Challenges for Plant Breeders from the View of Animal Nutrition

Agriculture (Switzerland)

Volumn 5, Issue 4, 2015, Pages 1252-1276

  Flachowsky, Gerhard ^a   Meyer, Ulrich ^a  

^a FEDERAL RESEARCH INSTITUTE FOR ANIMAL HEALTH   (Germany)

Author keywords

Animal protein; Anti nutritional factors; Biofortification; Co products; Feed additives; Feeds; Plant breeding

Indexed keywords

EID: 85012016678     PISSN: None     EISSN: 20770472     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.3390/agriculture5041252     Document Type: Review

References (189)

1. Makkar, H.P.S.; Ankers, P. Towards sustainable animal diets: A survey-based study. Anim. Feed Sci. Technol. 2014, 198, 309–322.
2. National Research Council. Critical Role of Animal Science Research in Food Security and Sustainability; National Academic Press: Washington, DC, USA, 2015; p. 360.
3. Flachowsky, G. Animal Nutrition with Transgenic Plants; Flachowsky, G., Ed.; CABI: Wallingford, UK, 2013.
4. Flachowsky, G.; Meyer, U.; Grün, M. Plant and animal breeding as starting points for sustainable agriculture. In Sustainable Agriculture Reviews; Lichtfouse, E., Ed.; Springer Netherlands: Berlin, Germany, 2013; pp. 201–224.
5. Harvie, A. Food Security: Challenges, Role of Biotechnologies and Implications for Developing Countries; Nova Science Publisher: Hauppauge, New York, NY, USA, 2015; p. 250.
6. Ruane, J.; Dargie, J.D.; Mba, C.; Boettcher, P.; Makkar, H.P.S.; Bartley, D.M.; Sonnino, A. Biotechnologies at Work for Smallholders: Case Studies from Developing Countries in Crops, Livestock and Fish; FAO: Rome, Italy, 2013.
7. The Royal Society. Reaping the Benefits: Science and the Sustainable Intensification of Global Agriculture; The Royal Society: London, UK, 2009.
8. Flachowsky, G.; Wenk, C. The role of animal feeding trials for the nutritional and safety assessment of feeds from genetically modified plants—Present stage and future challenges. J. Anim. Feed Sci. 2010, 19, 149–170.
9. Guillou, M.; Matheron, G. The World’s Challenge—Feeding 9 Billion People; Springer Netherlands: Berlin, Germany, 2014; p. 226.
10. Fischer, T.; Byerlee, D.; Edmeades, G. Crop Yields and Global Food Security: Will Yield Increase Continue to Feed the World; ACIAR: Canberra, Australia, 2014.
11. Reynolds, M.P. Climate Change and Crop Production; CAB International: Wallingford, UK; Cambridge, MA, USA, 2010.
12. Tester, M.; Langridge, P. Breeding technologies to increase crop production in a changing world. Science 2010, 327, 818–822.
13. Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations. The State of Food and Agriculture 2009: Livestock in the Balance; FAO: Rome, Italy, 2009; p. 166.
14. Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations. How to Feed the World in 2050; FAO: Rome, Italy, 2009; p. 35.
15. Alexandratos, N.; Bruinsma, J. World Agriculture towards 2030/2050; FAO: Rome, Italy, 2012.
16. HLPE. Biofuels and Food Security (vo Draft); FAO: Rome, Italy, 2013.
17. Ash, C.; Jasny, B.R.; Malakoff, D.A.; Sugden, A.M. Feeding the future. Science 2010, 327, 797–797.
18. Delgado, C.L. Rising consumption of meat and milk in developing countries has created a new food revolution. J. Nutr. 2003, 133, 3907S–3910S.
19. Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations. Livestock’s Long Shadow: Environmental Issues and Options; FAO: Rome, Italy, 2006; p. 406.
20. Godfray, H.C.; Beddington, J.R.; Crute, I.R.; Haddad, L.; Lawrence, D.; Muir, J.F.; Pretty, J.; Robinson, S.; Thomas, S.M.; Toulmin, C. Food security: The challenge of feeding 9 billion people. Science 2010, 327, 812–818.
21. IPCC. (Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change). Guidelines for National Greenhouse Gas Inventories; Agriculture, Forestry and Other Land Use. Available online: http://www. ipce-nggip.iges.or.jp/public/2006/gl/vol4.html (accessed on 12 May 2015).
22. Steinfeld, H.; Gerber, P.; Wassenaar, T.; Castel, V.; Rosales, M.; Haan, C.D.; de Haan, C. Livestock’s Long Shadow: Environmental Issues and Options; FAO: Rome, Italy, 2006.
23. Vermeulen, S.J.; Campbell, B.M.; Ingram, J.S.I. Climate change and food systems. Annu. Rev. Environ. Resour. 2012, 37, 195–222.
24. Flachowsky, G. More for more with less? Mühle Mischfutter 2014, 151, 34–38. (In German)
25. HLPE. Note on Critical and Emerging Issues for Food Security and Nutrition; FAO: Rome, Italy, 2014.
26. Thompson, B.; Amoroso, L. Improving Diets and Nutrition: Food-Based Approaches; FAO: Rome, Italy; CAB International: Wallingford, UK; Boston, MA, USA, 2014.
27. Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations. The State of Food Insecurity in the World 2014. Strengthering the Enabling Environments for Food Security and Nutrition; FAO: Rome, Italy, 2014; p. 55.
28. Neumann, C.G.; Bwibo, N.O.; Gewa, C.A.; Drorbaugh, N. Animal source foods as a food-based approach to improve diet and nutrition outcomes. In Improving Diets and Nutrition: Food-Based Approaches; Thompson, B., Amoroso, L., Eds.; CABI: Wallingford, UK, 2014; pp. 157–172.
29. Cassidy, E.S.; West, P.C.; Gerber, J.S.; Foley, J.A. Redefining agricultural yields: From tonnes to people nourished per hectare. Environ. Res. Lett. 2013, 8, http://dx.doi.org/10.1088/174 8-9326/8/3/034015.
30. Smil, V. Feeding the World: A Challenge for the Twenty-First Century; The MIT Press: Cambridge, MA, USA, 2000.
31. D’Mello, J.P.F. Amino Acids in Human Nutrition and Health; Wallingford, UK; Cambridge, MA, USA, 2011; p. 544.
32. Pillai, R.R.; Kurpad, A.V. Amino acid requirements: Quantitative estimates. In Amino Acids in Human Nutrition and Health; D’Mello, J.P.F., Ed.; CABI: Wallingford, UK, 2011; pp. 267–290.
33. Smith, J.; Sones, K.; Grace, D.; MacMillan, S.; Tarawali, S.; Herrero, M. Beyond milk, meat, and eggs: Role of livestock in food and nutrition security. Anim. Front. 2013, 3, 6–13.
34. World Health Organization; Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations; United Nations University. Protein and Amino acid Requirements in Human Nutrition; World Health Organization: Geneva, Switzerland, 2007; Volume 935, pp. 1–265.
35. Young, V.R.; Bier, D.M.; Pellett, P.L. A theoretical basis for increasing current estimates of the amino acid requirements in adult man, with experimental support. Am. J. Clin. Nutr. 1989, 50, 80–92.
36. Wennemer, H.; Flachowsky, G.; Hoffmann, V. Protein, Population, Politics—How Protein Can Be Supplied Sustainable in the 21st Century; Plexus Verlag: Mittenberg, Switzerland; Frankfurt, Germany; 2006; p. 160.
37. Jackson, A.A. Protein. In Essentials of Human Nutrition, 3rd ed.; Mann, J., Truswell, S., Eds.; Oxford University Press: Oxford, UK, 2007; pp. 53–72.
38. Waterlow, J.C. The mysteries of nitrogen balance. Nutr. Res. Rev. 1999, 12, 25–54.
39. Bauer, J.; Biolo, G.; Cederholm, T.; Cesari, M.; Cruz-Jentoft, A.J.; Morley, J.E.; Phillips, S.; Sieber, C.; Stehle, P.; Teta, D.; et al. Evidence-based recommendations for optimal dietary protein intake in older people: A position paper from the prot-age study group. J. Am. Med. Dir. Assoc. 2013, 14, 542–559.
40. Fukagawa, N.K. Protein requirements: Methodologic controversy amid a call for change. Am. J. Clin. Nutr. 2014, 99, 761–762.
41. Marini, J.C. Protein requirements: Are we ready for new recommendations? J. Nutr. 2015, 145, 5–6.
42. Rand, W.M.; Pellett, P.L.; Young, V.R. Meta-analysis of nitrogen balance studies for estimating protein requirements in healthy adults. Am. J. Clin. Nutr. 2003, 77, 109–127.
43. Avadi, A.; Freon, P. Life cycle assessment of fisheries: A review for fisheries scientists and managers. Fish. Res. 2013, 143, 21–38.
44. Van Huis, A.; Dicke, M.; van Loon, J.J.A. Insects to feed the world. J. Insects Food Feed 2015, 1, 3–5.
45. Kastner, T.; Rivas, M.J.; Koch, W.; Nonhebel, S. Global changes in diets and the consequences for land requirements for food. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA 2012, 109, 6868–6872.
46. Keyzer, M.A.; Merbis, M.D.; Pavel, I.F.P.W.; van Wesenbeeck, C.F.A. Diet shifts towards meat and the effects on cereal use: Can we feed the animals in 2030? Ecol. Econ. 2005, 55, 187–202.
47. Tilman, D.; Balzer, C.; Hill, J.; Befort, B.L. Global food demand and the sustainable intensification of agriculture. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA 2011, 108, 20260–20264.
48. Guyomard, H.; Manceron, S.; Peyraud, J.L. Trade in feed grains, animals, and animal products: Current trends, future prospects, and main issues. Anim. Front. 2013, 3, 14–18.
49. Flachowsky, G. Carbon footprints for food of animal origin. In Livestock Production and Climate Change; Malik, P.K., Bhatta, R., Takahashi, J., Kohn, R., Prasad, C.S., Eds.; CABI: Wallingford, UK, 2015; pp.125–145.
50. Gerbens-Leenes, P.W.; Nonhebel, S. Consumption patterns and their effects on land required for food. Ecol. Econ. 2002, 42, 185–199.
51. Wirsenius, S.; Azar, C.; Berndes, G. How much land is needed for global food production under scenarios of dietary changes and livestock productivity increases in 2030? Agric. Syst. 2010, 103, 621–638.
52. Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations. Dairy Asia: Towards sustainability. In Proceedings of an International Consultation, Bangkok, Thailand, 21–23 May 2014; FAO Regional Office for Asia and the Pacific: Bangkok, Thailand, 2014; p. 65.
53. Kebreab, E. Sustainable Animal Agriculture; CABI: Wallingford, UK, 2013.
54. SAFA. Sustainable Assessment of Food and Agriculture Systems Indicators; FAO: Rome, Italy, 2013.
55. Guyomard, H.; Darcy-Vrillon, B.; Esnouf, C.; Marin, M.; Russel, M.; Guillou, M. Eating patterns and food systems: Critical knowledge requirements for policy design and implementation. Agric. Food Secur. 2012, 1, doi:10.1186/2048-7010-1-13.
56. Baroni, L.; Cenci, L.; Tettamanti, M.; Berati, M. Evaluating the environmental impact of various dietary patterns combined with different food production systems. Eur. J. Clin. Nutr. 2007, 61, 279–286.
57. Pimentel, D.; Pimentel, M. Sustainability of meat-based and plant-based diets and the environment. Am. J. Clin. Nutr. 2003, 78, 660S–663S.
58. Reijnders, L.; Soret, S. Quantification of the environmental impact of different dietary protein choices. Am. J. Clin. Nutr. 2003, 78, 664S–668S.
59. Flachowsky, G.; Meyer, U.; Südekum, K.-H. Land use for edible protein of animal origin—A review. Food Secur. 2015, 6, in press.
60. Peters, C.J.; Wilkins, J.L.; Fick, G.W. Testing a complete-diet model for estimating the land resource requirements of food consumption and agricultural carrying capacity: The New York state example. Renew. Agric. Food Syst. 2007, 22, 145–153.
61. Deikman, J.; Petracek, M.; Heard, J.E. Drought tolerance through biotechnology: Improving translation from the laboratory to farmers’ fields. Curr. Opin. Biotechnol. 2012, 23, 243–250.
62. Hoekstra, A.Y.; Chapagain, A.K. Water footprints of nations: Water use by people as a function of their consumption pattern. Water Resour. Manag. 2007, 21, 35–48.
63. Molden, D.; Oweis, T.; Steduto, P.; Bindraban, P.; Hanjra, M.A.; Kijne, J. Improving agricultural water productivity: Between optimism and caution. Agric. Water Manag. 2010, 97, 528–535.
64. Schlink, A.C.; Nguyen, M.L.; Viljoen, G.J. Water requirements for livestock production: A global perspective. Rev. Sci. Technol. 2010, 29, 603–619.
65. Hall, D.C.; Hall, J.V. Concepts and measures of natural-resource scarcity with a summary of recent trends. J. Environ. Econ. Manag. 1984, 11, 363–379.
66. Scholz, R.W.; Wellmer, F.W. Approaching a dynamic view on the availability of mineral resources: What we may learn from the case of phosphorus? Glob. Environ. Chang. 2013, 23, 11–27.
67. Aerts, S. Agriculture’s 6 F’s and the need for more intensive agriculture. In Climate Change and Sustainable Development; Potthast, T., Meisch, S., Eds.; Wageningen Academic Publisher: Wageningen, The Netherlands 2012; pp. 192–195.
68. Amarsinghe, U. Water footprint of the dairy sector. In Proceedings of an International Consultation, Bangkok, Thailand, 21–23 May 2014; FAO Regional Office for Asia and the Pacific: Bangkok, Thailand, 2014; pp. 14–15.
69. Mekonnen, M.M.; Hoekstra, A.V. The Green, Blue and Grey Water Footprint of Farm Animals and Animal Products; UNESCO-IHE: Delft, The Neterlands, 2010.
70. De Vries, M.; de Boer, I.J.M. Comparing environmental impacts for livestock products: A review of life cycle assessments. Livest. Sci. 2010, 128, 1–11.
71. Nguyen, T.L.T.; Hermansen, J.E.; Mogensen, L. Environmental consequences of different beef production systems in the EU. J. Clean. Prod. 2010, 18, 756–766.
72. Nijdam, D.; Rood, T.; Westhoek, H. The price of protein: Review of land use and carbon footprints from life cycle assessments of animal food products and their substitutes. Food Policy 2012, 37, 760–770.
73. Upham, P.; Dendler, L.; Bleda, M. Carbon labelling of grocery products: Public perceptions and potential emissions reductions. J. Clean. Prod. 2011, 19, 348–355.
74. Young, W.; Hwang, K.; McDonald, S.; Oates, C.J. Sustainable consumption: Green consumer behaviour when purchasing products. Sustain. Dev. 2010, 1, 20–31.
75. De Alvarenga, R.A.F.; Silva Junior, V.P.D.; Soares, S.R.; de Alvarenga, R.A.F.; da Silva Junior, V.P. Comparison of the ecological footprint and a life cycle impact assessment method for a case study on brazilian broiler feed production. J. Clean. Prod. 2012, 28, 25–32.
76. Boonen, R.; Aerts, S.; de Tavernier, L. Which sustainability soits you? In Climate Change and Sustainable Development; Potthast, T., Meisch, S., Eds.; Wageningen Academic Publishers: Wageningen, The Netherlands, 2012; pp. 43–48.
77. International Union for Conservation of Nature. The IUNC Programm 2005–2008. IUCN: Gland, Switzerland, 2005.
78. Casabona, C.M.R.; Epifanio, L.E.S.; Cirion, A.E. Global Food Security: Ethical and Legal Callenges; Wageningen Academic Publishers: Wageningen, The Netherlands, 2010; p. 532.
79. Fedoroff, N.V.; Battisti, D.S.; Beachy, R.N.; Cooper, P.J.; Fischhoff, D.A.; Hodges, C.N.; Knauf, V.C.; Lobell, D.; Mazur, B.J.; Molden, D.; et al. Radically rethinking agriculture for the 21st century. Science 2010, 327, 833–834.
80. Giovannucci, D.; Scherr, S.; Nierenberg, D.; Hebebrand, C.; Shapiro, J.; Milder, J.; Wheeler, K. Food and Agriculture: The Future of Sustainability. A Strategic Input to the Sustainable Development in the 21st Century (SD21) Project; United Nations Department of Economic and Social Affairs: New York, NY, USA, 2012.
81. Wals, A.E.J.; Corcoran, P.B. Learning for Sustainability in Times of Accelerating Change; Wageningen Academic Publishers: Wageningen, The Netherlands, 2012; p. 550.
82. Foley, J.A.; Ramankutty, N.; Brauman, K.A.; Cassidy, E.S.; Gerber, J.S.; Johnston, M.; Mueller, N.D.; O’Connell, C.; Ray, D.K.; West, P.C.; et al. Solutions for a cultivated planet. Nature 2011, 478, 337–342.
83. Girard, C.L. Insects as a source of nutrients: Beyond the western prejudices. Anim. Front. 2015, 5, 4–6.
84. Morales-Ramos, J.A.; Rojas, M.G.; Shapiro-Ilan, D. Mass Production of Beneficial Organisms—Invertebrates and Entomopathogens; Elsevier and Academic Press: Amsterdam, The Netherlands, 2014; p. 712.
85. Rumpold, B.A.; Schlüter, O. Insect-based protein sources and their potential for human consumption: Nutritional composition and processing. Anim. Front. 2015, 5, 20–24.
86. Sanchez-Muros, M.J.; Barroso, F.G.; Manzano-Agugliaro, F. Insect meal as renewable source of food for animal feeding: A review. J. Clean. Prod. 2014, 65, 16–27.
87. Van Huis, A.; Itterbeeck, J.V.; Klunder, H.; Mertens, E.; Halloran, A.; Muir, G.; Vantomme, P.; van Huis, A.; van Itterbeeck, J. Edible Insects: Future Prospects for Food and Feed Security; FAO: Rome, Italy, 2013.
88. Anupama, R.P. Value-added food: Single cell protein. Biotechnol. Adv. 2000, 18, 459–479.
89. Zepka, L.Q.; Jacob-Lopes, E.; Goldbeck, R.; Souza-Soares, L.A.; Queiroz, M.I. Nutritional evaluation of single-cell protein produced by aphanothece microscopica nageli. Bioresour. Technol. 2010, 101, 7118–7122.
90. Flachowsky, G. Greenhouse gases and resource efficiency. Aspects of production of food of animal origin. Ernähr.-Umsch. 2008, 55, 414–419. (In German)
91. Makkar, H.P.S. Biofuel Co-Products as Livestock Feed—Opportunities and Challenges; FAO: Rome, Italy, 2012.
92. Becker, M.; Nehring, K. Handbook of Feeds; Paul Parey Verlag: Hamburg, Germany; 1967; pp. 1–3. (In German)
93. Menke, K.H.; Huss, W. Animal Nutrition and Feedstuffs: Tierernährung und Futtermittelkunde; Verlag Eugen Ulmer: Stuttgart, Germany, 1975; p. 319. (In German)
94. Kling, M.; Woehlbier, W. Trade Feestuffs; Ulmer Verlag: Stuttgart, Germany, 1983; p. 546. (In German)
95. Jeroch, H.; Flachowsky, G.; Weissbach, F. Futtermittelkunde; Gustav Fischer Verlag Jena: Stuttgart, Germany, 1993; p. 510.
96. Jeroch, H.; Simon, A.; Zentek, J. Poultry Nutrition; Verlag Eugen Ulmer: Stuttgart, Germany, 2013; p. 528. (In German)
97. Jeroch, H.; Simon, O.; Drochner, W. Nutrition of Livestock, 2nd ed.; Eugen-Ulmer Verlag: Stuttgart, Germany, 2008; p. 555. (In German)
98. Theodorou, M.K.; France, J. Feeding Systems and Feed Evaluation Models; CABI: Wallingford, UK, 2000; p. 481.
99. Ewing, W.N. The FEEDS Directory: Commody Products Guide; Context Products Ltd.: Packington, UK, 1998; p. 234.
100. Ewing, W.N. The Feeds Directory: Branded Products Guide; Context Products Ltd.: Packington, UK, 2002; p. 216.
101. Kamphues, J.; Wolf, P.; Coenen, M.; Eder, K.; Iben, C.; Kienzle, E.; Liesegang, A.; Maenner, K.; Zebeli, Q.; Zentek, J. Supplements of Animal Nutrition for Study and Practice; M. & H. Schaper GmbH: Hannover, Germany, 2014; p. 520. (In German)
102. Positive, L. Positive List for Straight Feeding Stuffs; Standards Commission for Straight Feeding Stuffs at the Central Committee of the German Agriculture: Bonn, Germany, 2014; p. 61.
103. Pape, H.-C. Feed Additives—Technology and Application; Agrimedia GmbH: Bergen, Norway, 2006; p. 304. (In German)
104. Salem, A.-F.Z.M. Plant-Phytochemicals in Animal Nutrition; Nova Science Publishers Inc.: Hauppauge, New York, NY, USA, 2011; p. 188.
105. Salem, A.-F.Z.M. Nutritional Strategies of Animal Feed Additives; Nova Sciene Publishers Inc.: Hauppauge, New York, NY, USA, 2012; p. 221.
106. Pennisi, E. Sowing the seeds for the ideal crop. Science 2010, 327, 802–803.
107. SCAR. New Challenges for Agricultural Research: Climate Change, Rural Development, Agricultural Knowledge Systems; European Communities: Brussels, Belgium, 2008; p. 112.
108. Flachowsky, G. Global Food Security: Is There Any Solution?. NovoArgument 2010, 105, 3–4. (In German)
109. High Level Panel of Experts. Food Security and Climate Change; FAO: Rome, Italy, 2012; p. 98.
110. Husaini, A.M.; Tuteja, N. Biotech crops: Imperative for achieving the millenium development goals and sustainability of agriculture in the climate change era. GM Crop. Food 2013, 4, 1–9.
111. Lobell, D.B.; Burke, M.B.; Tebaldi, C.; Mastrandrea, M.D.; Falcon, W.P.; Naylor, R.L. Prioritizing climate change adaptation needs for food security in 2030. Science 2008, 319, 607–610.
112. Newman, J.A.; Anand, M.; Henry, H.A.L.; Hunt, S.; Gedalof, Z. Climate Change Biology; CABI: Wallingford, UK, 2011.
113. Tillie, P.; Dillen, K.; Rodriguez-Cerezo, E. The pipeline of gm crops for improved animal feed: Challenges for commercial use. In Animal Nutrition with Transgenic Plants; Flachowsky, G., Ed.; CABI: Wallingford, UK, 2013; pp. 166–192.
114. Bouis, H.E.; Chassy, B.A.; Ochanda, J.O. Genetically modified food crops and their contribution to human nutrition and food quality. Trends Food Sci. Technol. 2003, 14, 191–209.
115. Hirschi, K.D. Nutrient biofortification of food crops. Annu. Rev. Nutr. 2009, 29, 401–421.
116. Welch, R.M. Breeding strategies for biofortified staple plant foods to reduce micronutrient malnutrition globally. J. Nutr. 2002, 132, 495S–499S.
117. White, P.J.; Broadley, M.R. Biofortifying crops with essential mineral elements. Trends Plant Sci. 2005, 10, 586–593.
118. Nestel, P.; Bouis, H.E.; Meenakshi, J.V.; Pfeiffer, W. Biofortification of staple food crops. J. Nutr. 2006, 136, 1064–1067.
119. McDowell, L.R. Minerals in Animal and Human Nutrition; Elsevier: Amsterdam, The Netherlands, 2003.
120. Suttle, N. Mineral Nutrition of Livestock; CABI: Wallingford, UK, 2010.
121. Lucas, D.M.; Taylor, M.L.; Hartnell, G.F.; Nemeth, M.A.; Glenn, K.C.; Davis, S.W. Broiler performance and carcass characteristics when fed diets containing lysine maize (LY038 or LY038 ×MON 810), control, or conventional reference maize. Poultr. Sci. 2007, 86, 2152–2161.
122. Sevenier, R.; van der Meer, I.M.; Bino, R.; Koops, A.J. Increased production of nutriments by genetically engineered crops. J. Am. Coll. Nutr. 2002, 21, 199S–204S.
123. Ufaz, S.; Galili, G. Improving the content of essential amino acids in crop plants: Goals and opportunities. Plant Physiol. 2008, 147, 954–961.
124. Cahoon, E.B.; Shockey, J.M.; Dietrich, C.R.; Gidda, S.K.; Mullen, R.T.; Dyer, J.M. Engineering oilseeds for sustainable production of industrial and nutritional feedstocks: Solving bottlenecks in fatty acid flux. Curr. Opin. Plant Biol. 2007, 10, 236–244.
125. Napier, J.A. The production of unusual fatty acids in transgenic plants. Annu. Rev. Plant Biol. 2007, 58, 295–319.
126. Rymer, C.; Hartnell, G.F.; Givens, D.I. The effect of feeding modified soyabean oil enriched with C18: 4n-3 to broilers on the deposition of n-3 fatty acids in chicken meat. Br. J. Nutr. 2011, 105, 866–878.
127. Broadley, M.R.; White, P.J.; Bryson, R.J.; Meacham, M.C.; Bowen, H.C.; Johnson, S.E.; Hawkesford, M.J.; McGrath, S.P.; Zhao, F.J.; Breward, N.; et al. Biofortification of UK food crops with selenium. Proc. Nutr. Soc. 2006, 65, 169–181.
128. Gregorio, G.B. Progress in breeding for trace minerals in staple crops. J. Nutr. 2002, 132, 500S–502S.
129. Lucca, P.; Hurrell, R.; Potrykus, I. Genetic engineering approaches to improve the bioavailability and the level of iron in rice grains. Theor. Appl. Genet. 2001, 102, 392–397.
130. Welch, R.M.; Graham, R.D. Breeding for micronutrients in staple food crops from a human nutrition perspective. J. Exp. Bot. 2004, 55, 353–364.
131. Welch, R.M.; House, W.A.; Beebe, A.; Senadhira, D.; Gregorio, G.B.; Cheng, Z. Testing iron and zinc bioavailability in genetically enriched beans (Phaseolus vulgaris L.) and rice (Oryza sativa L.) in a rat model. Food Nutr. Bull. 2000, 21, 428–433.
132. Garza, R.D.D.L.; Quinlivan, E.P.; Klaus, S.M.J.; Basset, G.J.C.; Gregory, J.F., III; Hanson, A.D.; de la Garza, R.D. Folate biofortification in tomatoes by engineering the pteridine branch of folate synthesis. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA 2004, 101, 13720–13725.
133. Potrykus, I. Golden rice and beyond. Plant Physiol. 2001, 125, 1157–1161.
134. Rocheford, T.R.; Wong, J.C.; Egesel, C.O.; Lambert, R.J. Enhancement of vitamin E levels in corn. J. Am. Coll. Nutr. 2002, 21, 191S–198S.
135. Van Jaarsveld, P.J.; Faber, M.; Tanumihardjo, S.A.; Nestel, P.; Lombard, C.J.; Benade, A.J. Beta-carotene-rich orange-fleshed sweet potato improves the vitamin a status of primary school children assessed with the modified-relative-dose-response test. Am. J. Clin. Nutr. 2005, 81, 1080–1087.
136. Ye, X.; Al-Babili, S.; Kloti, A.; Zhang, J.; Lucca, P.; Beyer, P.; Potrykus, I. Engineering the provitamin a (β-carotene) biosynthetic pathway into (carotenoid-free) rice endosperm. Science 2000, 287, 303–305.
137. Chen, R.; Xue, G.; Chen, P.; Yao, B.; Yang, W.; Ma, Q.; Fan, Y.; Zhao, Z.; Tarczynski, M.C.; Shi, J. Transgenic maize plants expressing a fungal phytase gene. Transgen. Res. 2008, 17, 633–643.
138. Gao, C.Q.; Ma, Q.G.; Ji, C.; Luo, X.G.; Tang, H.F.; Wei, Y.M. Evaluation of the compositional and nutritional values of phytase transgenic corn to conventional corn in roosters. Poultr. Sci. 2012, 91, 1142–1148.
139. Nyannor, E.K.; Williams, P.; Bedford, M.R.; Adeola, O. Corn expressing an Escherichia coli-derived phytase gene: A proof-of-concept nutritional study in pigs. J. Anim. Sci. 2007, 85, 1946–1952.
140. Zhang, Z.B.; Kornegay, E.T.; Radcliffe, J.S.; Denbow, D.M.; Veit, H.P.; Larsen, C.T. Comparison of genetically engineered microbial and plant phytase for young broilers. Poultr. Sci. 2000, 79, 709–717.
141. Vageeshbabu, H.S.; Chopra, V.L. Genetic and biotechnological approaches for reducing glucosinolates from rapeseed-mustard meal. J. Plant Biochem. Biotechnol. 1997, 6, 53–62.
142. Vasil, I.K.; Anderson, O.D. Genetic engineering of wheat gluten. Trends Plant Sci. 1997, 2, 292–297.
143. Duvick, J. Prospects for reducing fumonisin contamination of maize through genetic modification. Environ. Health Perspect. 2001, 109, 337–342.
144. Munkvold, G.P.; Hellmich, R.L.; Rice, L.G. Comparison of fumonisin concentrations in kernels of transgenic Bt maize hybrids and nontransgenic hybrids. Plant Dis. 1999, 83, 130–138.
145. International Life Sciences Institute. Nutritional and safety of foods and feeds nutritionally improved through biotechnology: Case studies. Compr. Rev. Food Sci. Food Saf. 2008, 7, 50–99.
146. Newell-McGloughlin, M. Nutritionally improved agricultural crops. Plant Physiol. 2008, 147, 939–953.
147. Dawe, D.; Robertson, R.; Unnevehr, L. Golden rice: What role could it play in alleviation of vitamin a deficiency? Food Policy 2002, 27, 541–560.
148. DellaPenna, D. Nutritional genomics: Manipulating plant micronutrients to improve human health. Science 1999, 285, 375–379.
149. Gilligan, D.O. Biofortification, agricultural technology adoption, and nutrition policy: Some lessons and emerging challenges. CESifo Econo. Stud. 2012, 58, 405–421.
150. Johns, T. Plant biodiversity and malnutrition: Simple solutions to complex problems. Afr. J. Food Agric. Nutr. Dev. 2003, 3, 45–52.
151. King, J.C. Evaluating the impact of plant biofortification on human nutrition. J. Nutr. 2002, 132, 511S–513S.
152. Mayer, J.E.; Pfeiffer, W.H.; Beyer, P. Biofortified crops to alleviate micronutrient malnutrition. Curr. Opin. Plant Biol. 2008, 11, 166–170.
153. McKeon, T.A. Genetically modified crops for industrial products and processes and their effects on human health. Trends Food Sci. Technol. 2003, 14, 229–241.
154. Sautter, C.; Poletti, S.; Zhang, P.; Gruissem, W. Biofortification of essential nutritional compounds and trace elements in rice and cassava. Proc. Nutr. Soc. 2006, 65, 153–159.
155. Zimmermann, R.; Stein, A.; Qaim, M. Agricultural technology to fight micronutrient malnutrition? A health economics approach agrartechnologie zur bekampfung von mikronahrstoffmangel? Ein gesundheitsokonomischer bewertungsansatz. Agrarwirtschaft 2004, 53, 67–76.
156. McNaughton, J.; Roberts, M.; Smith, B.; Rice, D.; Hinds, M.; Sanders, C.; Layton, R.; Lamb, I.; Delaney, B. Comparison of broiler performance when fed diets containing event DP-3O5423-1, nontransgenic near-isoline control, or commercial reference soybean meal, hulls, and oil. Poultr. Sci. 2008, 87, 2549–2561.
157. Mejia, L.; Meyer, E.T.; Utterback, P.L.; Utterback, C.W.; Parsons, C.M.; Koelkebeck, K.W. Evaluation of limit feeding corn and distillers dried grains with solubles in non-feed-withdrawal molt programs for laying hens. Poultr. Sci. 2010, 89, 386–392.
158. Stein, A.J.; Rodriguez-Cerezo, E. The Global Pipeline of New GM-Crops: Implications of Asynchronous Approval for International Trade; European Communities: Brussels, Belgium, 2009; p. 102.
159. Flachowsky, G. Possibilities of decontamination of “undesired substances” after appendix 5 of the feed regulation. Landbauforsch. Völk. 2006, 294, 292. (In German)
160. Gorniak, T.; Meyer, U.; Danicke, S. Effects of corn silage of a brown-midrib hybrid on dry matter intake, milk yield and milk composition in german holstein dairy cows compared to a common hybrid. Proc. Soc. Nutr. Physiol. Band 2012, 21, 159.
161. Ivan, S.K.; Grant, R.J.; Weakley, D.; Beck, J. Comparison of a corn silage hybrid with high cell-wall content and digestibility with a hybrid of lower cell-wall content on performance of holstein cows. J. Dairy Sci. 2005, 88, 244–254.
162. Köhler, R.; Leuoth, A.; Jeroch, H.; Flachowsky, G.; Gebhardt, G.; Hielscher, H.; Kappel, W. Studies of the content and the digestibility of cell-wall substances in remaining plants of various maize hybrids. Arch. Anim. Nutr. 1989, 39, 187–192.
163. Rook, J.A.; Muller, L.D.; Shank, D.B. Intake and digestibility of brown-midrib corn-silage by lactating dairy-cows. J. Dairy Sci. 1977, 60, 1894–1904.
164. Barriere, Y.; Dias Goncalves, G.; Emile, J.C.; Lefevre, B. Higher intake of DK265 corn silage by dairy cattle. J. Dairy Sci. 2004, 87, 1439–1445.
165. Oba, M.; Allen, M.S. Effects of brown midrib 3 mutation in corn silage on dry matter intake and productivity of high yielding dairy cows. J. Dairy Sci. 1999, 82, 135–142.
166. Oba, M.; Allen, M.S. Effects of brown midrib 3 mutation in corn silage on productivity of dairy cows fed two concentrations of dietary neutral detergent fiber: 1. Feeding behavior and nutrient utilization. J. Dairy Sci. 2000, 83, 1333–1341.
167. Oba, M.; Allen, M.S. Effects of brown midrib 3 mutation in corn silage on productivity of dairy cows fed two concentrations of dietary neutral detergent fiber: 3. Digestibility and microbial efficiency. J. Dairy Sci. 2000, 83, 1350–1358.
168. Cherney, J.H.; Cherney, D.J.R.; Akin, D.E.; Axtell, J.D. Potential of brown-midrib, low-lignin mutants for improving forage quality. Adv. Agron. 1991, 46, 157–198.
169. Grant, R.J.; Haddad, S.G.; Moore, K.J.; Pedersen, J.F. Brown midrib sorghum silage for midlactation dairy cows. J. Dairy Sci. 1995, 78, 1970–1980.
170. Taylor, C.C.; Allen, M.S. Corn grain endosperm type and brown midrib 3 corn silage: Ruminal fermentation and n partitioning in lactating cows. J. Dairy Sci. 2005, 88, 1434–1442.
171. Taylor, C.C.; Allen, M.S. Corn grain endosperm type and brown midrib 3 corn silage: Feeding behavior and milk yield of lactating cows. J. Dairy Sci. 2005, 88, 1425–1433.
172. Hristov, A.N.; Oh, J.; Firkins, J.L.; Dijkstra, J.; Kebreab, E.; Waghorn, G.; Makkar, H.P.S.; Adesogan, A.T.; Yang, W.; Lee, C.; et al. Mitigation of methane and nitrous oxide emissions from animal operations: I. A review of enteric methane mitigation options. J. Anim. Sci. 2013, 91, 5045–5069.
173. Schwarm, A.; Schweigel-Röntgen, M.; Kreuzer, M.; Ortmann, S.; Gill, F.; Kuhla, B.; Meyer, U.; Lohölter, M.; Derno, M. Feeding silage from brown midrib maize to heifers does not increase methane emissions despite a higher fibre digestibilitgy as compared to conventional maize silage. Arch. Anim. Nutr. 2015, 69, 159–176.
174. Flachowsky, G. Stroh als Futtermittel: Ergebnisse und Erfahrungen bei der Strohaufbereitung und Beim Einsatz von Unterschiedlich Behandeltem Stroh als Futtermittel; VEB Deutscher Landwirtschaftsverlag: Berlin, Germany, 1987. (In German)
175. Sundstol, F.; Owen, E. Straw and Other Fibrous by Products as Feed; Elsevier: Amsterdam, The Netherlands, 1984; p. 610.
176. Van Soest, P.J. Nutritional Ecology of the Ruminant, 2nd ed.; Cornell University Press: Ithaca, NY, USA, 1994; p. 376.
177. Van Soest, P.J. Rice straw, the role of silica and treatments to improve quality. Anim. Feed Sci. Technol. 2006, 130, 137–171.
178. Protocols for Food and Feed Safety Assessment of Ge Crops; Available online: http://igmoris.nic.in/files%5CCoverpage1.pdf (accessed on 12 May 2015).
179. EFSA GMO Panel Working Group on Animal Feeding Trials. Safety and nutritional assessment of GM plant derived food and feed. The role of animal feeding trials. Food Chem. Toxicol. 2008, 46, 2–70.
180. The Role of Animal Feeding Studies in the Safety Assessment of Genetically Modified Foods; Available online: https://www.foodstandards.gov.au/consumer/gmfood/documents/Workshop %20Report%20FINAL.pdf (accessed on 12 May 2015).
181. International Life Sciences Institute. Best Practices for the Conduct of Animal Studies to Evaluate Crops Genetically Modified for Input Traits; International Life Sciences Institute: Washington, DC, USA, 2003; p. 62.
182. International Life Sciences Institute. Best Practices for the Conduct of Animal Studies to Evaluate Crops Genetically Modified for Output Traits; International Life Sciences Institute: Washington, DC, USA, 2007; p. 194.
183. Organization for Economic Co-operation and Development. Safety Evaluation of Foods Derived by Modern Biotechnology: Concepts and Principles; OECD: Paris, France, 1993; p. 77.
184. Van Eenennaam, A.L.; Young, A.E. Prevalence and impacts of genetically engineered feedstuffs on livestock populations. J. Anim. Sci. 2014, 92, 4255–4278.
185. Flachowsky, G.; Böhme, H. Proposals for nutritional assessments of feeds from genetically modified plants. J. Anim. Feed Sci. 2005, 14, 49–70.
186. Flachowsky, G.; Schafft, H.; Meyer, U. Animal feeding studies for nutritional and safety assessments of feeds from genetically modified plants: A review. J. Verbrauch. Lebensm. 2012, 7, 179–194.
187. Llorente, B.; Alonso, G.D.; Bravo-Almonacid, F.; Rodriguez, V.; Lopez, M.G.; Carrari, F.; Torres, H.N.; Flawia, M.M. Safety assessment of nonbrowning potatoes: Opening the discussion about the relevance of substantial equivalence on next generation biotech crops. Plant Biotechnol. J. 2011, 9, 136–150.
188. Spencer, J.D.; Allee, G.L.; Sauber, T.E. Phosphorus bioavailability and digestibility of normal and genetically modified low-phytate corn for pigs. J. Anim. Sci. 2000, 78, 675–681.
189. Spencer, J.D.; Allee, G.L.; Sauber, T.E. Growing-finishing performance and carcass characteristics of pigs fed normal and genetically modified low-phytate corn. J. Anim. Sci. 2000, 78, 1529–1536.