Molecular detection and monitoring

Food Mycology: A Multifaceted Approach to Fungi and Food

Volumn , Issue , 2007, Pages 255-278

  Geisen, Rolf ^a  

^a FEDERAL RESEARCH INSTITUTE OF NUTRITION AND FOOD   (Germany)

Author keywords

[No Author keywords available]

Indexed keywords

EID: 85055365179     PISSN: None     EISSN: None     Source Type: Book    
DOI: 10.1201/9781420020984     Document Type: Chapter

References (110)

1. Abarca, M. L., Accensi, F., Cano, J., and Cabanes, F. J. (2004). Taxonomy and significance of black aspergilli. Antonie van Leeuwenhoek 86:33-49.
2. Accensi, F., Cano, J., Figuera, L., Abarca, M. L., and Cabanes, F. J. (1999). New PCR method to differentiate species in the Aspergillus niger aggregate. FEMS Microbiology Letters 180:191-196.
3. Accensi, F., Abarca, M. L., Cano, J., Figuera, L., and Cabanes, F. J. (2001). Distribution of ochratoxin A producing strains in the A. niger aggregate. Antonie van Leeuwenhoek 79:365-370.
4. Bateman, G. L., Kwasna, H., and Ward, E. (1996). Relationships among Fusarium spp. estimated by comparing restriction fragment length polymorphisms in polymerase chain reaction-amplified nuclear rDNA. Canadian Journal of Microbiology 42:1232-1240.
5. Beck, J., Ripka, S., Siegner, A., Schiltz, E., Schweizer, E. (1990). The multifunctional 6-methylsalicylic acid synthase gene of Penicillium patulum. European Journal of Biochemistry 192:487-498.
6. Bluhm, B. H., Flaherty, J. E., Cousin, M. A., and Woloshuk, C. P. (2002). Multiplex polymerase chain reaction assay for the differential detection of trichothecene- and fumonisin-producing species of Fusarium in corn meal. Journal of Food Protection 67:536-543.
7. Bogs, C., Battilani, P., and Geisen, R. (2005). Development of a molecular detection and differentiation system for ochratoxin A producing Penicil- lium species and its application to analyse the occurrence of P. nordicum in cured meats. International Journal of Food Microbiology 107:39-47.
8. Böhm, J., Hahn, A., Schubert, R., Bahnweg, G., Adler, N., Nechwatal, J., Oehlmann, R., and Oßwald, W. (1999). Real-time Quantitative PCR: DNA determination in isolated spores of the mycorrhizal fungus Glomus mosseae and monitoring of Phy- tophthora infestans and Phytophthora citricola in their respective host plants. Journal of Phytopathology 147:409-416.
9. Brown, D. W., Yu, J., Kelkar, H. S., Fernández, M., Nesbit, T. C., Keller, N. P., Adams, T. H., and Leonhard, T. J. (1996). Twenty-five coregulated transcripts define a sterigmatocystin gene cluster in Aspergillus nidulans. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences U.S.A. 93:1418-1422.
10. Brown, M. P., Brown-Jenco, C. S., and Payne, G. A. (1999). Genetic and Molecular Analysis of aflatoxin biosynthesis. Fungal Genetics and Biology 26:81-98.
11. Brown, D. W., McCormick, S. P., Alexander, N. J., Proctor, R. H., and Desjardins, A. E. (2001). A genetic and biochemical approach to study trichothecene diversity in Fusarium sporotrichioides and Fusarium graminearum. Fungal Genetics and Biology 32:121-133.
12. Brown, D. W., Proctor, R. H., Dyer, R. B., and Plattner, R. D. (2003). Characterization of a Fusarium 2-gene cluster involved in trichothecene C-8 modification. Journal of Agricultural and Food Chemistry 51:7936-7944.
13. Chang, P. K., Bhatnagar, D., Cleveland, T. E., and Bennett, J. W. (1995). Sequence variability in homologs of the aflatoxin pathway gene aflR distinguishes species in Aspergillus section Flavi. Applied and Environmental Microbiology 61:40-43.
14. Chen, R.-S., Tsay, J.-G., Huang, Y.-F., and Chiou, R. Y. Y. (2002). Polymerase chain reaction-mediated characterization of molds belonging to the Asper- gillus flavus group and detection of Aspergillus parasiticus in peanut kernels by a multiplex polymerase chain reaction. Journal of Food Protection 65:840-844.
15. Criseo, G., Bagnara, A., and Bisignano, G. (2001). Differentiation of aflatoxin-producing and nonproducing strains of Aspergillus flavus group. Letters in Applied Microbiology 33:291-295.
16. Cuero, R., Ouellet, T., Yu, J., and Mogongwa, N. (2003). Metal ion enhancement of fungal growth, gene expression and aflatoxin synthesis in Asper- gillus flavus: RT-PCR characterization. Journal of Applied Microbiology 94:953-961.
17. Doohan, F. M., Parry, D. W., Jenkinson, P., and Nicholson, P. (1998). The use of species-specific PCR-based assays to analyse Fusarium ear blight of wheat. Plant Pathology 47:197-205.
18. Doohan, F. M., Weston, G., Rezanoor, H. N., Parry, D. W., and Nicholson, P. (1999). Development and use of a reverse transcription-PCR assay to study expression of Tri5 by Fusarium species in vitro and In planta. Applied and Environmental Microbiology 65:3850-3854.
19. Edel, V., Steinberg, C., Gautheron, N., and Alabouvette, C. (1996). Evaluation of restriction analysis of polymerase chain reaction (PCR)-amplified ribosomal DNA for the identification of Fusarium species. Mycological Research 101:179-187.
20. Edwards, S. G., Pirgozliev, S. R., Hare, M. C., and Jenkinson, P. (2001). Quantification of trichothecene- producing Fusarium Species in harvested grain by competitive PCR to determine efficacies of fungicides against Fusarium Head Blight of Winter Wheat. Applied Environmental Microbiology 67:1575-1580.
21. Edwards, S. G., O’Callaghan, J., and Dobson, A. D. W. (2002). PCR-based detection and quantification of mycotoxigenic fungi. Mycological Research 106:1005-1025.
22. Ehrlich, K. C., and Cotty, P. J. (2002). Variability in nitrogen regulation of aflatoxin production by Aspergillus flavus strains. Applied Microbiology and Biotechnology 60:174-178.
23. Ehrlich, K. C., Montalbano, B. G., and Cotty, P. J. (2003). Sequence comparison of afl R from different Aspergillus species provides evidence for variability in regulation of aflatoxin production. Fungal Genetics and Biology 38:63-74.
24. Färber, P., Geisen, R., and Holzapfel, W. H. (1997). Detection of aflatoxinogenic fungi in figs by a PCR reaction. International Journal of Food Microbiology 36:215-220.
25. Feng, G. H., and Leonhard, T. J. (1998). Culture conditions control expression of the genes for aflatoxin and sterigmatocystin biosynthesis in Aspergillus parasiticus and A. nidulans. Applied and Environmental Microbiology 64:2275-2277.
26. Frisvad, J. C., Smedsgaard, J., Larsen, T. O., and Samson, R. A. (2004). Mycotoxins, drugs and other extrolites produced by species in Penicil- lium subgenus Penicillium pp. 201-242.
27. Fungaro, M. H. P., Vissotto, P. C., Sartori, D., Vilas-Boas, L. A., Furlaneto, M. C., and Taniwaki, M. H. (2004). A molecular method for detection of Aspergillus carbonarius in coffee beans. Curr Microbiology 49:123-127.
28. Geisen, R. (1996). Multiplex polymerase chain reaction for the detection of potential aflatoxin and sterigmatocystin producing fungi. Systematic and Applied Microbiology 19:388-392.
29. Geisen, R., Mayer, Z., Karolewiez, A., and Färber, P. (2004). Development of a Real Time PCR system for detection of Penicillium nordicum and for monitoring ochratoxin A production in foods by targeting the ochratoxin polyketide synthase gene. Systematic and Applied Microbiology 27:501-507.
30. Geisen, R. (2004). Molecular monitoring of environmental conditions influencing the induction of ochratoxin A biosynthetic genes in Penicillium nordicum. Molecular Nutrition and Food Research 48:532-540.
31. Geisen, R., Schmidt-Heydt, M. and Karolewiez, A. (2006). A gene cluster of ochratoxin A biosynthetic genes in Penicillium. Mycotoxin Research, 22:134-141.
32. Griffin, D. H. (1994). Fungal Physiology. Wiley-Liss., New York.
33. Grimm, C., and Geisen, R. (1998). A PCR-ELISA for the detection of potential fumonisin producing Fusarium species. Letters in Applied Microbiology 26, 456-462.
34. Häggblom, P. (1982). Production of ochratoxin A in barley by Aspergillus ochraceus and Penicillium vir- idicatum: effect of fungal growth, time, temperature and inoculum size. Applied and Environmental Microbiology 43:1205-1207.
35. Haugland, R. A., Vesper, S. J., and Wymer, L. J. (1999). Quantitative measurement of Stachybotrys chartarum conidia using real time detection of PCR products with the TaqMan TM fluorogenic probe system. Molecular and Cellular Probes 13:329-340.
36. Hohn, T. M., and Beremand, M. N. (1989). Regulation of trichodiene synthase in Fusarium sporo- trichoides and Gibberella pulicaris (Fusarium sam- bucinum). Applied and Environmental Microbiology 55:1500-1503.
37. Hoorfar, J., Malorny, N., Wagner, M., De Medici, D., Abdulmawjood, A., and Fach, P. (2004). Diagnostic PCR: making internal amplification control mandatory. Journal of Applied Microbiology 96:221-222.
38. Ichinoue, M., Kurata, H., Sugiura, Y., and Ueno, Y. (1983). Chemotaxonomy of Gibberella zeae with special reference to production of trichothecenes and zearalenone. Applied and Environmental Microbiology 46:1364-1369.
39. Itoh, Y., Peterson, S. W., Wicklow, D. T., and Goto, T. (2001). Aspergillus pseudotamarii, a new aflatoxin producing species in Aspergillus section Flavi. Mycological Research 105:233-239.
40. Jennings, P., Coates, M. E., Walsh, K., Turner, J. A., and Nicholson, P. (2004). Determination of deoxynivalenol- and nivalenol-producing chemotypes of Fusarium graminearum isolated from wheat crops in England and Wales. Plant Pathology 53:643-652.
41. Karolewiez, A., and Geisen, R. (2005). Cloning a part of the ochratoxin A biosynthetic gene cluster of Penicillium nordicum and characterization of the ochratoxin polyketide synthase gene. Systematic and Applied Microbiology 28:588-595.
42. Keller, N. P., Nesbitt, C., Sarr, B., Phillips, T. D., and Burow, G. B. (1997). pH regulation of sterigmatocystin and aflatoxin biosynthesis in Aspergillus spp. Phytopathology 87:643-648.
43. Klich, M., Yu, J., Chang, P. K., Mullaney, E. J., Bhatnagar, D., and Cleveland, T. E. (1995). Hybridization of genes involved in aflatoxin biosynthesis to DNA of aflatoxinogenic and nonaflatoxinogenic Aspergilli. Applied and Microbiological Biotechnology 44:439-443.
44. Klich, M., Montalbano, B., and Ehrlich, K. (1997). Northern analysis of aflatoxin biosynthesis genes in Aspergillus parasiticus and Aspergillus sojae. Applied Microbiology and Biotechnology 47:246-249.
45. Klich, M., Mullaney, E. J., Daly, C. B., and Cary, J. W. (2000). Molecular and physiological aspects of aflatoxin and sterigmatocystin biosynthesis by Aspergillus tamarii and A. ochraceoroseus. Applied Microbiology and Biotechnology 53:605-609.
46. Knoll, S., Mulfinger, S., Niessen, L., and Vogel, R. F. (2002). Rapid preparation of Fusarium DNA from cereals for diagnostic PCR using sonification and an extraction kit. Plant Pathology 51:728-734.
47. Konstantinova, P., Bonants, P. J. M., van Gent-Pelzer, M. P. E., van der Zouwen, P., and van den Bulk, R. (2002). Development of specific primers for detection and identification of Alternaria spp. in carrot material by PCR and comparison with blotter and plating assays. Mycological Research 106:23-33.
48. Kulik, T., Fordonski, G., Pszczólkowska, A., Plodzien, K., and Lapinski, M. (2004). Development of PCR assay based on ITS2 rDNA polymorphism for the detection and differentation of Fusarium sporotrichioides. FEMS Microbiology Letters 239:181-186.
49. Kusumoto, K. I., Yabe, K., Nogata, Y., and Ohta, H. (1998). Aspergillus oryzea with and without a homolog of aflatoxin biosynthetic gene ver-1. Applied Microbiology and Biotechnology 50:98-104.
50. Lantz, P. G., Tjernfeld, F., Borch, E., Hahn-Hägerdal, B., and Radström, P. (1994a). Enhanced sensitivity in PCR detection of Listeria monocytogenes in soft cheese through use of an aquous two-phase system as a sample preparation method. Applied and Environmental Microbiology 60:3416-3418.
51. Lantz, P. G., Hahn-Hägerdal, B., and Radström, P. (1994b). Sample preparation methods in PCRbased detection of food pathogens. Trends in Food Science and Technology 5:384-389.
52. Lee, H. B., and Magan, N. (2000). Impact of environment and interspecific interactions between spoilage fungi and Aspergillus ochraceus on growth and ochratoxin production in maize grain. International Journal of Food Microbiology 61:11-16.
53. Lee, T., Oh, D. W., Kim, H. S., Lee, J., Kim, Y. H., Yun, S. H., and Lee, Y. W. (2001). Identification of Deoxynivalenol- and Nivalenol-Producing Chemotypes of Gibberella zeae by Using PCR. Applied and Environmental Microbiology 67:2966-2972.
54. Lund, F., and Frisvad, J. C. (2003). Penicillium verruco- sum in wheat and barley indicates presence of ochratoxin A. Journal of Applied Microbiology 95:1117-1123.
55. Maher, N., Dillon, H. K., Vermund, S. H., and Unnasch, T. R. (2001). Magnetic bead capture eliminates PCR inhibitors in samples collected from the airborne environment, permitting detection of Pneumocystis carinii DNA. Applied and Environmental Microbiology 67:449-452.
56. Mantle, P. G. (1998). Ochratoxin A in coffee. Journal of Food Mycology 2:63-65.
57. Marek, P., Annamalai, T., and Venkitanarayanan, K. (2003). Detection of Penicillium expansum by polymerase chain reaction. International Journal of Food Microbiology 89:139-144.
58. Mauchline, T. H., Kerry, B. R., and Hirsch, P. R. (2002). Quantification in soil and the rhizosphere of the nematophagous Fungus Verticillium chla- mydosporium by competitive PCR and comparison with selective plating. Applied and Environmental Microbiology 68:1846-1853.
59. Mayer, Z., Bagnara, A., Färber, P., and Geisen, R. (2003a). Quantification of the copy number of nor-1, a gene of the aflaxtoxin biosynthetic pathway by real-time PCR, and its correlation to the cfu of Aspergillus flavus in foods. International Journal Food Microbiology 82:143-151.
60. Mayer, Z., Färber, P., and Geisen, R. (2003b). Monitoring the production of aflatoxin B1 in wheat by measuring the concentration of nor-1 mRNA. Applied and Environmental Microbiology 69:1154-1158.
61. Mirete, S., Patino, B., Vazquez, C., Jiménez, M., Hinojo, M. J., Soldevilla, C., and González-Jaén, M. T. (2003). Fumonisin production by Gibberella fujiku- roi strains from Pinus species. International Journal of Food Microbiology 89:213-221.
62. Mitchell, D., Parra, R., Aldred, D., and Magan, N. (2004). Water and temperature relations of growth and ochratoxin A production by Aspergil- lus carbonarius strains from grapes in Europe and Israel. Journal of Applied Microbiology 97:445.
63. Möller, E. M., Chelkowski, J., and Geiger, H. H. (1999). Species-specific PCR assays for the fungal pathogenes Fusarium moniliforme and Fusarium subglutinans and their application to diagnose maize ear rot disease. Journal of Phytopathology 147:497-508.
64. Murillo, I., Cavallarin, L., and San Segundo, B. (1998). The development of a rapid PCR assay for detection of Fusarium moniliforme. European Journal of Plant Pathology 104:301-311.
65. Nicolaisen, M., Justesen, A., Thrane, U., Skouboe, P., and Holmström, K. (2005). An oligonucleotide microarray for the identification and differentiation of trichothecene-producing and nonproducing Fusarium species occurring in cereal grain. Journal of Microbiological Methods 62:57-69.
66. Nicholson, P., Simpson, D. R., Weston, G., Rezanoor, H. N., Lees, A. K., Parry, D. W., and Joyce, D. (1998). Detection and quantification of Fusarium culmorum and Fusarium graminearum in cereals using PCR assays. Physiological and Molecular Plant Pathology 53:17-37.
67. Nicholson, P., Turner, A. S., Edwards, S. G., Bateman, G. L., Morgan, L. W., Parry, D. W., Marshall, J., and Nuttall, M. (2002). Development of stembase pathogens on different cultivars of winter wheat determined by quantitative PCR. European Journal of Plant Pathology 108:163-177.
68. Niessen, M. L. and Vogel, R. F. (1997). Specific identification of Fusarium graminearum by PCR with gaoA targeted primers. Systematic and Applied Microbiology 20:111-113.
69. Niessen, M. L., and Vogel, R. F. (1998). Group Specific PCR-Detection of potential trichotheceneproducing Fusarium-species in pure cultures and cereal samples. Systematic and Applied Microbiology 21:618-631.
70. Niessen, L., Schmidt, H., and Vogel, R. F. (2004). The use of tri5 gene sequences for PCR detection and taxonomy of trichothecene-producing species in the Fusarium section Sporotrichiella. International Journal of Food Microbiology 95:305-319.
71. O’Callaghan, J., Caddick, M. X., and Dobson, A. D. W. (2003). A polyketide synthase gene required for ochratoxin A biosynthesis in Aspergillus ochraceus. Microbiology 149:3485-3491.
72. O’Donnell, K. (1992). Ribosomal DNA internal transcribed spacers are highly divergent in the phytopathogenic ascomycete Fusarium sambucinum (Gibberella pulicaris). Current Genetics 22:213-220.
73. Paterson, R. R. M., Archer, S., Kozakiewicz, Z., Lea, A., Locke, T., and O’Grady, E. (2000). A gene probe for the patulin metabolic pathway with potential for use in patulin and novel disease control. Biocontrol Science and Technology 10:509-512.
74. Paterson, R. R. M., Kozakiewicz, Z., Locke, T., Brayford, D., and Jones, S. C. B. (2003). Novel use of the isoepoxydon dehydrogenase gene probe of the patulin metabolic pathway and chromatography to test penicillia isolated from apple production systems for the potential to contaminate apple juice with patulin. Food Microbiology 20:359-364.
75. Perrone, G., Susca, G., and Mule, G. (2004). PCR assay for identification of Aspergillus carbonarius and Aspergillus japonicus. European Journal of Plant Pathology 110:641-649.
76. Pedersen, H. L., Skouboe, P., Boysen, M., Soule, J., and Rossen, L. (1997). Detection of Penicillium species in complex food samples using the polymerase chain reaction. International Journal of Food Microbiology 35:169-177.
77. Peterson, S. W., Itoh, Y., Horn, B. W., and Goto, T. (2001). Aspergillus bombycis, a new aflatoxigenic species and genetic variation in its sibling species, A. nomius. Mycologia 93:689-703.
78. Pietri, A., Bertuzzi, T., Pallaroni, L., and Piva, G. (2001). Occurence of ochratoxin A in Italian wines. Food Additives and Contaminants 18:647-654.
79. Pohland, A. E. (1993). Mycotoxins in review. Food Additives and Contaminants 10:17-28.
80. Proctor, R. H., and Hohn, T. M. (1993). Aristolochen Synthase. Isolation, characterization, and bacterial expression of a sesquiterpenoid biosynthetic gene (ARI1) from Penicillium roqueforti. Journal of Biological Chemistry 268:4543-4548.
81. Proctor, R. H., Brown, D. W., Plattner, R. D., and Desjardins, A. E. (2003). Co-expression of 15 contiguous genes delineates a fumonisin biosynthetic gene cluster in Gibberella moniliformis. Fungal Genetics and Biology 38:237-249.
82. Pryor, B. M., and Gilbertson, R. L. (2001). A PCRbased Assay for Detection of Alternaria radicina on Carrot Seed. Plant Disease 85:18-23.
83. Rossen, L., Norskov, P., Holmstrom, K., and Rasmussen, O. F. (1992). Inhibition of PCR by components of food samples microbial diagnostic assays and DNA-extraction solutions. International Journal of Food Microbiology 17:37-45.
84. Samson, R. A., Hoekstra, E. H., and Frisvad, J. C. (Eds.). (2004). Introduction to food- and airborne fungi. Centraalbureau voor Schimmelcultures, Utrecht, The Netherlands.
85. Scherm, B., Palomba, M., Serra, D., Marcello, A., and Migheli, Q. (2005). Detection of transcripts of the aflatoxin genes aflD, aflO, and aflP by reversetranscription- polymerase chain reaction allows differentiation of aflatoxin-producing and nonproducing isolates of Aspergillus flavus and As- pergillus parasiticus. International Journal of Food Microbiology 98:201-210.
86. Schilling, A. G., Möller, E. M., and Geiger, H. H. (1996). Polymerase chain reaction-based assays for species-specific detection of Fusarium cul- morum, F. graminearum and F. avenaceum. Phytopathology 86:515-522.
87. Schmidt, H., Ehrmann, M., Vogel, R. F., Taniwaki, M. H., and Niessen, L. (2003). Molecular typing of Aspergillus ochraceus and construction of species specific SCAR-primers based on AFLP. Systematic and Applied Microbiology 26:138-146.
88. Schmidt, H., Taniwaki, M. H., and Niessen, L. (2004a). Utilization of AFLP markers for PCRbased identification of Aspergillus carbonarius and indication of its presence in green coffee samples. Journal of Applied Microbiology 97:899-909.
89. Schmidt, H., Bannier, M., Vogel, R. F., and Niessen, L. (2004b). Detection and quantification of Asper- gillus ochraceus in green coffee by PCR. Letters in Applied Microbiology 38:464-469.
90. Schnerr, H., Niessen, M. L., and Vogel, R. F. (2001). Real Time detection of the tri5 gene in Fusarium species by LightCyclerTM-PCR using SYBR Green I for continuous fluorescence monitoring. International Journal of Food Microbiology 71:53-61.
91. Schnerr, H., Vogel, R. F., and Niessen, L. (2002). Correlation between DNA of trichotheceneproducing Fusarium species and deoxynivalenol concentrations in wheat-samples. Letters in Applied Microbiology 35:121-125.
92. Shapira, R., Paster, N., Eyal, O., Menasherov, M., Mett, A., and Salomon, R. (1996). Detection of aflatoxinogenic molds in grains by PCR. Applied and Environmental Microbiology 62:3270-3273.
93. Skrinjar, M., and Dimic, G. (1992). Ochratoxigenicity of Aspergillus ochraceus group and Penicillium ver- rucosum var. cyclopium strains on various media. Acta Microbiologica Hungarica 39:257-261.
94. Smith, J. E., Lewis, C. W., Anderson, J. G., and Solomons, G. L. (1994). Mycotoxins in Human Nutrition and Health. Publication EUR 16048 EN, DGXII.
95. Sweeney, M. J., Pamies, P., and Dobson, A. D. W. (2000). The use of reverse transcriptionpolymerase chain reaction (RT-PCR) for monitoring aflatoxin production in Aspergillus parasiticus 439. International Journal of Food Microbiology 56:97-103.
96. Torp, M., and Nirenberg, H. I. (2004). Fusarium langsethia sp. no. on cereals in Europe. International Journal of Food Microbiology 95:247-256.
97. Varga, J., Rigó, K., Kocsube, S., Farkas, B., and Pal, K. (2003). Diversity of polyketide synthase gene sequences in Aspergillus species. Research in Microbiology 154:593-600.
98. Watson, A. J., Archer, D. B., Seal, S., and Linz, J. (1995). Homologues of aflatoxin biosynthetic genes in Aspergillus oryzea. FGN 42A, 82.
99. Whitaker, T. B. (2000). Sampling Techniques. In Mycotoxin Protocols (Trucksess, M. W., and Pohland, A. E., eds), Humana Press, Ottawa, Canada, pp. 11-14.
100. Wilson, A., Simpson, D., Chandler, E., Jennings, P., and Nicholson, P. (2004). Development of PCR assays for the detection and differentiation of Fusarium sporotrichioides and Fusarium langsethiae. FEMS Microbiology Letters 233:69-76.
101. Xu, H., Annis, S., Linz, J., and Trail, F. (2000). Infection and colonization of peanut pods by Aspergil- lus parasiticus and the expression of the aflatoxin biosynthetic gene, nor-1, in infection hyphae. Physiological and Molecular Plant Pathology 56:185-196.
102. Yang, Z. Y., Shim, W. B., Kim, J. H., Park, S. J., Kang, S. J., Nam, B. S., and Cigan, A. L. (2004). Detection of aflatoxin-producing molds in Korean fermented foods and grains by multiplex PCR. Journal of Food Protection 67:2622-2626.
103. Yoder, W. T. and Christianson, L. M. (1998). Speciesspecific primers resolve members of Fusarium Section Fusarium. Genetics and Biology 23:68-80.
104. Yokoyama, E., Yamagishi, K., and Hara, A. (2004). Development of a PCR-based mating-type assay for Clavicipitaceae. FEMS Microbiology Letters 237:205-212.
105. Yu, J., Chang, P. K., Cary, J. W., Wright, M., Bhatnagar, D., Cleveland, T. E., Payne, G. A., and Linz, J. (1995). Comparative mapping of aflatoxin pathway gene clusters in Aspergillus parasiticus and Aspergillus flavus. Applied and Environmental Microbiology 61:2365-2371.
106. Yu, J. H., Butchko, R. A. E., Fernández, M., Keller, N. P., Leonhard, T. J., and Adams, T. H. (1996). Conservation of structure and function of the aflatoxin regulatory gene aflR from Aspergillus nidu- lans and A. flavus. Current Genetics 29:549-555.
107. Yu, J., Bhatnagar, D., and Cleveland, T. E. (2004). Completed sequence of aflatoxin pathway gene cluster in Aspergillus parasiticus. FEBS Letters 564:126-130.
108. Zachová, I., Vytrasová, J., Pejchalová, M., Cervenka, L., and Tavcar-Kalcher, G. (2003). Detection of aflatoxinogenic fungi in feeds using the PCR method. Folia Microbiologica 48:817-821.
109. Zur, G., Hallerman, E. M., Sharf, R., and Kashi, Y. (1999). Development of a polymerase chain reaction- based assay for the detection of Alternaria fungal contamination in food products. Journal of Food Protection 62:1191-1197.
110. Zur, G., Shimoni, E., Hallerman, E. M., and Kashi, Y. (2002). Detection of Alternaria fungal contamination in cereal grains by a polymerase chain reaction- based assay. Journal of Food Protection 65:1433-1440.