Invited review: Resource inputs and land, water and carbon footprints from the production of edible protein of animal origin

Archives Animal Breeding

Volumn 61, Issue 1, 2018, Pages 17-36

  Flachowsky, Gerhard ^a   Meyer, Ulrich ^a   Südekum, Karl Heinz ^b  

^a FEDERAL RESEARCH INSTITUTE FOR ANIMAL HEALTH   (Germany)

^b UNIVERSITY OF BONN   (Germany)

Author keywords

[No Author keywords available]

Indexed keywords

EID: 85040797651     PISSN: 00039438     EISSN: 23639822     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.5194/aab-61-17-2018     Document Type: Review

References (159)

1. Ahlgrimm, H.-J., Böhme, H., Bramm, A., Dämmgen, U., Flachowsky, G., Höppner, F., Rogasik, J., and Sohler, S.: Bewertung von Verfahren der ökologischen und konventionellen landwirtschaftlichen Produktion im Hinblick auf den Energieeinsatz und bestimmte Schadgasemissionen: Studie als Sondergutachten im Auftrag des Bundesministeriums für Ernährung, Landwirtschaft und Forsten, Bonn, edited by: Bockisch, F. J., Landbauforschung Völkenrode Sonderheft 211, Braunschweig, 206 pp., 2000.
2. Aiking, H.: Future protein supply, Trends Food Sci. Tech., 22, 112- 120, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tifs.2010.04.005, 2011.
3. Aiking, H.: Protein production: Planet, profit, plus people?, Am. J. Clin. Nutr., 100, 483-489, https://doi.org/10.3945/ajcn.113.071209, 2014.
4. Anupama, P. R. and Ravindra, P.: Value-added food: Single cell protein, Biotechnol. Adv., 18, 459-479, 2000.
5. Avadi, A. and Freon, P.: Life cycle assessment of fisheries: A review for fisheries scientists and managers, Fish Res., 143, 21-38, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.fishres.2013.01.006, 2013.
6. Bannink, A., France, J., Lopez, S., Gerrits, W. J. J., Kebreab, E., Tamminga, S., and Dijkstra, J.: Modelling the implications of feeding strategy on rumen fermentation and functioning of the rumen wall, Anim. Feed Sci. Tech., 143, 3-26, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.anifeedsci.2007.05.002, 2008.
7. Baroni, L., Cenci, L., Tettamanti, M., and Berati, M.: Evaluating the environmental impact of various dietary patterns combined with different food production systems, Eur. J. Clin. Nutr., 61, 279-286, https://doi.org/10.1038/sj.ejcn.1602522, 2007.
8. Bauer, J., Biolo, G., Cederholm, T., Cesari, M., Cruz-Jentoft, A. J., Morley, J. E., Phillips, S., Sieber, C., Stehle, P., Teta, D., Visvanathan, R., Volpi, E., and Boirie, Y.: Evidencebased recommendations for optimal dietary protein intake in older people: A position paper from the PROT-AGE Study Group, J. Am. Med. Dir. Assoc., 14, 542-559, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jamda.2013.05.021, 2013.
9. Beauchemin, K. A., McAllister, T. A., and McGinn, S. M.: Dietary mitigation of enteric methane from cattle, CAB Reviews: Perspectives in Agriculture, Veterinary Science, Nutrition and Natural Resources, 4, 1-18, 2009.
10. Becker, E.W.: Micro-algae as a source of protein, Biotechnol. Adv., 25, 207-210, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.biotechadv.2006.11.002, 2007.
11. Bekatorou, A., Psarianos, C., and Koutinas, A. A.: Production of food grade yeasts, Food Technol. Biotech., 44, 407-415, 2006.
12. Benjaminson, M. A., Gilchriest, J. A., and Lorenz, M.: In vitro edible muscle protein production system (MPPS): Stage 1, fish, Acta Astronaut., 51, 879-889, https://doi.org/10.1016/S0094-5765(02)00033-4, 2002.
13. Bessou, C., Mary, B., Leonard, J., Roussel, M., Grehan, E., and Gabrielle, B.: Modelling soil compaction impacts on nitrous oxide emissions in arable fields, Eur. J. Soil Sci., 61, 348-363, https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1365-2389.2010.01243.x, 2010.
14. Blanke, M.: Challenges of reducing fresh produce waste in Europe - from farm to fork, Agriculture, 5, 389-399, 2015.
15. Boonen, R., Aerts, S., and De Tavernier, J.: Which sustainability suits you?, in: Climate Change and Sustainable Development, Wageningen Academic Publishers, the Netherlands, 43- 48, 2012.
16. Brooks, P. H., Russell, S. J., and Carpenter, J. L.: Water intake of weaned piglets from 3 to 7 weeks old, Vet. Rec., 115, 513-515, 1984.
17. Bukkens, S. G. F.: The nutritional value of edible insects, Ecol. Food Nutr., 36, 287-319, 1997.
18. Bux, F. and Christi, Y.: Algae Biotechnology - Products and Processes, Springer International Publishing, Cham, Switzerland, 344 pp., 2016.
19. Caffrey, K. R. and Veal, M. W.: Conducting an agricultural life cycle assessment: Challenges and perspectives, Sci. World J., 2013, 472431, https://doi.org/10.1155/2013/472431, 2013.
20. Cassidy, E. S.,West, P. C., Gerber, J. S., and Foley, J. A.: Redefining agricultural yields: From tonnes to people nourished per hectare, Environ. Res. Lett., 8, 034015, https://doi.org/10.1088/1748-9326/8/3/034015, 2013.
21. Castle, M. E. and Thomas, T. P.: Water-intake of British Friesian Cows on rations containing various forages, Anim. Prod., 20, 181-189, 1975.
22. D'Mello, J. P. F.: Amino Acids in Human Nutrition and Health, CABI, Wallingford, 584 pp., 2012.
23. Dahlborn, K., Akerlind, M., and Gustafson, G.: Water intake by dairy cows selected for high or low milk-fat percentage when fed two forage to concentrate ratios with hay or silage, Swed. J. Agr. Res., 28, 167-176, 1998.
24. Dämmgen, U. and Haenel, H. D.: Emissions of Greenhouse Gases and Gaseous Air Pollutants - a Challenge for Animal Nutrition, Proceedings of the Society of Nutrition Physiology, Göttingen, Germany, 163-167, 2008.
25. Day, L.: Proteins from land plants - potential resources for human nutrition and food security, Trends Food Sci. Tech., 32, 25-42, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tifs.2013.05.005, 2013.
26. de Vries, M. and de Boer, I. J. M.: Comparing environmental impacts for livestock products: A review of life cycle assessments, Livest. Sci., 128, 1-11, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.livsci.2009.11.007, 2010.
27. Dewan, P., Kaur, I., Chattopadhya, D., Faridi, M. M. A., and Agarwal, K. N.: A pilot study on the effects of curd (dahi) & leaf protein concentrate in children with protein energy malnutrition (PEM), Indian J. Med. Res., 126, 199-203, 2007.
28. Dodson, M. V., Mathison, B. A., Brannon, M. A., Martin, E. L., Wheeler, B. A., and Mcfarland, D. C.: Comparison of ovine and rat muscle-derived satellite cells - response to insulin, Tissue Cell, 20, 909-918, https://doi.org/10.1016/0040-8166(88)90032-8, 1988.
29. Dodson, M. V., Vierck, J. L., Hossner, K. L., Byrne, K., and McNamara, J. P.: The development and utility of a defined muscle and fat co-culture system, Tissue Cell, 29, 517-524, https://doi.org/10.1016/S0040-8166(97)80052-3, 1997.
30. Edgerton, M. D.: Increasing crop productivity to meet global needs for feed, food, and fuel, Plant Physiol., 149, 7-13, https://doi.org/10.1104/pp.108.130195, 2009.
31. EFSA: Risk profile related to production and consumption of insects as food and feed, EFSA J., 13, https://doi.org/10.2903/j.efsa.2015.4257, 2015.
32. Ellis, J. L., Bannink, A., France, J., Kebreab, E., and Dijkstra, J.: Evaluation of enteric methane prediction equations for dairy cows used in whole farm models, Glob. Change Biol., 16, 3246- 3256, https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1365-2486.2010.02188.x, 2010.
33. Ertl, P., Klocker, H., Hortenhuber, S., Knaus, W., and Zollitsch, W.: The net contribution of dairy production to human food supply: The case of Austrian dairy farms, Agr. Syst., 137, 119-125, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.agsy.2015.04.004, 2015.
34. FAO: How to Feed the World in 2050, High-Level Expert Forum, Rome, Italy, p. 35, 2009.
35. FAO: Global Food Losses and Food Waste - Extent, causes and prevention, Rome, Italy, p. 37, 2011.
36. FAO: FAO Statistical Yearbool, FAO, Rome, Italy, 2013.
37. FAO, IFAD, and WFP: The State of Food Insecurity in the World 2014 - Strengthening the Enabling Environment for Food Security and Nutrition, FAO, Rome, Italy, 2014.
38. FAO: Sustainable Land Management (SLM) in Practice in the Kagera Basin. Lessons Learned for Scaling up at Landscape Level - Results of the Kagera Transboundary Agro-ecosystem Management Project (Kagera TAMP), Rome, Italy, p. 440, 2017.
39. Finke, M. D.: Complete nutrient composition of commercially raised invertebrates used as food for insectivores, Zoo Biol., 21, 269-285, https://doi.org/10.1002/zoo.10031, 2002.
40. Flachowsky, G.: Stroh als Futterittel, Deutscher Landwirtschaftsverlag, Berllin, Germany, 255 pp., 1987.
41. Flachowsky, G.: Efficiency of energy and nutrient use in the production of edible protein of animal origin, J. Appl. Anim. Res., 22, 1-24, 2002.
42. Flachowsky, V. G. and Brade,W.: Reduction potentials for methane emissions from ruminants, Zuchtungskunde, 79, 417-465, 2007.
43. Flachowsky, G. and Hachenberg, S.: CO2-footprints for food of animal origin - present stage and open questions, J. Verbrauch. Lebensm., 4, 190-198, https://doi.org/10.1007/s00003-009-0481-6, 2009.
44. Flachowsky, G. and Kamphues, J.: Carbon footprints for food of animal origin: what are the most preferable criteria to measure animal yields?, Animals, 2, 108-126, https://doi.org/10.3390/ani2020108, 2012.
45. Flachowsky, G. and Klüß, J.: Insects as feedstuffs?, Feed Magazine, 98, 9-13, 2015.
46. Flachowsky, G. and Meyer, U.: Sustainable production of protein of animal origin - the state of knowledge. Part 1. Resources and emissions as factors affecting sustainbility, J. Anim. Feed Sci., 24, 273-282, 2015a.
47. Flachowsky, G. and Meyer, U.: Challenges for plant breeders from the view of animal nutrition, Agriculture, 5, 1252-1276, https://doi.org/10.3390/agriculture5041252, 2015b.
48. Flachowsky, G. and Meyer, U.: Sustainable production of protein of animal origin - the state of knowledge. Part 2. Aquirements, objectives and ways of sustainbility improvement, J. Anim. Feed Sci., 24, 283-294, 2015c.
49. Flachowsky, G. and Meyer, U.: Global challenges for a sustainable production of food of animal origin, EC Nutrition, 9, 223-227, 2017.
50. Flachowsky, G., Dänicke, S., Lebzien, P., and Meyer, U.: Resource efficient produced food of animal origin, Ernährung, 37, 207- 210, 2013a
51. Flachowsky, G., Grün, M., and Meyer, U.: Feed-efficient ruminant production: Opportunities and challenges, J. Anim. Feed Sci., 22, 177-187, 2013b.
52. Flachowsky, G., Meyer, U., and Südekum, K.-H.: Land use for edible protein of animal origin - a review, Animals, 7, 1-19, https://doi.org/10.3390/ani7030025, 2017.
53. Forbes, J. M.: The Voluntary Food Intake of Farm Animals, Butterworth, London, UK, 216 pp., 1986.
54. Frorip, J., Kokin, E., Praks, J., Poikalainen, V., Ruus, A., Veermäe, I., Lepasalu, L., Schäfer, W., Mikkola, H., and Ahokas, J.: Energy consumption in animal production - case farm study, Agronomy Research, 10, 39-48, 2012.
55. Gerbens-Leenes, P.W., Mekonnen, M. M., and Hoekstra, A. Y.: The water footprint of poultry, pork and beef: A comparative study in different countries and production systems,Water Resour. Industry, 1-2, 25-36, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.wri.2013.03.001, 2013.
56. GfE: Empfehlungen zur Energie und Nährstoffversorgung der Mastrinder, Energie- und Nährstoffbedarf landwirtschaftlicher Nutztiere, DLG-Verlag, Frankfurt am Main, 85 pp., 1995.
57. GfE: Empfehlungen zur Energie und Nährstoffversorgung der der Legehennen und Masthühner (Broiler), Energie- und Nährstoffbedarf landwirtschaftlicher Nutztiere, DLG-Verlag, Frankfurt am Main, 185 pp., 1999.
58. GfE: Empfehlungen zur Energie und Nährstoffversorgung der Milchkühe und Aufzuchtrinder, Energie- und Nährstoffbedarf landwirtschaftlicher Nutztiere, DLG-Verlag, Frankfurt am Main, 136 pp., 2001.
59. GfE: Recommendations for the supply of energy and nutrients to pigs, Energie- und Nährstoffbedarf landwirtschaftlicher Nutztiere, DLG-Verlag, Frankfurt am Main, No. 10, 248 pp., , 2008.
60. GfE: Empfehlungen zur Energie- und Nährstoffversorgung von Pferden, Energie- und Nährstoffbedarf landwirtschaftlicher Nutztiere, DLG-Verlag, Frankfurt am Main, No. 11, 192 pp., 2014.
61. Gill, B. P.: Water Use by Pigs Managed Under Various Conditions of Housing, Feeding and Nutrition, PhD, Plymouth Polytechnic, Plymouth, UK, 308 pp., 1989.
62. Grabow, M., Meyer, U., Abel, H., and Flachowsky, G.: Investigations on the water intake of growing heifers, Proceedings of the Society of Nutrition Physiology, DLG-Verlag, Frankfurt am Main, 99, 2009.
63. Grabowski, N. T., Nowak, B., and Klein, G.: Proximate chemical composition of long-horned and short-horned grasshoppers (Acheta domesticus, Schistocerca gregaria and Phymateus saxosus) available commercially in Germany, Arch. Lebensmittelhyg., 59, 204-208, 2008.
64. Guccione, A., Biondi, N., Sampietro, G., Rodolfi, L., Bassi, N., and Tredici, M. R.: Chlorella for protein and biofuels: From strain selection to outdoor cultivation in a Green Wall Panel photobioreactor, Biotechnol. Biofuels, 7, 84, https://doi.org/10.1186/1754-6834-7-84, 2014.
65. Guillou, M. and Matheron, G.: The World's Challenge - Feeding 9 Billion People, Springer Netherlands, Berlin, Germany, 2014.
66. Guyomard, H., Darcy-Vrillon, B., Esnouf, C., Marin, M., Russel, M., and Guillou, M.: Eating patterns and food systems: Critical knowledge requirements for policy design and implementation, Agric. Food Security, 1, 13, https://doi.org/10.1186/2048-7010-1-13, 2012.
67. Hall, D. C. and Hall, J. V.: Concepts and measures of naturalresource scarcity with a summary of recent trends, J. Environ. Econ. Manag., 11, 363-379, https://doi.org/10.1016/0095-0696(84)90005-6, 1984.
68. Hergoualch, K. and Verchot, L. V.: Stocks and fluxes of carbon associated with land use change in Southeast Asian tropical peatlands: A review, Global Biogeochem. Cy., 25, GB2001, https://doi.org/10.1029/2009gb003718, 2011.
69. Hoekstra, A. Y.: The water footprint of animal products, in: The Meat Crisis: Developing More Sustainable Production and Consumption, edited by: D'Silva, J. and Webster, J., Earthscan, London, UK, 22-33, 2010.
70. Hoekstra, A. Y.: A critique on the water-scarcity weighted water footprint in LCA, Ecol. Indic., 66, 564-573, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ecolind.2016.02.026, 2016.
71. Holter, J. B. and Urban,W. E.:Water partitioning and intake prediction in dry and lactating Holstein Cows, J. Dairy Sci., 75, 1472- 1479, 1992.
72. Hörtenhuber, S., Piringer, G., Zollitsch, W., Lindenthal, T., and Winiwarter,W.: Land use and land use change in agricultural life cycle assessments and carbon footprints - the case for regionally specific land use change versus other methods, J. Clean. Prod., 73, 31-39, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jclepro.2013.12.027, 2014.
73. IPCC: Guidelines for National Greenhouse Gas Inventories - Agriculture, Forestrry and other Land Use, edited by: Eggleston, S., Buendia, L., Miwa, K., Ngara, T., and Tanabe, K., Hayama, Kanagawa, Japan, 2006.
74. IPCC: Climate Change 2014, Mitigation of Climate Change - Working Group III Contribution to the fifth Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change, edited by: Edendorfer, O., Pichs-Madruga, R., and Sokona, Y., Cambridge University Press, New York, NY, USA, 2014.
75. Jentsch, W., Schiemann, R., Wittenburg, H., and Hoffmann, L.: Investigations into digestibility and utilization of rations containing differently treated straw. 2. Studies into energetic utilization by sheep of rations containing differently treated straw, Arch. Tierernähr., 28, 397-406, 1978a.
76. Jentsch, W., Wittenburg, H., and Schiemann, R.: Investigations into digestibility and utilization of rations containing differently treated straw. 3. Studies regarding energetic utilization by fattening bulls of rations containing differently treated straw, Arch. Tierernähr., 28, 407-416, 1978
77. Jeroch, H., Flachowsky, G., and Weissbach, F.: Futtermittelkunde, Gustav Fischer Verlag, Jena, Germany, 510 pp., 1993.
78. Jokiniemi, T., Mikkola, H., Rossner, H., Talgre, L., Lauringson, E., Hovi, M., and Ahokas, J.: Energy savings in plant production, Agronomy Research, 10, 85-96, 2012.
79. Jordaan, H. and Bergman, M. M.: Towards a Sustainable Agriculture: Farming Practices andWater Use Frontiers in Sustainability Series 1, MDPI Books Basel, Switzerland, 120 pp., 2017.
80. Kamphues, J., Bohm, R., Flachowsky, G., Lahrssen-Wiederholt, M., Meyer, U., and Schenkel, H.: Recommendations for evaluating the hygienic quality of drinking water for food producing animals in accordance with current regulatory framework (Empfehlungen zur Beurteilung der hygienischen Qualität von Tränkwasser für Lebensmittel liefernde Tiere unter Berücksichtigung der gegebenen rechtlichen Rahmenbedingungen), Landbauforsch. Volk., 57, 255-272, 2007.
81. Kamphues, J., Coenen, M., Eder, K., Iben, C., Kienzle, E., Liesegang, A., Zebeli, Q., and Zentek, J.: Supplemente zur Tierernährung, M. & H. Schaper, Hannover, Germany, 2014.
82. Kastner, T., Rivas, M. J. I., Koch, W., and Nonhebel, S.: Global changes in diets and the consequences for land requirements for food, P. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA, 109, 6868-6872, https://doi.org/10.1073/pnas.1117054109, 2012.
83. Kim, H., Kim, S., and Dale, B. E.: Biofuels, land use change, and greenhouse gas emissions: Some unexplored variables, Environ. Sci. Technol., 43, 961-967, https://doi.org/10.1021/es802681k, 2009.
84. Knaus, W.: Re-thinking dairy cow feeding in light of food security, AgroLife Sci. J., 2, 36-40, 2012.
85. Kolb, E.: Lehrbuch der Physiologie der Haustiere, Gustav-Fischer-Verlag, Jena, Germany, 1989.
86. Kool, A., Marinussen, M., and Blonk, H.: LCI Data for the Calculation Tool Feedprint for Greenhouse Gas Emissions of Feed Production and Utilization - GHG Emissions of N, P and K Fertilizer Production, Blonk Consultants, Gouda, the Netherlands, 15 pp., 2012.
87. Krauss, M., Drastig, K., Prochnow, A., Rose-Meierhofer, S., and Kraatz, S.: Drinking and Cleaning Water Use in a Dairy Cow Barn, Water-Sui, 8, 302, https://doi.org/10.3390/W8070302, 2016.
88. Lampe, C., Dittert, K., Sattelmacher, B., Wachendorf, M., Loges, R., and Taube, F.: Sources and rates of nitrous oxide application of 15N-labelled emissions from grazed grassland after mineral fertilizer and slurry, Soil Biol. Biochem., 38, 2602-2613, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.soilbio.2006.03.016, 2006.
89. Legesse, G., Ominski, K. H., Beauchemin, K. A., Pfister, S., Martel, M., McGeough, E. J., Hoekstra, A. Y., Kroebel, R., Cordeiro, M. R. C., and McAllister, T. A.: BOARD-INVITED REVIEW: Quantifying water use in ruminant production, J. Anim. Sci., 95, 2001-2018, https://doi.org/10.2527/jas2017.1439, 2017.
90. Lesschen, J. P., van den Berg, M., Westhoek, H. J., Witzke, H. P., and Oenema, O.: Greenhouse gas emission profiles of European livestock sectors, Anim. Feed Sci. Tech., 166-167, 16-28, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.anifeedsci.2011.04.058, 2011.
91. Lundy, M. E. and Parrella, M. P.: Crickets are not a free lunch: Protein capture from scalable organic side-streams via high-density populations of Acheta domesticus, PLoS ONE, 10, e0118785, https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0118785, 2015.
92. Makkar, H. P. S.: Biofuel Co-Products as Livestock Feed - Opportunities and Challenges, Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations (FAO), Rome, XVIII C 533 pp., 2012.
93. Makkar, H. P. S. and Ankers, P.: Towards sustainable animal diets: A survey-based study, Anim. Feed Sci. Tech., 198, 309-322, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.anifeedsci.2014.09.018, 2014.
94. Makkar, H. P. S., Tran, G., Henze, V., and Ankers, P.: State-of-theart on use of insects as animal feed, Anim. Feed Sci. Tech., 197, 1-33, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.anifeedsci.2014.07.008, 2014.
95. Martin-Rosset,W., Tavernier, L., Trillaud-Geyl, C., and Cabaret, J.: Diet formulation, in: Equine Nutrition, edited by: Martin-Rosset, W., Wageningen Academic Publisher, Wageningen, the Netherlands, 97-120, 2015.
96. Mekonnen, M. M. and Hoekstra, A. Y.: A global assessment of the water footprint of farm animal products, Ecosystems, 15, 401- 415, https://doi.org/10.1007/s10021-011-9517-8, 2012.
97. Mendieta-Araica, B., Sporndly, R., Reyes-Sanchez, N., and Sporndly, E.: Moringa (Moringa oleifera) leaf meal as a source of protein in locally produced concentrates for dairy cows fed low protein diets in tropical areas, Livest. Sci., 137, 10-17, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.livsci.2010.09.021, 2011.
98. Meyer, U., Everinghoff, M., Gädeken, D., and Flachowsky, G.: Investigations on the water intake of lactating dairy cows, Livest. Prod. Sci., 90, 117-121, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.livprodsci.2004.03.005, 2004.
99. Meyer, U., Stahl, W., and Flachowsky, G.: Investigations on the water intake of growing bulls, Livest. Sci., 103, 186-191, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.livsci.2006.02.009, 2006.
100. Mikkola, H. J. and Ahokas, J.: Energy ratios in Finnish agricultural production, Agr. Food Sci., 18, 332-346, 2009.
101. Montes, F., Meinen, R., Dell, C., Rotz, A., Hristov, A. N., Oh, J., Waghorn, G., Gerber, P. J., Henderson, B., Makkar, H. P. S., and Dijkstra, J.: SPECIAL TOPICS - Mitigation of methane and nitrous oxide emissions from animal operations: II. A review of manure management mitigation options, J. Anim. Sci., 91, 5070- 5094, https://doi.org/10.2527/jas.2013-6584, 2013.
102. Mungkung, R., Aubin, J., Prihadi, T. H., Slernbrouck, J., van der Werf, H. M. G., and Legendre, M.: Life Cycle Assessment for environmentally sustainable aquaculture management: A case study of combined aquaculture systems for carp and tilapia, J. Clean. Prod., 57, 249-256, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jclepro.2013.05.029, 2013.
103. Murphy, M. R., Davis, C. L., and Mccoy, G. C.: Factors affecting water-consumption by Holstein Cows in early lactation, J. Dairy Sci., 66, 35-38, 1983.
104. Nagai, M., Hachimura, K., and Takahashi, K.: Water-consumption in suckling pigs, J. Vet. Med. Sci., 56, 181-183, 1994.
105. National Academies of Sciences: Engineering, and Medicine: Genetically Engineered Crops: Experiences and Prospects, The National Academies Press, Washington, DC, 606 pp., 2016.
106. Neumann, C., Harris, D. M., and Rogers, L. M.: Contribution of animal source foods in improving diet quality and function in children in the developing world, Nutr. Res., 22, 193-220, https://doi.org/10.1016/S0271-5317(01)00374-8, 2002.
107. Niemann, H., Kuhla, B., and Flachowsky, G.: Perspectives for feed-efficient animal production, J. Anim. Sci., 89, 4344-4363, https://doi.org/10.2527/jas.2011-4235, 2011.
108. Nijdam, D., Rood, T., and Westhoek, H.: The price of protein: Review of land use and carbon footprints from life cycle assessments of animal food products and their substitutes, Food Policy, 37, 760-770, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.foodpol.2012.08.002, 2012.
109. NRC: Nutrient Requirements of Swine: 10th Revised Edn., The National Academies Press, Washington, DC, 212 pp., 1998.
110. NRC: Nutrient Requirements of Dairy Cattle: 7th Revised Edn., The National Academies Press, Washington, DC, 2001.
111. NRC: Nutrient Requirements of Small Ruminants: Sheep, Goats, Cervids, and New World Camelids, The National Academies Press, Washington, DC, 384 pp., 2007.
112. NRC: Toward Sustainable Agr. Syst. in the 21st Century, The National Academies Press, Washington, DC, 598 pp., 2010.
113. NRC: Critical Role of Animal Science Research in Food Security and Sustainability, The National Academies Press, Washington, DC, USA, 415 pp., 2015.
114. Ochrimenko,W. I., Flachowsky, G., Lohnert, H. J., and Hennig, A.: Studies of the use of differently treated wheat straw in the feeding of fattening cattle under special consideration of wet straw preserved with urea. 1. Method of the experiment and fattening results with an equal intake of organic-matter from the straw (pair fed), Arch. Tierernähr., 36, 895-904, 1986.
115. OECD/FAO: OECD-FAO Agricultural Outlook 2017-2026, OECD Publishing, Paris, France, 142 pp., 2017.
116. Oonincx, D. G. A. B., van Itterbeeck, J., Heetkamp, M. J. W., van den Brand, H., van Loon, J. J. A., and van Huis, A.: An exploration on greenhouse gas and ammonia production by insect species suitable for animal or human consumption, PLoS ONE, 5, e14445, https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0014445, 2010.
117. Oonincx, D. G. A. B. and de Boer, I. J. M.: Environmental impact of the production of mealworms as a protein source for humans - a life cycle assessment, PLoS ONE, 7, e51145, https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0051145, 2012.
118. Pape, H. C.: Futtermittelzusatzstoffe: Technologie und Anwendung, Agrimedia, Bergen/Dumme, Germany, 2006.
119. Parfitt, J., Barthel, M., and Macnaughton, S.: Food waste within food supply chains: Quantification and potential for change to 2050, Philos. T. Roy. Soc. B, 365, 3065-3081, https://doi.org/10.1098/rstb.2010.0126, 2010.
120. Parisi, C., Tillie, P., and Rodriguez-Cerezo, E.: The global pipeline of GM crops out to 2020, Nat. Biotechnol., 34, 31-36, https://doi.org/10.1038/nbt.3449, 2016.
121. Peters, C. J., Wilkins, J. L., and Fick, G. W.: Testing a completediet model for estimating the land resource requirements of food consumption and agricultural carrying capacity: The New York State example, Renew. Agr. Food Syst., 22, 145-153, https://doi.org/10.1017/S1742170507001767, 2007.
122. Peters, G. M., Rowley, H. V., Wiedemann, S., Tucker, R., Short, M. D., and Schulz, M.: Red Meat Production in Australia: Life Cycle Assessment and Comparison with Overseas Studies, Environ. Sci. Technol., 44, 1327-1332, https://doi.org/10.1021/es901131e, 2010.
123. Pimentel, D. and Pimentel, M.: Sustainability of meat-based and plant-based diets and the environment, Am. J. Clin. Nutr., 78, 660s-663s, 2003.
124. Pimentel, D., Berger, B., Filiberto, D., Newton, M.,Wolfe, B., Karabinakis, E., Clark, S., Poon, E., Abbett, E., and Nandagopal, S.: Water resources: Agricultural and environmental issues, Bioscience, 54, 909-918, https://doi.org/10.1641/0006-3568(2004)054[0909:Wraaei]2.0.Co;2, 2004.
125. Post, M. J.: Cultured beef: Medical technology to produce food, J. Sci. Food Agr., 94, 1039-1041, https://doi.org/10.1002/jsfa.6474, 2014a.
126. Post, M. J.: An alternative animal protein source: Cultured beef, Ann. NY Acad. Sci., 1328, 29-33, https://doi.org/10.1111/nyas.12569, 2014b.
127. Rathke, G.-W., Körschens, M., and Diepenbrock, W.: Substance and energy balances in the "Static Fertilisation Experiment Bad Lauchstädt", Arch. Agron. Soil Sci., 48, 423-433, https://doi.org/10.1080/03650340215652, 2002.
128. Rathke, G. W. and Diepenbrock, W.: Energy balance of winter oilseed rape (Brassica napus L.) cropping as related to nitrogen supply and preceding crop, Eur. J. Agron., 24, 35-44, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.eja.2005.04.003, 2006.
129. Ridoutt, B. G., Page, G., Opie, K., Huang, J., and Bellotti, W.: Carbon, water and land use footprints of beef cattle production systems in southern Australia, J. Clean. Prod., 73, 24-30, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jclepro.2013.08.012, 2014.
130. Rumpold, B. A. and Schluter, O. K.: Nutritional composition and safety aspects of edible insects, Mol. Nutr. Food Res., 57, 802- 823, https://doi.org/10.1002/mnfr.201200735, 2013.
131. Sanchez-Muros, M. J., Barroso, F. G., and Manzano-Agugliaro, F.: Insect meal as renewable source of food for animal feeding: A review, J. Clean. Prod., 65, 16-27, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jclepro.2013.11.068, 2014.
132. Schiavon, S. and Emmans, G. C.: A model to predict water intake of a pig growing in a known environment on a known diet, Brit. J. Nutr., 84, 873-883, 2000.
133. Schlink, A. C., Nguyen, M. L., and Viljoen, G. J.: Water requirements for livestock production: A global perspective, Rev. Sci. Tech. OIE, 29, 603-619, 2010.
134. Schmeer, M., Loges, R., Dittert, K., Senbayram, M., Horn, R., and Taube, F.: Legume-based forage production systems reduce nitrous oxide emissions, Soil Till. Res., 143, 17-25, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.still.2014.05.001, 2014.
135. Scholz, R.W. andWellmer, F.-W.: Approaching a dynamic view on the availability of mineral resources: What we may learn from the case of phosphorus?, Global Environ. Chang., 23, 11-27, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.gloenvcha.2012.10.013, 2013.
136. Smith, J., Sones, K., Grace, D., MacMillan, S., Tarawali, S., and Herrero, M.: Beyond milk, meat, and eggs: Role of livestock in food and nutrition security, Animal Frontiers, 3, 6-13, https://doi.org/10.2527/af.2013-0002, 2013.
137. Souci, S. W., Fachmann, W., and Kraut, H.: Food Composition and Nutrition Tables, 7th revised Edn., MedPharm Scientific Publishers and Taylor & Francis, A CRC Press Book, Boca Raton, USA, 1300 pp., 2006.
138. St-Hilaire, S., Cranfill, K., McGuire, M. A., Mosley, E. E., Tomberlin, J. K., Newton, L., Sealey, W., Sheppard, C., and Irving, S.: Fish offal recycling by the black soldier fly produces a foodstuff high in omega-3 fatty acids, J. World Aquacult. Soc., 38, 309- 313, https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1749-7345.2007.00101.x, 2007.
139. Stevens, R. J., Laughlin, R. J., Burns, L. C., Arah, J. R. M., and Hood, R. C.: Measuring the contributions of nitrification and denitrification to the flux of nitrous oxide from soil, Soil Biol. Biochem., 29, 139-151, https://doi.org/10.1016/S0038-0717(96)00303-3, 1997.
140. Talgre, L., Lauringson, E., Roostalu, H., Astover, A., Eremeev, V., and Selge, A.: The effects of pure and undersowing green manures on yields of succeeding spring cereals, Acta Agr. Scand. BS. P., 59, 70-76, https://doi.org/10.1080/09064700801906198, 2009.
141. Tedeschi, L. O. and Fox, D. D.: The Ruminant Nutrition System: An Applied Model for Predicting Nutrient Requirements and Feed Utilization in Ruminants, XanEdu, Ann Arbor, MI, USA, 545 pp., 2016.
142. Thorup-Kristensen, K., Magid, J., and Jensen, L. S.: Catch crops and green manures as biological tools in nitrogen management in temperate zones, Adv. Agron., 79, 227-302, https://doi.org/10.1016/S0065-2113(02)79005-6, 2003.
143. Thulin, A. J. and Brumm, M. C.: Water - the forgotten nutrient, in: Swine Nutrition, edited by: Miller, E. R., Ullrey, D. E., and Lewis, A. J., Butterworth-Heinemann, Boston, USA, 315-339, 1991.
144. Thyberg, K. L. and Tonjes, D. J.: The environmental impacts of alternative food waste treatment technologies in the US, J. Clean. Prod., 158, 101-108, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jclepro.2017.04.169, 2017.
145. Tilman, D., Balzer, C., Hill, J., and Befort, B. L.: Global food demand and the sustainable intensification of agriculture, P. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA, 108, 20260-20264, https://doi.org/10.1073/pnas.1116437108, 2011.
146. Tompson, B. and Amoroso, L.: Improving Diets and Nutrition - Food-Based Approaches, CAB International, Wallingford, UK, 403 pp., 2014.
147. Tredici, M. R.: Photobiology of microalgae mass cultures: Understanding the tools for the next green revolution, Biofuels, 1, 143- 162, https://doi.org/10.4155/bfs.09.10, 2010.
148. USDA Food Composition Databases, National Nutrient Database for Standard Reference (released 28 September 2015, slightly revised May 2016), available at: Https://ndb.nal.usda.gov/ndb/ (last access: 2 August 2017), 2016.
149. van Groenigen, J. W., Velthof, G. L., van der Bolt, F. J. E., Vos, A., and Kuikman, P. J.: Seasonal variation in N2O emissions from urine patches: Effects of urine concentration, soil compaction and dung, Plant Soil, 273, 15-27, https://doi.org/10.1007/s11104-004-6261-2, 2005.
150. van Huis, A.: Potential of insects as food and feed in assuring food security, Annu. Rev. Entomol., 58, 563-583, https://doi.org/10.1146/annurev-ento-120811-153704, 2013.
151. Vandehaar, M. J.: Symposium: Efficiency of production - efficiency of nutrient use and relationship to profitability on dairy farms, J. Dairy Sci., 81, 272-282, 1998.
152. Weisskopf, P., Reiser, R., Rek, J., and Oberholzer, H. R.: Effect of different compaction impacts and varying subsequent management practices on soil structure, air regime and microbiological parameters, Soil Till. Res., 111, 65-74, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.sti11.2010.08.007, 2010.
153. Wellmer, F.-W., and Scholz, R. W.: Peak minerals: What can we learn from the history of mineral economics and the cases of gold and phosphorus?, Mineral Economics, 30, 73-93, https://doi.org/10.1007/s13563-016-0094-3, 2016.
154. Wellmer, F.-W., and Scholz, R.: Putting phosphorus first: The need to know and right to know call for a revised hierarchy of natural resources, Resources, 6, 20-27, https://doi.org/10.3390/resources6020020, 2017.
155. WHO: Guidelines for Drinking-Water Quality - First Addendum to Third Edn. - Volume 1 - Recommendations, Guidelines for Drinking-Water Quality, Geneva, Switzerland, 31 pp., 2006.
156. Wilkinson, J. M.: Re-defining efficiency of feed use by livestock, Animal, 5, 1014-1022, https://doi.org/10.1017/S175173111100005x, 2011.
157. Windisch, W., Fahn, C., Brugger, D., Deml, M., and Buffler, M.: Strategies for sustainable animal nutrition, Zuchtungskunde, 85, 40-53, 2013.
158. Zepka, L. Q., Jacob-Lopes, E., Goldbeck, R., Souza-Soares, L. A., and Queiroz, M. I.: Nutritional evaluation of single-cell protein produced by Aphanothece microscopica Nageli, Bioresource Technol., 101, 7107-7111, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.biortech.2010.04.001, 2010.
159. Zonderland-Thomassen, M. A., Lieffering, M., and Ledgard, S. F.: Water footprint of beef cattle and sheep produced in New Zealand: water scarcity and eutrophication impacts, J. Clean. Prod., 73, 253-262, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jclepro.2013.12.025, 2014.