Nutrigenomic point of view on effects and mechanisms of action of ruminant trans fatty acids on insulin resistance and type 2 diabetes

Nutrition Reviews

Volumn 75, Issue 3, 2017, Pages 214-223

  Tremblay, Bénédicte L ^a   Rudkowska, Iwona ^b  

^a LAVAL UNIVERSITY   (Canada)

^b LAVAL UNIVERSITY   (Canada)

Author keywords

Insulin resistance; MicroRNA; Nutrigenomics; Ruminant trans fatty acids; Type 2 diabetes

Indexed keywords

LINOLEIC ACID; MICRORNA; PALMITOLEIC ACID; PEROXISOME PROLIFERATOR ACTIVATED RECEPTOR; TRANS FATTY ACID;

ANTIINFLAMMATORY ACTIVITY; ARTICLE; DIET SUPPLEMENTATION; ETHNICITY; FAT CONTENT; GENOTYPE; HEALTH STATUS; HUMAN; INSULIN RESISTANCE; NON INSULIN DEPENDENT DIABETES MELLITUS; NONHUMAN; NUTRIGENOMICS; ANIMAL; CELL LINE; CHEMISTRY; DIETARY SUPPLEMENT; DISEASE MODEL; GENETICS; METABOLISM; OBSERVATIONAL STUDY; RUMINANT;

ANIMALS; CELL LINE; DIABETES MELLITUS, TYPE 2; DIETARY SUPPLEMENTS; DISEASE MODELS, ANIMAL; HUMANS; INSULIN RESISTANCE; MICRORNAS; NUTRIGENOMICS; OBSERVATIONAL STUDIES AS TOPIC; RUMINANTS; TRANS FATTY ACIDS;

EID: 85033459047     PISSN: 00296643     EISSN: 17534887     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1093/nutrit/nuw066     Document Type: Article

References (114)

1. World Health Organization. Global Report on Diabetes. Geneva: World Heath Organization; 2016
2. Collaboration NCDRF. Worldwide trends in diabetes since 1980: a pooled analysis of 751 population-based studies with 4.4 million participants. Lancet. 2016;387:1513-1530
3. Rao SS, Disraeli P, McGregor T. Impaired glucose tolerance and impaired fasting glucose. Am Fam Phys. 2004;69:1961-1968
4. Mozaffarian D, Katan MB, Ascherio A, et al. Trans fatty acids and cardiovascular disease. New Engl J Med. 2006;354:1601-1613
5. Gebauer SK, Chardigny JM, Jakobsen MU, et al. Effects of ruminant trans fatty acids on cardiovascular disease and cancer: a comprehensive review of epidemiological, clinical, and mechanistic studies. Adv Nutr. 2011;2:332-354
6. Poudyal H, Brown L. Should the pharmacological actions of dietary fatty acids in cardiometabolic disorders be classified based on biological or chemical function? Prog Lipid Res. 2015;59:172-200
7. Wahle KW, Heys SD, Rotondo D. Conjugated linoleic acids: are they beneficial or detrimental to health? Prog Lipid Res. 2004;43:553-587
8. Jaudszus A, Kramer R, Pfeuffer M, et al. trans Palmitoleic acid arises endogenously from dietary vaccenic acid. Am J Clin Nutr. 2014;99:431-435
9. Da Silva MS, Julien P, Couture P, et al. Associations between dairy intake and metabolic risk parameters in a healthy French Canadian population. Appl Physiol, Nutr Metabol. 2014;39:1323-1331
10. Lefevre M, Lovejoy JC, Smith SR, et al. Comparison of the acute response to meals enriched with cis-or trans-fatty acids on glucose and lipids in overweight individuals with differing FABP2 genotypes. Metabolism. 2005;54:1652-1658
11. Lovejoy JC, Smith SR, Champagne CM, et al. Effects of diets enriched in saturated (palmitic), monounsaturated (oleic), or trans (elaidic) fatty acids on insulin sensitivity and substrate oxidation in healthy adults. Diabetes Care. 2002;25:1283-1288
12. Riserus U, Arner P, Brismar K, et al. Treatment with dietary trans10cis12 conjugated linoleic acid causes isomer-specific insulin resistance in obese men with the metabolic syndrome. Diabetes Care. 2002;25:1516-1521
13. de Souza RJ, Mente A, Maroleanu A, et al. Intake of saturated and trans unsaturated fatty acids and risk of all cause mortality, cardiovascular disease, and type 2 diabetes: systematic review and meta-analysis of observational studies. BMJ. 2015;351:h3978. doi: 10.1136/bmj.h3978
14. Bolton-Smith C, Woodward M, Fenton S, et al. Does dietary trans fatty acid intake relate to the prevalence of coronary heart disease in Scotland? Eur Heart J. 1996;17:837-845
15. Mozaffarian D, Cao H, King IB, et al. Trans-palmitoleic acid, metabolic risk factors, and new-onset diabetes in US adults: a cohort study. Ann Int Med. 2010;153:790-799
16. Mozaffarian D, de Oliveira Otto MC, Lemaitre RN, et al. trans-Palmitoleic acid, other dairy fat biomarkers, and incident diabetes: the Multi-Ethnic Study of Atherosclerosis (MESA). Am J Clin Nutr. 2013;97:854-861
17. Da Silva MS, Julien P, Perusse L, et al. Natural rumen-derived trans fatty acids are associated with metabolic markers of cardiac health. Lipids. 2015;50:873-882
18. Kratz M, Marcovina S, Nelson JE, et al. Dairy fat intake is associated with glucose tolerance, hepatic and systemic insulin sensitivity, and liver fat but not beta-cell function in humans. Am J Clin Nutr. 2014;99:1385-1396
19. Ma W, Wu JH, Wang Q, et al. Prospective association of fatty acids in the de novo lipogenesis pathway with risk of type 2 diabetes: the Cardiovascular Health Study. Am J Clin Nutr. 2015;101:153-163
20. Carvalho RF, Uehara SK, Rosa G. Microencapsulated conjugated linoleic acid associated with hypocaloric diet reduces body fat in sedentary women with metabolic syndrome. Vasc Health Risk Manag. 2012;8:661-667
21. Rubin D, Herrmann J, Much D, et al. Influence of different CLA isomers on insulin resistance and adipocytokines in pre-diabetic, middle-aged men with PPARgamma2 Pro12Ala polymorphism. Genes Nutr. 2012;7:499-509
22. Asp ML, Collene AL, Norris LE, et al. Time-dependent effects of safflower oil to improve glycemia, inflammation and blood lipids in obese, post-menopausal women with type 2 diabetes: a randomized, double-masked, crossover study. Clin Nutr. 2011;30:443-449
23. Brown AW, Trenkle AH, Beitz DC. Diets high in conjugated linoleic acid from pasture-fed cattle did not alter markers of health in young women. Nutr Res. 2011;31:33-41
24. Joseph SV, Jacques H, Plourde M, et al. Conjugated linoleic acid supplementation for 8 weeks does not affect body composition, lipid profile, or safety biomarkers in overweight, hyperlipidemic men. J Nutr. 2011;141:1286-1291
25. MacRedmond R, Singhera G, Attridge S, et al. Conjugated linoleic acid improves airway hyper-reactivity in overweight mild asthmatics. Clin Exp Allergy. 2010;40:1071-1078
26. Sluijs I, Plantinga Y, de Roos B, et al. Dietary supplementation with cis-9, trans-11 conjugated linoleic acid and aortic stiffness in overweight and obese adults. Am J Clin Nutr. 2010;91:175-183
27. Ahren B, Mari A, Fyfe CL, et al. Effects of conjugated linoleic acid plus n-3 polyunsaturated fatty acids on insulin secretion and estimated insulin sensitivity in men. Eur J Clin Nutr. 2009;63:778-786
28. Herrmann J, Rubin D, Hasler R, et al. Isomer-specific effects of CLA on gene expression in human adipose tissue depending on PPARgamma2 P12A polymorphism: a double blind, randomized, controlled cross-over study. Lipids Health Dis. 2009;8:35. doi: 10.1186/1476-511X-8-35
29. Norris LE, Collene AL, Asp ML, et al. Comparison of dietary conjugated linoleic acid with safflower oil on body composition in obese postmenopausal women with type 2 diabetes mellitus. Am J Clin Nutr. 2009;90:468-476
30. RaffM, Tholstrup T, Toubro S, et al. Conjugated linoleic acids reduce body fat in healthy postmenopausal women. J Nutr. 2009;139:1347-1352
31. Zhao WS, Zhai JJ, Wang YH, et al. Conjugated linoleic acid supplementation enhances antihypertensive effect of ramipril in Chinese patients with obesityrelated hypertension. Am J Hypertens. 2009;22:680-686
32. RaffM, Tholstrup T, Basu S, et al. A diet rich in conjugated linoleic acid and butter increases lipid peroxidation but does not affect atherosclerotic, inflammatory, or diabetic risk markers in healthy young men. J Nutr. 2008;138:509-514
33. Turpeinen AM, Ylonen N, von Willebrand E, et al. Immunological and metabolic effects of cis-9, trans-11-conjugated linoleic acid in subjects with birch pollen allergy. Br J Nutr. 2008;100:112-119
34. Gaullier JM, Halse J, Hoivik HO, et al. Six months supplementation with conjugated linoleic acid induces regional-specific fat mass decreases in overweight and obese. Br J Nutr. 2007;97:550-560
35. Laso N, Brugue E, Vidal J, et al. Effects of milk supplementation with conjugated linoleic acid (isomers cis-9, trans-11 and trans-10, cis-12) on body composition and metabolic syndrome components. Br J Nutr. 2007;98:860-867
36. Syvertsen C, Halse J, Hoivik HO, et al. The effect of 6 months supplementation with conjugated linoleic acid on insulin resistance in overweight and obese. Int J Obes. 2007;31:1148-1154
37. Tarnopolsky M, Zimmer A, Paikin J, et al. Creatine monohydrate and conjugated linoleic acid improve strength and body composition following resistance exercise in older adults. PloS One. 2007;2:e991. doi: 10.1371/journal.pone.0000991
38. Thrush AB, Chabowski A, Heigenhauser GJ, et al. Conjugated linoleic acid increases skeletal muscle ceramide content and decreases insulin sensitivity in overweight, non-diabetic humans. Appl Physiol Nutr Metabol 2007;32:372-382
39. Watras AC, Buchholz AC, Close RN, et al. The role of conjugated linoleic acid in reducing body fat and preventing holiday weight gain. Int J Obes. 2007;31:481-487
40. Colakoglu S, Colakoglu M, Taneli F, et al. Cumulative effects of conjugated linoleic acid and exercise on endurance development, body composition, serum leptin and insulin levels. J Sports Med Phys Fitness. 2006;46:570-577
41. Naumann E, Carpentier YA, Saebo A, et al. Cis-9, trans-11 and trans-10, cis-12 conjugated linoleic acid (CLA) do not affect the plasma lipoprotein profile in moderately overweight subjects with LDL phenotype B. Atherosclerosis. 2006;188:167-174
42. Tricon S, Burdge GC, Jones EL, et al. Effects of dairy products naturally enriched with cis-9, trans-11 conjugated linoleic acid on the blood lipid profile in healthy middle-aged men. Am J Clin Nutr. 2006;83:744-753
43. Gaullier JM, Halse J, Hoye K, et al. Supplementation with conjugated linoleic acid for 24 months is well tolerated by and reduces body fat mass in healthy, overweight humans. J Nutr. 2005;135:778-784
44. Eyjolfson V, Spriet LL, Dyck DJ. Conjugated linoleic acid improves insulin sensitivity in young, sedentary humans. Med Sci Sports Exercise. 2004;36:814-820
45. Gaullier JM, Halse J, Hoye K, et al. Conjugated linoleic acid supplementation for 1 year reduces body fat mass in healthy overweight humans. Am J Clin Nutr. 2004;79:1118-1125
46. Moloney F, Yeow TP, Mullen A, et al. Conjugated linoleic acid supplementation, insulin sensitivity, and lipoprotein metabolism in patients with type 2 diabetes mellitus. Am J Clin Nutr. 2004;80:887-895
47. Riserus U, Vessby B, Arnlov J, et al. Effects of cis-9, trans-11 conjugated linoleic acid supplementation on insulin sensitivity, lipid peroxidation, and proinflammatory markers in obese men. Am J Clin Nutr. 2004;80:279-283
48. Belury MA, Mahon A, Banni S. The conjugated linoleic acid (CLA) isomer, t10c12-CLA, is inversely associated with changes in body weight and serum leptin in subjects with type 2 diabetes mellitus. J Nutr. 2003;133:257S-260S
49. Noone EJ, Roche HM, Nugent AP, et al. The effect of dietary supplementation using isomeric blends of conjugated linoleic acid on lipid metabolism in healthy human subjects. Br J Nutr. 2002;88:243-251
50. Medina EA, Horn WF, Keim NL, et al. Conjugated linoleic acid supplementation in humans: effects on circulating leptin concentrations and appetite. Lipids. 2000;35:783-788
51. Aryaeian N, Shahram F, Djalali M, et al. Effect of conjugated linoleic acid, vitamin E and their combination on lipid profiles and blood pressure of Iranian adults with active rheumatoid arthritis. Vasc Health Risk Manag. 2008;4:1423-1432
52. Pfeuffer M, Fielitz K, Laue C, et al. CLA does not impair endothelial function and decreases body weight as compared with safflower oil in overweight and obese male subjects. J Am College Nutr. 2011;30:19-28
53. Chen SC, Lin YH, Huang HP, et al. Effect of conjugated linoleic acid supplementation on weight loss and body fat composition in a Chinese population. Nutrition. 2012;28:559-565
54. Riserus U, Vessby B, Arner P, et al. Supplementation with trans10cis12-conjugated linoleic acid induces hyperproinsulinaemia in obese men: close association with impaired insulin sensitivity. Diabetologia. 2004;47:1016-1019
55. Song HJ, Grant I, Rotondo D, et al. Effect of CLA supplementation on immune function in young healthy volunteers. Eur J Clin Nutr. 2005;59:508-517
56. Riserus U, Berglund L, Vessby B. Conjugated linoleic acid (CLA) reduced abdominal adipose tissue in obese middle-aged men with signs of the metabolic syndrome: a randomised controlled trial. Int J Obes Relat Metab Disord. 2001;25:1129-1135
57. Tardy AL, Lambert-Porcheron S, Malpuech-Brugere C, et al. Dairy and industrial sources of trans fat do not impair peripheral insulin sensitivity in overweight women. Am J Clin Nutr. 2009;90:88-94
58. Tholstrup T, RaffM, Basu S, et al. Effects of butter high in ruminant trans and monounsaturated fatty acids on lipoproteins, incorporation of fatty acids into lipid classes, plasma C-reactive protein, oxidative stress, hemostatic variables, and insulin in healthy young men. Am J Clin Nutr. 2006;83:237-243
59. Jacome-Sosa MM, Borthwick F, Mangat R, et al. Diets enriched in trans-11 vaccenic acid alleviate ectopic lipid accumulation in a rat model of NAFLD and metabolic syndrome. J Nutr Biochem. 2014;25:692-701
60. Wang Y, Jacome-Sosa MM, Ruth MR, et al. The intestinal bioavailability of vaccenic acid and activation of peroxisome proliferator-activated receptor-alpha and-gamma in a rodent model of dyslipidemia and the metabolic syndrome. Mol Nutr Food Res. 2012;56:1234-1246
61. Tardy AL, Giraudet C, Rousset P, et al. Effects of trans MUFA from dairy and industrial sources on muscle mitochondrial function and insulin sensitivity. J Lipid Res. 2008;49:1445-1455
62. Wang Y, Lu J, Ruth MR, et al. Trans-11 vaccenic acid dietary supplementation induces hypolipidemic effects in JCR:LA-cp rats. J Nutr. 2008;138:2117-2122
63. Moloney F, Toomey S, Noone E, et al. Antidiabetic effects of cis-9, trans-11-conjugated linoleic acid may be mediated via anti-inflammatory effects in white adipose tissue. Diabetes. 2007;56:574-582
64. Kelley DS, Vemuri M, Adkins Y, et al. Flaxseed oil prevents trans-10, cis-12-conjugated linoleic acid-induced insulin resistance in mice. Br J Nutr. 2009;101:701-708
65. Vemuri M, Kelley DS, Mackey BE, et al. Docosahexaenoic acid (DHA) but not eicosapentaenoic acid (EPA) prevents trans-10, cis-12 conjugated linoleic acid (CLA)-induced insulin resistance in mice. Metab Syndr Relat Disord. 2007;5:315-322
66. Halade GV, Rahman MM, Fernandes G. Differential effects of conjugated linoleic acid isomers in insulin-resistant female C57Bl/6J mice. J Nutr Biochem. 2010;21(4):332-337
67. Henriksen EJ, Teachey MK, Taylor ZC, et al. Isomer-specific actions of conjugated linoleic acid on muscle glucose transport in the obese Zucker rat. Am J Physiol Endocrinol Metab. 2003;285:E98-E105
68. Clement L, Poirier H, Niot I, et al. Dietary trans-10, cis-12 conjugated linoleic acid induces hyperinsulinemia and fatty liver in the mouse. J Lipid Res. 2002;43:1400-1409
69. Cao H, Gerhold K, Mayers JR, et al. Identification of a lipokine, a lipid hormone linking adipose tissue to systemic metabolism. Cell. 2008;134:933-944
70. Lehrke M, Lazar MA. The many faces of PPARgamma. Cell. 2005;123:993-999
71. Wang X, Gupta J, Kerslake M, et al. Trans-11 vaccenic acid improves insulin secretion in models of type 2 diabetes in vivo and in vitro. Mol Nutr Food Res. 2016;60:846-857
72. Alstrup KK, Brock B, Hermansen K. Long-Term exposure of INS-1 cells to cis and trans fatty acids influences insulin release and fatty acid oxidation differentially. Metabolism. 2004;53:1158-1165
73. Alstrup KK, Gregersen S, Jensen HM, et al. Differential effects of cis and trans fatty acids on insulin release from isolated mouse islets. Metabolism. 1999;48:22-29
74. Moya-Camarena SY, Van den Heuvel JP, Belury MA. Conjugated linoleic acid activates peroxisome proliferator-activated receptor alpha and beta subtypes but does not induce hepatic peroxisome proliferation in Sprague-Dawley rats. Biochim Biophys Acta. 1999;1436:331-342
75. Houseknecht KL, Vanden Heuvel JP, Moya-Camarena SY, et al. Dietary conjugated linoleic acid normalizes impaired glucose tolerance in the Zucker diabetic fatty fa/fa rat. Biochem Biophys Res Commun. 1998;244:678-682
76. Shepherd PR, Kahn BB. Glucose transporters and insulin action-implications for insulin resistance and diabetes mellitus. New Engl J Med. 1999;341:248-257
77. Poirier H, Rouault C, Clement L, et al. Hyperinsulinaemia triggered by dietary conjugated linoleic acid is associated with a decrease in leptin and adiponectin plasma levels and pancreatic beta cell hyperplasia in the mouse. Diabetologia. 2005;48:1059-1065
78. Hommelberg PP, Langen RC, Schols AM, et al. Trans fatty acid-induced NFkappaB activation does not induce insulin resistance in cultured murine skeletal muscle cells. Lipids. 2010;45:285-290
79. Mohankumar SK, Hanke D, Siemens L, et al. Dietary supplementation of trans-11-vaccenic acid reduces adipocyte size but neither aggravates nor attenuates obesity-mediated metabolic abnormalities in fa/fa Zucker rats. Br J Nutr. 2013;109:1628-1636
80. Ruth MR, Wang Y, Yu HM, et al. Vaccenic and elaidic acid modify plasma and splenocyte membrane phospholipids and mitogen-stimulated cytokine production in obese insulin resistant JCR: LA-cp rats. Nutrients. 2010;2:181-197
81. Herrera-Meza MS, Mendoza-Lopez MR, Garcia-Barradas O, et al. Dietary anhydrous milk fat naturally enriched with conjugated linoleic acid and vaccenic acid modify cardiovascular risk biomarkers in spontaneously hypertensive rats. Int J Food Sci Nutr. 2013;64:575-586
82. Iwata NG, Pham M, Rizzo NO, et al. Trans fatty acids induce vascular inflammation and reduce vascular nitric oxide production in endothelial cells. PloS One. 2011;6:e29600. doi: 10.1371/journal.pone.0029600
83. Reynolds CM, Loscher CE, Moloney AP, et al. Cis-9, trans-11-conjugated linoleic acid but not its precursor trans-vaccenic acid attenuate inflammatory markers in the human colonic epithelial cell line Caco-2. Br J Nutr. 2008;100:13-17
84. Jaudszus A, Jahreis G, Schlormann W, et al. Vaccenic acid-mediated reduction in cytokine production is independent of c9,t11-CLA in human peripheral blood mononuclear cells. Biochim Biophys Acta. 2012;1821:1316-1322
85. Bratkovic T, Glavan G, Strukelj B, et al. Exploiting microRNAs for cell engineering and therapy. Biotechnol Adv. 2012;30:753-765
86. Rajewsky N. microRNA target predictions in animals. Nat Genet. 2006;38:S8-S13
87. Katoh M. Cardio-miRNAs and onco-miRNAs: circulating miRNA-based diagnostics for non-cancerous and cancerous diseases. Front Cell Dev Biol. 2014;2:61
88. Lee HM, Nguyen DT, Lu LF. Progress and challenge of microRNA research in immunity. Front Genet. 2014;5:178
89. Poy MN, Eliasson L, Krutzfeldt J, et al. A pancreatic islet-specific microRNA regulates insulin secretion. Nature. 2004;432:226-230
90. Gauthier BR, Wollheim CB. MicroRNAs: 'ribo-regulators' of glucose homeostasis. Nat Med. 2006;12:36-38
91. Ciccacci C, Di Fusco D, Cacciotti L, et al. MicroRNA genetic variations: association with type 2 diabetes. Acta Diabetol. 2013;50:867-872
92. Sun X, Lin J, Zhang Y, et al. MicroRNA-181b improves glucose homeostasis and insulin sensitivity by regulating endothelial function in white adipose tissue. Circul Res. 2016;118:810-821
93. Marques-Rocha JL, Milagro FI, Mansego ML, et al. Expression of inflammationrelated miRNAs in white blood cells from subjects with metabolic syndrome after 8 weeks of following a Mediterranean diet-based weight loss program. Nutrition. 2016;32:48-55
94. Ortega FJ, Cardona-Alvarado MI, Mercader JM, et al. Circulating profiling reveals the effect of a polyunsaturated fatty acid-enriched diet on common microRNAs. J Nutr Biochem. 2015;26:1095-1101
95. Desgagne V, Guay SP, Guerin R, et al. Variations in HDL-carried miR-223 and miR-135a concentrations after consumption of dietary trans fat are associated with changes in blood lipid and inflammatory markers in healthy men-an exploratory study. Epigenetics. 2016;11:438-448
96. Vickers KC, Palmisano BT, Shoucri BM, et al. MicroRNAs are transported in plasma and delivered to recipient cells by high-density lipoproteins. Nat Cell Biol. 2011;13:423-433
97. Zampetaki A, Kiechl S, Drozdov I, et al. Plasma microRNA profiling reveals loss of endothelial miR-126 and other microRNAs in type 2 diabetes. Circulat Res. 2010;107:810-817
98. Lu H, Buchan RJ, Cook SA. MicroRNA-223 regulates Glut4 expression and cardiomyocyte glucose metabolism. Cardiovasc Res. 2010;86:410-420
99. Chuang TY, Wu HL, Chen CC, et al. MicroRNA-223 expression is upregulated in insulin resistant human adipose tissue. J Diabetes Res. 2015;2015:943659. doi: 10.1155/2015/943659
100. Ganguly R, LaVallee R, Maddaford TG, et al. Ruminant and industrial trans-fatty acid uptake in the heart. J Nutr Biochem. 2016;31:60-66
101. Taylor CG, Zahradka P. Dietary conjugated linoleic acid and insulin sensitivity and resistance in rodent models. Am J Clin Nutr. 2004;79:1164S-1168S
102. McCrorie TA, Keaveney EM, Wallace JM, et al. Human health effects of conjugated linoleic acid from milk and supplements. Nutr Res Rev. 2011;24:206-227
103. Tsuboyama-Kasaoka N, Takahashi M, Tanemura K, et al. Conjugated linoleic acid supplementation reduces adipose tissue by apoptosis and develops lipodystrophy in mice. Diabetes. 2000;49:1534-1542
104. Spanakis EK, Golden SH. Race/ethnic difference in diabetes and diabetic complications. Curr Diab Rep. 2013;13:814-823
105. Ali O. Genetics of type 2 diabetes. World J Diab. 2013;4:114-123
106. Diabetes Genetics Initiative of Broad Institute of Harvard and MIT, Lund University, Novartis Institutes of BioMedical Research, et al. Genome-wide association analysis identifies loci for type 2 diabetes and triglyceride levels. Science. 2007;316:1331-1336
107. Kato N. Insights into the genetic basis of type 2 diabetes. J Diab Invest. 2013;4:233-244
108. Huang T, Ley SH, Zheng Y, et al. Genetic susceptibility to diabetes and long-term improvement of insulin resistance and beta cell function during weight loss: the Preventing Overweight Using Novel Dietary Strategies (POUNDS LOST) trial. Am J Clin Nutr. 2016;104:198-204
109. International Diabetes Federation. IDF Diabetes Atlas. 7th ed. Brussels, Belgium: International Diabetes Federation; 2015
110. Weiss EP, Brandauer J, Kulaputana O, et al. FABP2 Ala54Thr genotype is associated with glucoregulatory function and lipid oxidation after a high-fat meal in sedentary nondiabetic men and women. Am J Clin Nutr. 2007;85:102-108
111. Almeida JC, Gross JL, Canani LH, et al. The Ala54Thr polymorphism of the FABP2 gene influences the postprandial fatty acids in patients with type 2 diabetes. J Clin Endocrinol Metabol. 2010;95:3909-3917
112. Kim Y, Kelly OJ, Ilich JZ. Synergism of alpha-linolenic acid, conjugated linoleic acid and calcium in decreasing adipocyte and increasing osteoblast cell growth. Lipids. 2013;48:787-802
113. Turner KM, Keogh JB, Clifton PM. Dairy consumption and insulin sensitivity: a systematic review of short-and long-term intervention studies. Nutr Metabol Cardiovasc Dis. 2015;25:3-8
114. Elwood PC, Pickering JE, Givens DI, et al. The consumption of milk and dairy foods and the incidence of vascular disease and diabetes: an overview of the evidence. Lipids. 2010;45:925-939