Parenteral nutrition-associated liver disease: The role of the gut microbiota

Nutrients

Volumn 9, Issue 9, 2017, Pages 1-19

  Cahova, Monika ^a   Bratova, Miriam ^a   Wohl, Petr ^a  

^a INSTITUTE FOR CLINICAL AND EXPERIMENTAL MEDICINE   (Czech Republic)

Author keywords

Bile acids; FXR signalling; Gut associated immune system; Intestinal permeability; Microbiota; Parenteral nutrition; PNALD; Pre probiotics

Indexed keywords

BILE ACID; CYTOKINE; ENDOTOXIN; FIBROBLAST GROWTH FACTOR RECEPTOR 4; INTERFERON; PROBIOTIC AGENT; TUMOR NECROSIS FACTOR;

ANIMAL MODEL; B LYMPHOCYTE; BACTERIAL TRANSLOCATION; CANDIDA ALBICANS; CELL DIFFERENTIATION; CHOLELITHIASIS; DYSBIOSIS; ENTERIC FEEDING; FIRMICUTES; GENE EXPRESSION; HUMAN; IMMUNE SYSTEM; INFLAMMATION; INTESTINE EPITHELIUM; INTESTINE FLORA; INTESTINE MUCOSA PERMEABILITY; INTESTINE TISSUE; KUPFFER CELL; LACTIC ACIDOSIS; LIVER DISEASE; LIVER INJURY; MACROPHAGE; NONHUMAN; NUTRITIONAL SUPPORT; PANETH CELL; PARENTERAL NUTRITION; PATHOGENESIS; PHENOTYPE; PIGLET; PRIMARY SCLEROSING CHOLANGITIS; PROTEOBACTERIA; REVIEW; SHORT BOWEL SYNDROME; TLR SIGNALING; UPREGULATION; ANIMAL; CYTOLOGY; INTESTINE; MICROBIOLOGY; TOXIC HEPATITIS;

ANIMALS; CHEMICAL AND DRUG INDUCED LIVER INJURY; GASTROINTESTINAL MICROBIOME; HUMANS; INTESTINES; PARENTERAL NUTRITION;

EID: 85029144121     PISSN: None     EISSN: 20726643     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.3390/nu9090987     Document Type: Review

References (125)

1. Mizock, B.A. Immunonutrition and critical illness: An update. Nutrition 2010, 26, 701-707.
2. Beath, S.V.; Kelly, D.A. Total Parenteral Nutrition-Induced Cholestasis: Prevention and Management. Clin. Liver Dis. 2016, 20, 159-176.
3. Drongowski, R.A.; Coran, A.G. An analysis of factors contributing to the development of total parenteral nutrition-induced cholestasis. J. Parenter. Enter. Nutr. 1989, 13, 586-589.
4. Luman, W.; Shaffer, J.L. Prevalence, outcome and associated factors of deranged liver function tests in patients on home parenteral nutrition. Clin. Nutr. 2002, 21, 337-343.
5. Bharadwaj, S.; Gohel, T.; Deen, O.J.; DeChicco, R.; Shatnawei, A. Fish oil-based lipid emulsion: Current updates on a promising novel therapy for the management of parenteral nutrition-associated liver disease. Gastroenterol. Rep. 2015, 3, 110-114.
6. Orso, G.; Mandato, C.; Veropalumbo, C.; Cecchi, N.; Garzi, A.; Vajro, P. Pediatric parenteral nutritionassociated liver disease and cholestasis: Novel advances in pathomechanisms-based prevention and treatment. Dig. Liver Dis. 2016, 48, 215-222.
7. Mateu de Antonio, J.; Florit-Sureda, M. Effects unrelated to anti-inflammation of lipid emulsions containing fish oil in parenteral nutrition for adult patients. Nutr. Hosp. 2017, 34, 193-203.
8. Burcelin, R.; Serino, M.; Chabo, C.; Garidou, L.; Pomie, C.; Courtney, M.; Amar, J.; Bouloumié, A. Metagenome and metabolism: The tissue microbiota hypothesis. Diabetes Obes. Metab. 2013, 15, 61-70.
9. Kverka, M.; Tlaskalova-Hogenova, H. Intestinal Microbiota: Facts and Fiction. Dig. Dis. 2017, 35, 139-147.
10. Hodin, C.M.; Visschers, R.G.; Rensen, S.S.; Boonen, B.; Olde Damink, S.W.; Lenaerts, K.; Buurman, W.A. Total parenteral nutrition induces a shift in the Firmicutes to Bacteroidetes ratio in association with Paneth cell activation in rats. J. Nutr. 2012, 142, 2141-2147.
11. Miyasaka, E.A.; Feng, Y.; Poroyko, V.; Falkowski, N.R.; Erb-Downward, J.; Gillilland, M.G.; Mason, K.L.; Huffnagle, G.B.; Teitelbaum, D.H. Total parenteral nutrition-associated lamina propria inflammation in mice is mediated by a MyD88-dependent mechanism. J. Immunol. 2013, 190, 6607-6615.
12. Heneghan, A.F.; Pierre, J.F.; Tandee, K.; Shanmuganayagam, D.; Wang, X.; Reed, J.D.; Steele, J.L.; Kudsk, K.A. Parenteral nutrition decreases paneth cell function and intestinal bactericidal activity while increasing susceptibility to bacterial enteroinvasion. J. Parenter. Enter. Nutr. 2014, 38, 817-824.
13. Lapthorne, S.; Pereira-Fantini, P.M.; Fouhy, F.; Wilson, G.; Thomas, S.L.; Dellios, N.L.; Scurr, M.; O’Sullivan, O.; Ross, R.P.; Stanton, C.; et al. Gut microbial diversity is reduced and is associated with colonic inflammation in a piglet model of short bowel syndrome. Gut Microbes 2013, 4, 212-221.
14. Harvey, R.B.; Andrews, K.; Droleskey, R.E.; Kansagra, K.V.; Stoll, B.; Burrin, D.G.; Sheffield, C.L.; Anderson, R.C.; Nisbet, D.J. Qualitative and quantitative comparison of gut bacterial colonization in enterally and parenterally fed neonatal pigs. Curr. Issues Intest. Microbiol. 2006, 7, 61-64.
15. Deplancke, B.; Vidal, O.; Ganessunker, D.; Donovan, S.M.; Mackie, R.I.; Gaskins, H.R. Selective growth of mucolytic bacteria including Clostridium perfringens in a neonatal piglet model of total parenteral nutrition. Am. J. Clin. Nutr. 2002, 76, 1117-1125.
16. Lavallee, C.M.; MacPherson, J.A.; Zhou, M.; Gao, Y.; Wizzard, P.R.; Wales, P.W.; Turner, J.M.; Willing, B.P. Lipid Emulsion Formulation of Parenteral Nutrition Affects Intestinal Microbiota and Host Responses in Neonatal Piglets. J. Parent. Enteral. Nutr. 2016.
17. Parm, U.; Metsvaht, T.; Ilmoja, M.L.; Lutsar, I. Gut colonization by aerobic microorganisms is associated with route and type of nutrition in premature neonates. Nutr. Res. 2015, 35, 496-503.
18. Ralls, M.W.; Miyasaka, E.; Teitelbaum, D.H. Intestinal microbial diversity and perioperative complications. J. Parenter. Enter. Nutr. 2014, 38, 392-399.
19. Joly, F.; Mayeur, C.; Bruneau, A.; Noordine, M.L.; Meylheuc, T.; Langella, P.; Messing, B.; Duée, P.H.; Cherbuy, C.; Thomas, M. Drastic changes in fecal and mucosa-associated microbiota in adult patients with short bowel syndrome. Biochimie 2010, 92, 753-761.
20. Dibaise, J.K.; Young, R.J.; Vanderhoof, J.A. Enteric microbial flora, bacterial overgrowth, and short-bowel syndrome. Clin. Gastroenterol. Hepatol. 2006, 4, 11-20.
21. Huang, Y.; Guo, F.; Li, Y.; Wang, J.; Li, J. Fecal microbiota signatures of adult patients with different types of short bowel syndrome. J. Gastroenterol. Hepatol. 2017.
22. Siggers, R.H.; Siggers, J.; Thymann, T.; Boye, M.; Sangild, P.T. Nutritional modulation of the gut microbiota and immune system in preterm neonates susceptible to necrotizing enterocolitis. J. Nutr. Biochem. 2011, 22, 511-521.
23. Wang, S.; Ng, L.H.; Chow, W.L.; Lee, Y.K. Infant intestinal Enterococcus faecalis down-regulates inflammatory responses in human intestinal cell lines. World J. Gastroenterol. 2008, 14, 1067-1076.
24. Messing, B.; Lémann, M.; Landais, P.; Gouttebel, M.C.; Gérard-Boncompain, M.; Saudin, F.; Vangossum, A.; Beau, P.; Guédon, C.; Barnoud, D.; et al. Prognosis of patients with nonmalignant chronic intestinal failure receiving long-term home parenteral nutrition. Gastroenterology 1995, 108, 1005-1010.
25. Mayeur, C.; Gillard, L.; Le Beyec, J.; Bado, A.; Joly, F.; Thomas, M. Extensive Intestinal Resection Triggers Behavioral Adaptation, Intestinal Remodeling and Microbiota Transition in Short Bowel Syndrome. Microorganisms 2016, 4, 1.
26. Duncan, S.H.; Louis, P.; Thomson, J.M.; Flint, H.J. The role of pH in determining the species composition of the human colonic microbiota. Environ. Microbiol. 2009, 11, 2112-2122.
27. Mayeur, C.; Gratadoux, J.J.; Bridonneau, C.; Chegdani, F.; Larroque, B.; Kapel, N.; Corcos, O.; Thomas, M.; Joly, F. Faecal D/L lactate ratio is a metabolic signature of microbiota imbalance in patients with short bowel syndrome. PLoS ONE 2013, 8, e54335.
28. Lilja, H.E.; Wefer, H.; Nystrom, N.; Finkel, Y.; Engstrand, L. Intestinal dysbiosis in children with short bowel syndrome is associated with impaired outcome. Microbiome 2015, 3, 18.
29. Belenguer, A.; Holtrop, G.; Duncan, S.H.; Anderson, S.E.; Calder, A.G.; Flint, H.J.; Lobley, G.E. Rates of production and utilization of lactate by microbial communities from the human colon. FEMS Microbiol. Ecol. 2011, 77, 107-119.
30. Bourriaud, C.; Robins, R.J.; Martin, L.; Kozlowski, F.; Tenailleau, E.; Cherbut, C.; Michel, C. Lactate is mainly fermented to butyrate by human intestinal microfloras but inter-individual variation is evident. J. Appl. Microbiol. 2005, 99, 201-212.
31. Sekirov, I.; Russell, S.L.; Antunes, L.C.; Finlay, B.B. Gut microbiota in health and disease. Physiol. Rev. 2010, 90, 859-904.
32. Abreu, M.T. Toll-like receptor signalling in the intestinal epithelium: How bacterial recognition shapes intestinal function. Nat. Rev. Immunol. 2010, 10, 131-144.
33. Mazmanian, S.K.; Liu, C.H.; Tzianabos, A.O.; Kasper, D.L. An immunomodulatory molecule of symbiotic bacteria directs maturation of the host immune system. Cell 2005, 122, 107-118.
34. Christensen, H.R.; Frokiaer, H.; Pestka, J.J. Lactobacilli differentially modulate expression of cytokines and maturation surface markers in murine dendritic cells. J. Immunol. 2002, 168, 171-178.
35. Ivanov, I.I.; de Llanos Frutos, R.; Manel, N.; Yoshinaga, K.; Rifkin, D.B.; Sartor, R.B.; Finlay, B.B.; Littman, D.R. Specific microbiota direct the differentiation of IL-17-producing T-helper cells in the mucosa of the small intestine. Cell Host Microbe 2008, 4, 337-349.
36. Beutler, B.; Rietschel, E.T. Innate immune sensing and its roots: The story of endotoxin. Nat. Rev. Immunol. 2003, 3, 169.
37. Kelsall, B.L.; Leon, F. Involvement of intestinal dendritic cells in oral tolerance, immunity to pathogens, and inflammatory bowel disease. Immunol. Rev. 2005, 206, 132-148.
38. Kelly, D.; Campbell, J.I.; King, T.P.; Grant, G.; Jansson, E.A.; Coutts, A.G.; Pettersson, S.; Conway, S. Commensal anaerobic gut bacteria attenuate inflammation by regulating nuclear-cytoplasmic shuttling of PPAR-gamma and RelA. Nat. Immunol. 2004, 5, 104.
39. Lee, J.; Mo, J.H.; Katakura, K.; Alkalay, I.; Rucker, A.N.; Liu, Y.T.; Hyun-Ku, L.; Shen, C.; Cojocaru, G.; Shenouda, S.; et al. Maintenance of colonic homeostasis by distinctive apical TLR9 signalling in intestinal epithelial cells. Nat. Cell Biol. 2006, 8, 1327.
40. Iwasaki, A.; Kelsall, B.L. Freshly isolated Peyer’s patch, but not spleen, dendritic cells produce interleukin 10 and induce the differentiation of T helper type 2 cells. J. Exp. Med. 1999, 190, 229-239.
41. Macpherson, A.J.; Uhr, T. Induction of protective IgA by intestinal dendritic cells carrying commensal bacteria. Science 2004, 303, 1662-1665.
42. Peterson, D.A.; McNulty, N.P.; Guruge, J.L.; Gordon, J.I. IgA response to symbiotic bacteria as a mediator of gut homeostasis. Cell Host Microbe 2007, 2, 328-339.
43. Suzuki, K.; Meek, B.; Doi, Y.; Muramatsu, M.; Chiba, T.; Honjo, T.; Fagarasan, S. Aberrant expansion of segmented filamentous bacteria in IgA-deficient gut. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA 2004, 101, 1981-1986.
44. Yanagibashi, T.; Hosono, A.; Oyama, A.; Tsuda, M.; Hachimura, S.; Takahashi, Y.; Itoh, K.; Hirayama, K.; Takahashi, K.; Kaminogawa, S. Bacteroides induce higher IgA production than Lactobacillus by increasing activation-induced cytidine deaminase expression in B cells in murine Peyer’s patches. Biosci. Biotechnol. Biochem. 2009, 73, 372-377.
45. Zipperer, A.; Konnerth, M.C.; Laux, C.; Berscheid, A.; Janek, D.; Weidenmaier, C.; Burian, M.; Schilling, N.A.; Slavetinsky, C.; Marschal, M.; et al. Human commensals producing a novel antibiotic impair pathogen colonization. Nature 2016, 535, 511-516.
46. Pierre, J.F. Gastrointestinal immune and microbiome changes during parenteral nutrition. Am. J. Physiol. Gastrointest. Liver Physiol. 2017, 312, G246-G256.
47. Coulombe, G.; Langlois, A.; De Palma, G.; Langlois, M.J.; McCarville, J.L.; Gagné-Sanfaçon, J.; Perreault, N.; Feng, G.S.; Bercik, P.; Boudreau, F.; et al. SHP-2 Phosphatase Prevents Colonic Inflammation by Controlling Secretory Cell Differentiation and Maintaining Host-Microbiota Homeostasis. J. Cell. Physiol. 2016, 231, 2529-2540.
48. Everard, A.; Geurts, L.; Caesar, R.; van Hul, M.; Matamoros, S.; Duparc, T.; Denis, R.G.; Cochez, P.; Pierard, F.; Castel, J.; et al. Intestinal epithelial MyD88 is a sensor switching host metabolism towards obesity according to nutritional status. Nat. Commun. 2014, 5, 5648.
49. Dheer, R.; Santaolalla, R.; Davies, J.M.; Lang, J.K.; Phillips, M.C.; Pastorini, C.; Vazquez-Pertejo, M.T.; Abreu, M.T. Intestinal Epithelial Toll-Like Receptor 4 Signalling Affects Epithelial Function and Colonic Microbiota and Promotes a Risk for Transmissible Colitis. Infect. Immun. 2016, 84, 798-810.
50. Frantz, A.L.; Rogier, E.W.; Weber, C.R.; Shen, L.; Cohen, D.A.; Fenton, L.A.; Bruno, M.E.C.; Kaetzel, C.S. Targeted deletion of MyD88 in intestinal epithelial cells results in compromised antibacterial immunity associated with downregulation of polymeric immunoglobulin receptor, mucin-2, and antibacterial peptides. Mucosal Immunol. 2012, 5, 501.
51. Anitha, M.; Vijay-Kumar, M.; Sitaraman, S.V.; Gewirtz, A.T.; Srinivasan, S. Gut microbial products regulate murine gastrointestinal motility via Toll-like receptor 4 signalling. Gastroenterology 2012, 143, 1006-1016.
52. Cheesman, S.E.; Neal, J.T.; Mittge, E.; Seredick, B.M.; Guillemin, K. Epithelial cell proliferation in the developing zebrafish intestine is regulated by the Wnt pathway and microbial signalling via Myd88. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA 2011, 108, 4570-4577.
53. Cerovic, V.; Bain, C.C.; Mowat, A.M.; Milling, S.W. Intestinal macrophages and dendritic cells: What’s the difference? Trends Immunol. 2014, 35, 270-277.
54. Bain, C.C.; Bravo-Blas, A.; Scott, C.L.; Perdiguero, E.G.; Geissmann, F.; Henri, S.; Malissen, B.; Osborne, L.C.; Artis, D.; Mowat, A.M. Constant replenishment from circulating monocytes maintains the macrophage pool in the intestine of adult mice. Nat. Immunol. 2014, 15, 929-937.
55. Smith, P.D.; Smythies, L.E.; Shen, R.; Greenwell-Wild, T.; Gliozzi, M.; Wahl, S.M. Intestinal macrophages and response to microbial encroachment. Mucosal Immunol. 2011, 4, 31-42.
56. Denning, T.L.; Norris, B.A.; Medina-Contreras, O.; Manicassamy, S.; Geem, D.; Madan, R.; Karp, C.L.; Pulendran, B. Functional specializations of intestinal dendritic cell and macrophage subsets that control Th17 and regulatory T cell responses are dependent on the T cell/APC ratio, source of mouse strain, and regional localization. J. Immunol. 2011, 187, 733-747.
57. Rivollier, A.; He, J.; Kole, A.; Valatas, V.; Kelsall, B.L. Inflammation switches the differentiation program of Ly6Chi monocytes from antiinflammatory macrophages to inflammatory dendritic cells in the colon. J. Exp. Med. 2012, 209, 139-155.
58. Schulz, C.; Perdiguero, E.G.; Chorro, L.; Szabo-Rogers, H.; Cagnard, N.; Kierdorf, K.; Prinz, M.; Wu, B.; Jacobsen, S.E.W.; Pollard, J.W.; et al. A lineage of myeloid cells independent of Myb and hematopoietic stem cells. Science 2012, 336, 86-90.
59. Hashimoto, D.; Chow, A.; Noizat, C.; Teo, P.; Beasley, M.B.; Leboeuf, M.; Becker, C.D.; See, P.; Price, J.; Lucas, D.; et al. Tissue-resident macrophages self-maintain locally throughout adult life with minimal contribution from circulating monocytes. Immunity 2013, 38, 792-804.
60. Ueda, Y.; Kayama, H.; Jeon, S.G.; Kusu, T.; Isaka, Y.; Rakugi, H.; Yamamoto, M.; Takeda, K. Commensal microbiota induce LPS hyporesponsiveness in colonic macrophages via the production of IL-10. Int. Immunol. 2010, 22, 953-962.
61. Hayashi, A.; Sato, T.; Kamada, N.; Mikami, Y.; Matsuoka, K.; Hisamatsu, T.; Hibi, T.; Roers, A.; Yagita, H.; Ohteki, T.; et al. A single strain of Clostridium butyricum induces intestinal IL-10-producing macrophages to suppress acute experimental colitis in mice. Cell Host Microbe 2013, 13, 711-722.
62. Ochi, T.; Feng, Y.; Kitamoto, S.; Nagao-Kitamoto, H.; Kuffa, P.; Atarashi, K.; Honda, K.; Teitelbaum, D.H.; Kamada, N. Diet-dependent, microbiota-independent regulation of IL-10-producing lamina propria macrophages in the small intestine. Sci. Rep. 2016, 6, 27634.
63. Bevins, C.L. Paneth cell defensins: key effector molecules of innate immunity. Biochem. Soc. Trans. 2006, 34, 263-266.
64. Porter, E.M.; Bevins, C.L.; Ghosh, D.; Ganz, T. The multifaceted Paneth cell. Cell Mol. Life Sci. 2002, 59, 156-170.
65. Ouellette, A.J. Defensin-mediated innate immunity in the small intestine. Best Pract. Res. Clin. Gastroenterol. 2004, 18, 405-419.
66. Vaishnava, S.; Behrendt, C.L.; Ismail, A.S.; Eckmann, L.; Hooper, L.V. Paneth cells directly sense gut commensals and maintain homeostasis at the intestinal host-microbial interface. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA 2008, 105, 20858-20863.
67. Omata, J.; Pierre, J.F.; Heneghan, A.F.; Tsao, F.H.; Sano, Y.; Jonker, M.A.; Kudsk, K.A. Parenteral nutrition suppresses the bactericidal response of the small intestine. Surgery 2013, 153, 17-24.
68. Kirkland, D.; Benson, A.; Mirpuri, J.; Pifer, R.; Hou, B.; DeFranco, A.L.; Yarovinsky, F. B cell-intrinsic MyD88 signalling prevents the lethal dissemination of commensal bacteria during colonic damage. Immunity 2012, 36, 228-238.
69. Teng, F.; Klinger, C.N.; Felix, K.M.; Bradley, C.P.; Wu, E.; Tran, N.L.; Umesaki, Y.; Wu, H.J.J. Gut Microbiota Drive Autoimmune Arthritis by Promoting Differentiation and Migration of Peyer’s Patch T Follicular Helper Cells. Immunity 2016, 44, 875-888.
70. Kim, M.; Qie, Y.; Park, J.; Kim, C.H. Gut Microbial Metabolites Fuel Host Antibody Responses. Cell Host Microbe 2016, 20, 202-214.
71. Kudoh, K.; Shimizu, J.; Wada, M.; Takita, T.; Kanke, Y.; Innami, S. Effect of indigestible saccharides on B lymphocyte response of intestinal mucosa and cecal fermentation in rats. J. Nutr. Sci. Vitaminol. 1998, 44, 103-112.
72. Bjorkhem, I. Mechanism of degradation of the steroid side chain in the formation of bile acids. J. Lipid Res. 1992, 33, 455-471.
73. Zhang, Y.; Limaye, P.B.; Renaud, H.J.; Klaassen, C.D. Effect of various antibiotics on modulation of intestinal microbiota and bile acid profile in mice. Toxicol. Appl. Pharmacol. 2014, 277, 138-145.
74. Chiang, J.Y. Bile acid regulation of gene expression: Roles of nuclear hormone receptors. Endocr. Rev. 2002, 23, 443-463.
75. Fan, M.; Wang, X.; Xu, G.; Yan, Q.; Huang, W. Bile acid signalling and liver regeneration. Biochim. Biophys. Acta 2015, 1849, 196-200.
76. Duboc, H.; Tache, Y.; Hofmann, A.F. The bile acid TGR5 membrane receptor: From basic research to clinical application. Dig. Liver Dis. 2014, 46, 302-312.
77. Li, T.; Chiang, J.Y. Bile acids as metabolic regulators. Curr. Opin. Gastroenterol. 2015, 31, 159-165.
78. Jones, M.L.; Martoni, C.J.; Ganopolsky, J.G.; Labbe, A.; Prakash, S. The human microbiome and bile acid metabolism: Dysbiosis, dysmetabolism, disease and intervention. Expert Opin. Biol. Ther. 2014, 14, 467-482.
79. Ridlon, J.M.; Kang, D.J.; Hylemon, P.B. Bile salt biotransformations by human intestinal bacteria. J. Lipid Res. 2006, 47, 241-259.
80. Goodwin, B.; Jones, S.A.; Price, R.R.; Watson, M.A.; McKee, D.D.; Moore, L.B.; Galardi, C.; Wilson, J.G.; Lewis, M.C.; Roth, M.E.; et al. A regulatory cascade of the nuclear receptors FXR, SHP-1, and LRH-1 represses bile acid biosynthesis. Mol. Cell 2000, 6, 517-526.
81. Holt, M.P.; Cheng, L.; Ju, C. Identification and characterization of infiltrating macrophages in acetaminopheninduced liver injury. J. Leukoc. Biol. 2008, 84, 1410-1421.
82. Miyata, M.; Takamatsu, Y.; Kuribayashi, H.; Yamazoe, Y. Administration of ampicillin elevates hepatic primary bile acid synthesis through suppression of ileal fibroblast growth factor 15 expression. J. Pharmacol. Exp. Ther. 2009, 331, 1079-1085.
83. Pereira-Fantini, P.M.; Lapthorne, S.; Joyce, S.A.; Dellios, N.L.; Wilson, G.; Fouhy, F.; Thomas, S.L.; Scurr, M.; Hill, C.; Gahan, C.G.; et al. Altered FXR signalling is associated with bile acid dysmetabolism in short bowel syndrome-associated liver disease. J. Hepatol. 2014, 61, 1115-1125.
84. Nie, Y.F.; Hu, J.; Yan, X.H. Cross-talk between bile acids and intestinal microbiota in host metabolism and health. J. Zhejiang Univ. Sci. B 2015, 16, 436-446. (In Chinese)
85. Islam, K.S.; Fukiya, S.; Hagio, M.; Fujii, N.; Ishizuka, S.; Ooka, T.; Ogura, Y.; Hayashi, T.; Yokota, A. Bile acid is a host factor that regulates the composition of the cecal microbiota in rats. Gastroenterology 2011, 141, 1773-1781.
86. Cremers, C.M.; Knoefler, D.; Vitvitsky, V.; Banerjee, R.; Jakob, U. Bile salts act as effective protein-unfolding agents and instigators of disulfide stress in vivo. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA 2014, 111, E1610-E1619.
87. Begley, M.; Gahan, C.G.; Hill, C. The interaction between bacteria and bile. FEMS Microbiol. Rev. 2005, 29, 625-651.
88. Inagaki, T.; Moschetta, A.; Lee, Y.K.; Peng, L.; Zhao, G.; Downes, M.; Ruth, T.Y.; Shelton, J.M.; Richardson, J.A.; Repa, J.J.; et al. Regulation of antibacterial defense in the small intestine by the nuclear bile acid receptor. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA 2006, 103, 3920-3925.
89. D’Aldebert, E.; Mve, M.J.B.B.; Mergey, M.; Wendum, D.; Firrincieli, D.; Coilly, A.; Fouassier, L.; Corpechot, C.; Poupon, R.; Housset, C.; et al. Bile salts control the antimicrobial peptide cathelicidin through nuclear receptors in the human biliary epithelium. Gastroenterology 2009, 136, 1435-1443.
90. Ohkohchi, N.; Andoh, T.; Izumi, U.; Igarashi, Y.; Ohi, R. Disorder of bile acid metabolism in children with short bowel syndrome. J. Gastroenterol. 1997, 32, 472-479.
91. Pereira-Fantini, P.M.; Bines, J.E.; Lapthorne, S.; Fouhy, F.; Scurr, M.; Cotter, P.D.; Gahan, C.G.; Joyce, S.A. Short bowel syndrome (SBS)-associated alterations within the gut-liver axis evolve early and persist long-term in the piglet model of short bowel syndrome. J. Gastroenterol. Hepatol. 2016, 31, 1946-1955.
92. Sun, X.; Yang, H.; Nose, K.; Nose, S.; Haxhija, E.Q.; Koga, H.; Feng, Y.; Teitelbaum, D.H. Decline in intestinal mucosal IL-10 expression and decreased intestinal barrier function in a mouse model of total parenteral nutrition. Am. J. Physiol. Gastrointest. Liver Physiol. 2008, 294, G139-G147.
93. Deitch, E.A. Gut-origin sepsis: Evolution of a concept. Surgeon 2012, 10, 350-356.
94. Alverdy, J.C.; Aoys, E.; Moss, G.S. Total parenteral nutrition promotes bacterial translocation from the gut. Surgery 1988, 104, 185-190.
95. Demehri, F.R.; Barrett, M.; Ralls, M.W.; Miyasaka, E.A.; Feng, Y.; Teitelbaum, D.H. Intestinal epithelial cell apoptosis and loss of barrier function in the setting of altered microbiota with enteral nutrient deprivation. Front. Cell. Infect. Microbiol. 2013, 3, 105.
96. Feng, Y.; Sun, X.; Yang, H.; Teitelbaum, D.H. Dissociation of E-cadherin and beta-catenin in a mouse model of total parenteral nutrition: A mechanism for the loss of epithelial cell proliferation and villus atrophy. J. Physiol. 2009, 587, 641-654.
97. Wildhaber, B.E.; Yang, H.; Spencer, A.U.; Drongowski, R.A.; Teitelbaum, D.H. Lack of enteral nutrition—Effects on the intestinal immune system. J. Surg. Res. 2005, 123, 8-16.
98. Demehri, F.R.; Barrett, M.; Teitelbaum, D.H. Changes to the Intestinal Microbiome With Parenteral Nutrition: Review of a Murine Model and Potential Clinical Implications. Nutr. Clin. Pract. 2015, 30, 798-806.
99. Feng, Y.; Teitelbaum, D.H. Tumour necrosis factor—Induced loss of intestinal barrier function requires TNFR1 and TNFR2 signalling in a mouse model of total parenteral nutrition. J. Physiol. 2013, 591, 3709-3723.
100. Yang, H.; Fan, Y.; Teitelbaum, D.H. Intraepithelial lymphocyte-derived interferon-gamma evokes enterocyte apoptosis with parenteral nutrition in mice. Am. J. Physiol. Gastrointest. Liver Physiol. 2003, 284, G629-G637.
101. Clayburgh, D.R.; Shen, L.; Turner, J.R. A porous defense: The leaky epithelial barrier in intestinal disease. Lab. Investig. 2004, 84, 282-291.
102. Yang, H.; Kiristioglu, I.; Fan, Y.; Forbush, B.; Bishop, D.K.; Antony, P.A.; Zhou, H.; Teitelbaum, D.H. Interferon-gamma expression by intraepithelial lymphocytes results in a loss of epithelial barrier function in a mouse model of total parenteral nutrition. Ann. Surg. 2002, 236, 226-234.
103. Mitic, L.L.; Anderson, J.M. Molecular architecture of tight junctions. Annu. Rev. Physiol. 1998, 60, 121-142.
104. Prasad, S.; Mingrino, R.; Kaukinen, K.; Hayes, K.L.; Powell, R.M.; MacDonald, T.T.; Collins, J.E. Inflammatory processes have differential effects on claudins 2, 3 and 4 in colonic epithelial cells. Lab. Invest. 2005, 85, 1139-1162.
105. Fanning, A.S.; Jameson, B.J.; Jesaitis, L.A.; Anderson, J.M. The tight junction protein ZO-1 establishes a link between the transmembrane protein occludin and the actin cytoskeleton. J. Biol. Chem. 1998, 273, 29745-29753.
106. Chen, C.; Wang, P.; Su, Q.; Wang, S.; Wang, F. Myosin light chain kinase mediates intestinal barrier disruption following burn injury. PLoS ONE 2012, 7, e34946.
107. Sinclair, J.L.; Alexander, M. Role of resistance to starvation in bacterial survival in sewage and lake water. Appl. Environ. Microbiol. 1984, 48, 410-415.
108. Costello, E.K.; Gordon, J.I.; Secor, S.M.; Knight, R. Postprandial remodeling of the gut microbiota in Burmese pythons. ISME J. 2010, 4, 1375-1385.
109. Gionchetti, P.; Rizzello, F.; Helwig, U.; Venturi, A.; Lammers, K.M.; Brigidi, P.; Vitali, B.; Poggioli, G.; Miglioli, M.; Campieri, M. Prophylaxis of pouchitis onset with probiotic therapy: A double-blind, placebo-controlled trial. Gastroenterology 2003, 124, 1202-1209.
110. Mimura, T.; Rizzello, F.; Helwig, U.; Poggioli, G.; Schreiber, S.; Talbot, I.C.; Nicholls, R.J.; Gionchetti, P.; Campieri, M.; Kamm, M.A. Once daily high dose probiotic therapy (VSL#3) for maintaining remission in recurrent or refractory pouchitis. Gut 2004, 53, 108-114.
111. Szajewska, H.; Ruszczynski, M.; Radzikowski, A. Probiotics in the prevention of antibiotic-associated diarrhea in children: A meta-analysis of randomized controlled trials. J. Pediatr. 2006, 149, 367-372.
112. Barclay, A.R.; Stenson, B.; Simpson, J.H.; Weaver, L.T.; Wilson, D.C. Probiotics for necrotizing enterocolitis: A systematic review. J. Pediatr. Gastroenterol. Nutr. 2007, 45, 569-576.
113. Sentongo, T.A.; Cohran, V.; Korff, S.; Sullivan, C.; Iyer, K.; Zheng, X. Intestinal permeability and effects of Lactobacillus rhamnosus therapy in children with short bowel syndrome. J. Pediatr. Gastroenterol. Nutr. 2008, 46, 41-47.
114. Uchida, K.; Takahashi, T.; Inoue, M.; Morotomi, M.; Otake, K.; Nakazawa, M.; Tsukamoto, Y.; Miki, C.; Kusunoki, M. Immunonutritional effects during synbiotics therapy in pediatric patients with short bowel syndrome. Pediatr. Surg. Int. 2007, 23, 243-248.
115. Reddy, V.S.; Patole, S.K.; Rao, S. Role of probiotics in short bowel syndrome in infants and children—A systematic review. Nutrients 2013, 5, 679-699.
116. Bartholome, A.L.; Albin, D.M.; Baker, D.H.; Holst, J.J.; Tappenden, K.A. Supplementation of total parenteral nutrition with butyrate acutely increases structural aspects of intestinal adaptation after an 80% jejunoileal resection in neonatal piglets. J. Parenter. Enter. Nutr. 2004, 28, 210-222.
117. Murakoshi, S.; Fukatsu, K.; Omata, J.; Moriya, T.; Noguchi, M.; Saitoh, D.; Koyama, I. Effects of adding butyric acid to PN on gut-associated lymphoid tissue and mucosal immunoglobulin A levels. J. Parenter. Enter. Nutr. 2011, 35, 465-472.
118. Rolandelli, R.H.; Buckmire, M.A.; Bernstein, K.A. Intravenous butyrate and healing of colonic anastomoses in the rat. Dis. Colon Rectum 1997, 40, 67-70.
119. Stein, T.P.; Yoshida, S.; Schluter, M.D.; Drews, D.; Assimon, S.A.; Leskiw, M.J. Comparison of intravenous nutrients on gut mucosal proteins synthesis. J. Parenter. Enter. Nutr. 1994, 18, 447-452.
120. Koruda, M.J.; Rolandelli, R.H.; Bliss, D.Z.; Hastings, J.; Rombeau, J.L.; Settle, R.G. Parenteral nutrition supplemented with short-chain fatty acids: Effect on the small-bowel mucosa in normal rats. Am. J. Clin. Nutr. 1990, 51, 685-689.
121. Wang, P.; Wang, Y.; Lu, L.; Yan, W.; Tao, Y.; Zhou, K.; Jie, J.; Wei, C. Alterations in intestinal microbiota relate to intestinal failure-associated liver disease and central line infections. J. Pediatr. Surg. 2017, 52, 1318-1326.
122. De Minicis, S.; Rychlicki, C.; Agostinelli, L.; Saccomanno, S.; Candelaresi, C.; Trozzi, L.; Mingarelli, E.; Facinelli, B.; Magi, G.; Palmieri, C.; et al. Dysbiosis contributes to fibrogenesis in the course of chronic liver injury in mice. Hepatology 2014, 59, 1738-1749.
123. El Kasmi, K.C.; Anderson, A.L.; Devereaux, M.W.; Fillon, S.A.; Harris, J.K.; Lovell, M.A.; Finegold, M.J.; Sokol, R.J. Toll-like receptor 4-dependent Kupffer cell activation and liver injury in a novel mouse model of parenteral nutrition and intestinal injury. Hepatology 2012, 55, 1518-1528.
124. Harris, J.K.; El Kasmi, K.C.; Anderson, A.L.; Devereaux, M.W.; Fillon, S.A.; Robertson, C.E.; Wagner, B.D.; Stevens, M.J.; Pace, N.R.; Sokol, R.J. Specific microbiome changes in a mouse model of parenteral nutrition associated liver injury and intestinal inflammation. PLoS ONE 2014, 9, e110396.
125. Lee, W.S.; Sokol, R.J. Intestinal Microbiota, Lipids, and the Pathogenesis of Intestinal Failure-Associated Liver Disease. J. Pediatr. 2015, 167, 519-526.