EL mice by reducing blood glucose", Epilepsia 42, 1371-1378.
33. Greenwood, C.E. and Winocur, G. (2001) "Glucose treatment reduces memory deficits in young adult rats fed high-fat diets", Neurobiology of Learning and Memory 75, 179-189.
34. Harney J.P., Madara, J., Madara, J. and I'Anson, H. (2002) "Effects of acute inhibition of fatty acid oxidation on latency to seizure and concentrations of beta-hydroxybutyrate in plasma of rats maintained on calorie restriction and/or the ketogenic diet", Epilepsy Research 49, 239-246.
35. Hawkins R.A., Williamson, D.H. and Krebs, H.A. (1971) "Ketone-body utilization by adult and suckling rat brain in vivo", Biochemical Journal 122, 13-18.
36. Helmholz, H.F. and Keith, H.M. (1930) "Eight years' experience with the ketogenic diet in the treatment of epilepsy", Journal of the American Medical Association 95, 707-709.
37. Hemingway, C., Freeman, J.M., Pillas, D.J. and Pyzik, P.L. (2001) "The ketogenic diet: a 3- to 6-year follow-up of 150 children enrolled prospectively", Pediatrics 108, 898-905.
38. Hori, A., Tandon, P., Holmes, G.L. and Stafstrom, C.E. (1997) "Ketogenic diet: effects on expression of kindled seizures and behavior in adult rats", Epilepsia 38, 750-758.
39. Huttenlocher, P.R. (1976) "Ketonemia and seizures: metabolic and anticonvulsant effects of two ketogenic diets in childhood epilepsy", Pediatric Research 10, 536-540.
40. Huttenlocher, P.R., Wilbourn, A.J. and Signore, J.M. (1971) "Medium-chain triglycerides as a therapy for intractable childhood epilepsy", Neurology 21, 1097-1103.
41. Izumi, Y., Ishii, K., Katsuki, H., Benz, A.M. and Zorumski, C.F. (1998) "Beta-hydroxybutyrate fuels synaptic function during development: histological and physiological evidence in rat hippocampal slices", Journal of Clinical Investigation 101, 1121-1132.
42. Kaytal, N.G., Koehler, A.N., McGhee, B., Foley, C.M. and Crumrine, P.K. (2000) "The ketogenic diet in refractory epilepsy: the experience of Children's Hospital of Pittsburgh", Clinical Pediatrics 39, 153-159.
43. Kinsman, S.L., Vining, E.P.G., Quaskey, S.A., Mellits, D. and Freeman, J.M. (1992) "Efficacy of the ketogenic diet for intractable seizure disorders: review of 58 cases", Epilepsia 33(6), 1132-1136.
44. Klepper, J. and Voit, T. (2002) "Facilitated glucose transporter protein type 1 (GLUT1) deficiency syndrome: impaired glucose transport into the brain - a review", European Journal of Pediatrics 161, 295-304.
45. Kossoff, E.H., Pyzik, P.L., McGrogan, J.R., Vining, E.P.G. and Freeman, J.M. (2002) "Efficacy of the ketogenic diet for infantile spasms", Pediatrics 109, 780-783.
46. Kraus, H., Schlenker, S. and Schwedesky, D. (1974) "Developmental changes of cerebral ketone body utilization in human infants", Hoppe-Seyler's Zeitschrift fur Physiologische Chemie 355, 164-170.
47. Leaf, A., Kang, J., Xiao, Y.-F., Billman, G. and Voskuyl, R. (1999) "Functional and electrophysiologic effects of polyunsaturated fatty acids on excitable tissues: heart and brain", Prostaglandins Leukotrienes and Essential Fatty Acids 60, 307-312.
48. LeFever, F. and Aronson, N. (2000) "Ketogenic diet for the treatment of refractory epilepsy in children: a systematic review of efficacy", Pediatrics 105(4), wwwpediatricsorg/cgi/content/full/105/4/e46.
49. Leino, R.L., Gerhart, D.Z., Duelli, R., Enerson, B.E. and Drewes, L.R. (2001) "Diet-induced ketosis increases monocarboxylate transporter (MCT1) levels in rat brain", Neurochemistry International 38, 519-527.
50. Likhodhii, S.S. and Burnham, W.M. (2002) "The ketogenic diet: does acetone stop seizures?" Medical Science Monitor 8, HY19-24.
51. Likhodii, S.S., Musa, K., Mendonca, A., Dell, A., Burnham, W.M. and Cunnane, S.C. (2000) "Dietary fat, ketosis, and seizure resistance in rats on the ketogenic diet", Epilepsia 41, 1400-1410.
52. Likhodii, S.S., Musa, K. and Cunnane, S.C. (2002) "Breath acetone as a measure of systemic ketosis assessed in a rat model of the ketogenic diet", Clinical Chemistry 48, 115-120.
53. Livingston, S. (1972) "Dietary treatment of epilepsy", In: Livingston, S., ed, Comprehensive Management of Epilepsy in Infancy, Childhood and Adolescence (Charles C. Thomas, Springfield, IL), pp 378-405.
54. Magrath, G., MacDonald, A. and Whitehouse, W. (2000) "Dietary practices and use of the ketogenic diet in the UK", Seizure 9, 128-130.
55. Mandel, A., Ballew, M., Pina-Garza, J.E., Stalmasek, V. and Clemens, L.H. (2002) "Medical costs are reduced when children with intractable epilepsy are successfully treated with the ketogenic diet", Journal of the American Dietetic Association 102, 396-398.
56. Mattson, M.P., Duan, W., Lee, J. and Guo, Z. (2001) "Suppression of brain aging and neurodegenerative disorders by dietary restriction and environmental enrichment: molecular mechanisms", Mechanisms of Ageing and Development 122, 757-778.
57. Maydell, B.V., Wyllie, E., Akhtar, N., Kotagal, P., Powaski, K., Cook, K., Weinstock, A. and Rothner, A.D. (2001) "Efficacy of the ketogenic diet in focal versus generalized seizures", Pediatric Neurology 25, 208-212.
58. McGarry, J.D. and Foster, D.W. (1980) "Regulation of hepatic fatty acid oxidation and ketone body production", Annual Review of Biochemistry 49, 395-420.
59. Millichap, J.G., Jones, J.D. and Rudis, B.P. (1964) "Mechanism of anticonvulsant action of the ketogenic diet", American Journal of the Diseases of Childhood 107, 593-604.
60. Moore, T., Lione, A., Sugden, M. and Regen, D. (1976) "Hydroxybutyrate transport in rat brain: developmental and dietary modulations", American Journal of Physiology 230, 619-630.
61. Muller-Schwarze, A.B., Tandon, P., Liu, Z., Yang, Y., Holmes, G.L. and Stafstrom, C.E. (1999) "Ketogenic diet reduces spontaneous seizures and mossy fiber sprouting in the kainic acid model", NeuroReport 10, 1517-1522.
62. Musa-Veloso, K., Rarama, E., Comeau, F., Curtis, R. and Cunnane, S. (2002) "Epilepsy and the ketogenic diet: assessment of ketosis in children using breath acetone", Pediatric Research 52, 443-448.
63. Nakazawa, M., Kodama, S. and Matsuo, T. (1983) "Effects of ketogenic diet on electroconvulsive threshold and brain contents of adenosine nucleotides", Brain and Development 5, 375-380.
64. Nehlig, A. (1999) "Age-dependent pathways of brain energy metabolism: the suckling rat, a natural model of the ketogenic diet", Epilepsy Research 37, 211-221.
65. Nordli, D.R. and DeVivo, D.C. (1997) "The ketogenic diet revisited: back to the future", Epilepsia 38, 743-749.
66. Nordli, D.R., Kuroda, M.M., Carroll, J., Koenigsberger, D.Y., Hirsch, L.J., Bruner, H.J., Seidel, W.T. and DeVivo, D.C. (2001) "Experience with the ketogenic diet in infants", Pediatrics 108, 129-133.
67. Otani, K., Yamatodani, A., Wada, H., Mimaki, T. and Yabuuchi, H. (1984) "Effect of ketogenic diet on convulsive threshold and brain monoamine levels in young mice", No To Hattatsu 16, 196-204.
68. Owen, O.E., Morgan, A.P., Kemp, H.G., Sullivan, J.M., Herrera, M.G. and Cahill, G.F. Jr., (1967) "Brain metabolism during fasting", Journal of Clinical Investigation 46, 1589-1595.
69. 31P spectroscopic imaging at 4.1T", Epilepsia 40, 703-707.
70. Pan, J.W., Rothman, D.L., Behar, K.L., Stein, D.T. and Hetherington, H.P. (2000) "Human brain beta-hydroxybutyrate and lactate increase in fasting-induced ketosis", Journal of Cerebral Blood Flow and Metabolism 20, 1502-1507.
71. Pan, J.W., Telang, F.W., Lee, J.H., Degraaf, R.A., Rothman, D.L., Stein, D.T. and Hetherington, H.P. (2001) "Measurement of beta-hydroxybutyrate in acute hyperketonemia in human brain", Journal of Neurochemistry 79, 539-544.
72. Pellerin, L., Pellegri, G., Martin, J.-L. and Magistretti, P.J. (1998) "Expression of monocarboxylate transporter mRNAs in mouse brain: support for a distinct role of lactate as an energy substrate for the neonatal vs. adult brain", Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America 95, 3990-3995.
73. Peterman, M.G. (1925) "The ketogenic diet in epilepsy", Journal of the American Medical Association 84, 1979-1983.
74. Prasad, A.N. and Stafstrom, C.E. (1998) "Dietary therapy of epilepsy in the nineties: renewed experience with the ketogenic diet", Nutrition Research 18, 403-416.
75. Pulsifer, M., Gordon, J., Vining, E. and Freeman, J. (2001) "Effects of the ketogenic diet on development and behavior: preliminary report of a prospective study", Developmental Medicine and Child Neurology 43, 301-306.
76. Rho, J.M., Kim, D.W., Robbins, C.A., Anderson, G.D. and Schwartzkroin, P.A. (1999a) "Age-dependent differences in flurothyl seizure sensitivity in mice treated with a ketogenic diet", Epilepsy Research 37, 233-240.
77. Rho, J.M., Szot, P., Tempel, B.L. and Schwartzkroin, P.A. (1999b) "Developmental seizure susceptibility of Kv1.1 potassium channel knockout mice", Developmental Neuroscience 21, 320-327.
78. Rho, J.M., Robbins, C.A., Wenzel, J., Tempel, B.L. and Schwartzkroin, P.A. (2000) "An experimental ketogenic diet promotes long-term survival and reduces synaptic reorganization in the hippocampus of epileptic Kv1.1 null mutant mice", Epilepsia 41(Suppl. 7), 34.
79. Rho, J.M., Anderson, G.D., Donevan, S.D. and White, H.S. (2002) "Acetoacetate, acetone, and dibenzylamine (a contaminant in L-(+)-beta-hydroxybutyrate) exhibit direct anticonvulsant actions in vivo", Epilepsia 43, 358-361.
80. Robinson, A.M. and Williamson, D.H. (1980) "Physiological role of ketone bodies as substrates and signals in mammalian tissues", Physiological Reviews 60, 143-187.
81. Sankar, R. and Sotero de Menezes, M. (1999) "Metabolic and endocrine aspects of the ketogenic diet", Epilepsy Research 37, 191-201.
82. Saudek, C.D. and Felig, P. (1976) "The metabolic events of starvation", American Journal of Medicine 60, 117-126.
83. Schlanger, S., Shinitzky, M. and Yam, D. (2002) "Diet enriched with omega-3 fatty acids alleviates convulsion symptoms in epilepsy patients", Epilepsia 43, 103-104.
84. Schwartz, M.W. and Seely, R.J. (1997) "Neuroendocrine responses to starvation and weight loss", New England Journal of Medicine 336, 1802-1811.
85. Schwartz, R.M., Boyes, S. and Aynsley-Green, A. (1989a) "Metabolic effects of three ketogenic diets in the treatment of intractable epilepsy", Developmental Medicine and Child Neurology 31, 152-160.
86. Schwartz, R.M., Eaton, J., Bower, B.D. and Aynsley-Green, A. (1989b) "Ketogenic diets in the treatment of epilepsy: short term clinical effects", Developmental Medicine and Child Neurology 31, 145-151.
87. Schwartzkroin, P. (1999) "Mechanisms underlying the anti-epileptic efficacy of the ketogenic diet", Epilepsy Research 37, 171-180.
88. 1H-MRS in patients with epilepsy controlled by ketogenic diet", Magnetic Resonance Materials in Physics, Biology and Medicine (MAGMA) 8, 33-42.
89. Sirven, J., Whedon, B., Caplan, D., Liporace, J., Glosser D., O'Dwyer, J. and Sperling, M.R. (1999) "The ketogenic diet for intractable epilepsy in adults: preliminary results", Epilepsia 40, 1721-1726.
90. Sohal, R.S. and Weindruch, R.W. (1996) "Oxidative stress, caloric restriction, and aging", Science 273, 59-63.
91. Sokoloff, L. (1973) "Metabolism of ketone bodies by the brain", Annual Review of Medicine 24, 271-279.
92. Stafstrom, C.E. (1999) "Animal models of the ketogenic diet: what have we learned, what can we learn?", Epilepsy Research 37, 241-259.
93. Stafstrom, C.E. (2001) "Effects of fatty acids and ketones on neuronal excitability: implications for epilepsy and its treatment", In: Mostofsky, D.I., Yehuda, S. and Salem, N., eds, Fatty Acids - Physiological and Behavioral Functions (Humana Press, Totowa, NJ), pp 273-290.
94. Stafstrom, C. and Spencer, S. (2000) "The ketogenic diet: a therapy in search of an explanation", Neurology 54, 282-283.
95. Su, S.W., Cilio, M.R., Sogawa, Y., Silveira, D., Holmes, G.L. and Stafstrom, C.E. (2000) "Timing of ketogenic diet initiation in an experimental epilepsy model", Developmental Brain Research 125, 131-138.
96. Swink, T.D., Vining, E.P.G. and Freeman, J.M. (1997) "The ketogenic diet: 1997", Advances in Pediatrics 44, 297-329.
97. Szot, P., Weinshenker, D., Rho, J.M., Storey, T.W. and Schwartzkroin, P.A. (2001) "Norepinephrine is required for the anticonvulsant effect of the ketogenic diet", Developmental Brain Research 129, 211-214.
98. Thavendiranathan, P., Mendonca, A., Dell, C., Likhodii, S., Musa, K., Iracleous, C., Cunnane, S.C. and Burnham, W.M. (2000) "The MCT ketogenic diet: effects on animal seizure models", Experimental Neurology 161, 696-703.
99. Thio, L., Wong, M. and Yamada, K.A. (2000) "Ketone bodies do not directly alter excitatory or inhibitory hippocampal transmission", Neurology 54, 325-331.
100. Todorova, M.T., Tandon, P., Madore, R.A., Stafstrom, C.E. and Seyfried, T.N. (2000) "The ketogenic diet inhibits epileptogenesis in EL mice: a genetic model for idiopathic epilepsy", Epilepsia 41, 933-940.
101. Uauy, R., Peirano, P., Hofman, D., Mena, P., Birch, D. and Birch, E. (1996) "Role of essential fatty acids in the function of the developing nervous system", Lipids 31(Supplement), S167-S176.
102. Uhlemann, E.R. and Neims, A.H. (1972) "Anticonvulsant properties of the ketogenic diet in mice", Journal of Pharmacology and Experimental Therapeutics 180, 231-238.
103. Vining, E., Freeman, J.M., Ballaban-Gil, K., Camfield, C., Camfield, P., Holmes, G., Shinnar, S., Shuman, R., Trevathan, E. and Wheless, J.W. (1998) "A multicenter study of the efficacy of the ketogenic diet", Archives of Neurology 55, 1433-1437.
104. Vining, E.P.G. (1999) "Clinical efficacy of the ketogenic diet", Epilepsy Research 37, 181-190.
105. Vining, E.P.G., Pyzik, P., McGrogan, J., Hladky, H., Anand, A., Kriegler, S. and Freeman, J.M. (2002) "Growth of children on the ketogenic diet", Developmental Medicine and Child Neurology 44, 796-802.
106. Vreugdenhil, M., Bruehl, C., Voskuyl, R.A., Kang, J.X., Leaf, A. and Wadman, W.J. (1996) "Polyunsaturated fatty acids modulate sodium and calcium currents in CA1 neurons", Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America 93, 12559-12563.
107. Wada, H., Okada, Y., Nabetani, M. and Nakamura, H. (1997) "The effects of lactate and beta-hydroxybutyrate on the energy metabolism and neural activity of hippocampal slices from adult and immature rat", Developmental Brain Research 101, 1-7.
108. Wexler, I.D., Hemalatha, S.G., McConnell, J., Bruist, N.R.M., Dahl, H.-H.M., Berry, S.A., Cedarbaum, S.D., Patel, M.S. and Kerr, D.S. (1997) "Outcome of pyruvate dehydrogenase deficiency treated with ketogenic diets", Neurology 49, 1655-1661.
109. Wheless, J.W. (1995) "The ketogenic diet: fa(c)t or fiction", Journal of Child Neurology 10, 419-423.
110. Wheless, J.W. (2001) "The ketogenic diet: an effective medical therapy with side effects", Journal of Child Neurology 16, 633-635.
111. Wheless, J.W., Baumgartner, J. and Ghanbari, C. (2001) "Vagus nerve stimulation and the ketogenic diet", Neurologic Clinics 19, 371-407.
112. White, H.S. (1997) "Clinical significance of animal seizure models and mechanism of action studies of potential antiepileptic drugs", Epilepsia 38(Suppl. 1), S9-S17.
113. Wijburg, F.A., Barth, P.G., Bindoff, L.A., Birch-Machin, M.A., van der Blij, J.F., Ruitenbeek, W., Turnbull, D.M. and Schutgens, R.B. (1992) "Leigh syndrome associated with a deficiency of the pyruvate dehydrogenase complex: results of treatment with a ketogenic diet", Neuropediatrics 23, 147-152.
114. Wilder, R.M. (1921) "The effects of ketonemia on the course of epilepsy", Mayo Clinic Proceedings 2, 307-308.
115. Williams, S., Basualdo-Hammond, C., Curtis, R. and Schuller, R. (2002) "Growth retardation in children with epilepsy on the ketogenic diet: a retrospective chart review", Journal of the American Dietetic Association 102, 405-407.
116. Wing, R., Vazquez, J. and Ryan, C. (1995) "Cognitive effects of ketogenic weight-reducing diets", International Journal of Obesity 19, 811-816.
117. Wirrel, E.C., Darwish, H.Z., Williams-Dyjur, C., Blackman, M. and Lange, V. (2002) "Is a fast necessary when initiating the ketogenic diet?", Journal of Child Neurology 17, 179-182.
118. Xiao, Y.-F. and Li, X. (1999) "Polyunsaturated fatty acids modify mouse hippocampal neuronal excitability during excitotoxic or convulsant stimulation", Brain Research 846, 112-121.
119. Yudkoff, M., Daikhin, Y, Nissim, I., Lazarow, A. and Nissim, I. (2001a) "Brain amino acid metabolism and ketosis", Journal of Neuroscience Research 66, 272-281.
120. Yudkoff, M., Daikhin, Y, Nissim, I., Lazarow, A. and Nissim, I. (2001b) "Ketogenic diet, amino acid metabolism, and seizure control", Journal of Neuroscience Research 66, 931-940.
121. Ziegler, D.R., Araujo, E., Rotta, L.N., Perry, M.L. and Goncalves, C.-A. (2002) "A ketogenic diet increases protein phosphorylation in brain slices of rats", Journal of Nutrition 132, 483-487.