Starch: Chemistry, microstructure, processing, and enzymatic degradation

Starch-Based Polymeric Materials and Nanocomposites: Chemistry, Processing, and Applications

Volumn , Issue , 2012, Pages 5-32

  Imam, Syed H ^a   Wood, Delilah F ^a   Abdelwahab, Mohamed A ^a,b,c   Chiou, Bor Sen ^a   Williams, Tina G ^a   Glenn, Gregory M ^a   Orts, William J ^a  

^a WESTERN REGIONAL RESEARCH CENTER   (United States)

^b UNIVERSITY OF PISA   (Italy)

^c TANTA UNIVERSITY   (Egypt)

Author keywords

[No Author keywords available]

Indexed keywords

COMMERCE; OILS AND FATS;

COMMERCIAL PROCESSING; CORN OIL; ENZYMATIC DEGRADATION; NATIVE STATE; NATURAL POLYSACCHARIDE; PLANT CELLS; USEFUL CHEMICALS;

STARCH;

EID: 85020928820     PISSN: None     EISSN: None     Source Type: Book    
DOI: 10.1201/b11848     Document Type: Chapter

References (160)

1. Aboubakar, Y.N. Njintang, J. Scher, and C.M.F. Mbofung. 2008. Physicochemical, thermal properties and microstructure of six varieties of taro (Colocasia esculenta L. Schott) flours and starches. Journal of Food Engineering 86(2): 294-305.
2. Agüeros, M., S. Espuelas, I. Esparza, P. Calleja, I. Peñuelas, G. Ponchel, and J.M. Irache. 2011. Cyclodextrinpoly(anhydride) nanoparticles as new vehicles for oral drug delivery. Expert Opinion on Drug Delivery 8(6): 721-734.
3. Aiyer, P.V. 2005. Amylases and their applications. African Journal of Biotechnology 4(13): 1525-1529.
4. Alsberg, C.L. 1938. Structure of the starch granule. Plant Physiology 13: 295-330.
5. Amy, Y.H.L. and R. Jörg. 2009. Physical aging and structural relaxation in polymer nanocomposites. Journal of Polymer Science, Part B: Polymer Physics 47(18): 1789-1798.
6. Avérous, L. and N. Boquillon. 2004. Biocomposites based on plasticized starch: Thermal and mechanical behaviours. Carbohydrate Polymers 56(2): 111-122.
7. Avérous, L. and C. Fringant. 2001. Association between plasticized starch and polyesters: Processing and performances of injected biodegradable systems. Polymer Engineering & Science 41(5): 727-734.
8. Ba, K., J. Destain, and P. Thonart. 2010. Hydrolysis of starch by sorghum malt for maltodextrin production. Biotechnology, Agronomy and Society and Environment 14(2):537.
9. Badenhuizen, N.P. 1937. Die Struktur des Stärkekorns. Protoplasma 28(1): 293-326.
10. Badenhuizen, N.P. 1956. The structure of the starch granule. Protoplasma 45(3): 315-326.
11. Baldwin, P.M., M.C. Davies, and C.D. Melia. 1997. Starch granule surface imaging using low-voltage scanning electron microscopy and atomic force microscopy. International Journal of Biological Macromolecules 21(1-2): 103-107.
12. Ball, S.G. and M.K. Morell. 2003. From bacterial glycogen to starch: Understanding the biogenesis of the plant starch granule. Annual Review of Plant Biology 54: 207-233.
13. Bangyekan, C., D. Aht-Ong, and K. Srikulkit. 2006. Preparation and properties evaluation of chitosan-coated cassava starch films. Carbohydrate Polymers 63(1): 61-71.
14. Baruch, D.W., L.D. Jenkins, H.N. Dengate, and P. Meredith. 1983. Nonlinear model of wheat starch granule distribution at several stages of development. Cereal Chemistry 60: 32-35.
15. Baruch, D.W., P. Meredith, L.D. Jenkins, and L.D. Simmons. 1979. Starch granules of developing wheat kernels. Cereal Chemistry 56: 554-558.
16. Bechtel, D.B. and J.D. Wilson. 2003. Amyloplast formation and starch granule development in hard red winter wheat. Cereal Chemistry 80(2): 175-183.
17. Bechtel, D.B., I. Zayas, L. Kaleikau, and Y. Pomeranz. 1990. Size-distribution of wheat starch granules during endosperm development. Cereal Chemistry 67: 59-63.
18. BeMiller, J.N. and R.L. Whistler. 2009. Starch: Chemistry and Technology. New York: Academic Press.
19. Benmoussa, M., B.R. Hamaker, C.P. Huang, D.M. Sherman, C.F. Weil, and J.N. BeMiller. 2010. Elucidation of maize endosperm starch granule channel proteins and evidence for plastoskeletal structures in maize endosperm amyloplasts. Journal of Cereal Science 52(1): 22-29.
20. Blazek, J. and L. Copeland. 2010. Amylolysis of wheat starches. I. Digestion kinetics of starches with varying functional properties. Journal of Cereal Science 51(3): 265-270.
21. Blazek, J. and E.P. Gilbert. 2010. Effect of enzymatic hydrolysis on native starch granule structure. Biomacromolecules 11(12): 3275-3289.
22. Brouillet-Fourmann, S., C. Carrot, C. Lacabanne, N. Mignard, and V. Samouillan. 2002. Evolution of interactions between water and native corn starch as a function of moisture content. Journal of Applied Polymer Science 86(11): 2860-2865.
23. Cha, J.Y., D.S. Chung, P.A. Seib, R.A. Flores, and M.A. Hanna. 2001. Physical properties of starch-based foams as affected by extrusion temperature and moisture content. Industrial Crops and Products 14(1): 23-30.
24. Chen, L., S.H. Gordon, and S.H. Imam. 2004. Starch graft poly(methyl acrylate) loose-fill foam: Preparation, properties and degradation. Biomacromolecules 5(1): 238-244.
25. Chen, Y., S. Huang, Z. Tang, X. Chen, and Z. Zhang. 2011a. Structural changes of cassava starch granules hydrolyzed by a mixture of α-amylase and glucoamylase. Carbohydrate Polymers 85(1): 272-275.
26. Chen, G. and M. Jiang. 2011. Cyclodextrin-based inclusion complexation bridging supramolecular chemistry and macromolecular self-assembly. Chemical Society Reviews 40(5): 2254-2266.
27. Chen, Y. and Y. Liu. 2010. Cyclodextrin-based bioactive supramolecular assemblies. Chemical Society Reviews 39(2): 495-505.
28. Chen, P., L. Yu, L. Chen, and X. Li. 2006. Morphology and microstructure of maize starches with different amylose/amylopectin content. Starch-Stärke 58(12): 611-615.
29. Chen, P., L. Yu, G.P. Simon, X. Liu, K. Dean, and L. Chen. 2011b. Internal structures and phase-transitions of starch granules during gelatinization. Carbohydrate Polymers 83(4): 1975-1983.
30. Chen, P., L. Yu, G. Simon, E. Petinakis, K. Dean, and L. Chen. 2009a. Morphologies and microstructures of cornstarches with different amylose-amylopectin ratios studied by confocal laser scanning microscope. Journal of Cereal Science 50(2): 241-247.
31. Chen, S., J. Zhang, and J. Su. 2009b. Effect of damp-heat aging on the properties of ethylene-vinyl acetate copolymer and ethylene-acrylic acid copolymer blends. Journal of Applied Polymer Science 114(5): 3110-3117.
32. Chernykh, E.V. and S.B. Brichkin. 2010. Supramolecular complexes based on cyclodextrins. High Energy Chemistry 44(2): 83-100.
33. Corti, A., S. Muniyasamy, M. Vitali, S.H. Imam, and E. Chiellini. 2010. Oxidation and biodegradation of polyethylene films containing pro-oxidant additives: Synergistic effects of sunlight exposure, thermal aging and fungal biodegradation. Polymer Degradation and Stability 95(6): 1106-1114.
34. Cyras, V.P., M.C.T. Zenklusen, and A. Vazquez. 2006. Relationship between structure and properties of modified potato starch biodegradable films. Journal of Applied Polymer Science 101(6): 4313-4319.
35. Da Róz, A.L., A.J.F. Carvalho, A. Gandini, and A.A.S. Curvelo. 2006. The effect of plasticizers on thermoplastic starch compositions obtained by melt processing. Carbohydrate Polymers 63(3): 417-424.
36. Davis, J.T., O. Okunola, and R. Quesada. 2010. Recent advances in the transmembrane transport of anions. Chemical Society Reviews 39(10): 3843-3862.
37. Dean, K., L. Yu, and D.Y. Wu. 2007. Preparation and characterization of melt-extruded thermoplastic starch/clay nanocomposites. Composites Science and Technology 67(3-4): 413-421.
38. Del Valle, E.M.M. 2004. Cyclodextrins and their uses: A review. Process Biochemistry 39(9): 1033-1046.
39. Delville, J., C. Joly, P. Dole, and C. Bliard. 2002. Solid state photocrosslinked starch based films: A new family of homogeneous modified starches. Carbohydrate Polymers 49(1): 71-81.
40. Dobreva, T., R. Benavente, J.M. Pereña, E. Pérez, M. Avella, M. García, and G. Bogoeva-Gaceva. 2010. Effect of different thermal treatments on the mechanical performance of poly(l-lactic acid) based eco-composites. Journal of Applied Polymer Science 116(2): 1088-1098.
41. Dole, P., L. Avérous, C. Joly, G. Della Valle, and C. Bliard. 2005. Evaluation of starch-PE multilayers: Processing and properties. Polymer Engineering and Science 45(2): 217-224.
42. Eksteen, J.M., A.J.C. Steyn, P. van Rensburg, R.R. Cordero Otero, and I.S. Pretorius. 2003. Cloning and characterization of a second α-amylase gene (LKA2) from Lipomyces kononenkoae IGC4052B and its expression in Saccharomyces cerevisiae. Yeast 20(1): 69-78.
43. Eliason, A.-C. 2004. Starch in Food: Structure, Function and Applications. Boca Raton, FL: CRC Press.
44. Esau, K. 1965. Plant Anatomy, 2nd edn. New York: John Wiley & Sons, Inc.
45. Etienne, S., N. Hazeg, E. Duval, A. Mermet, A. Wypych, and L. David. 2007. Physical aging and molecular mobility of amorphous polymers. Journal of Non-Crystalline Solids 353(41-43): 3871-3878.
46. Evers, A.D. 1969. Scanning electron microscopy of wheat starch I. Entire granules. Starch-Stärke 21(4): 96-99.
47. Fakirov, S. and D. Bhattacharyya. 2007. Handbook of Engineering Biopolymers: Homopolymers, Blends and Composites. Cincinnati, OH: Hanser Gardner.
48. Fang, J.M., P.A. Fowler, C. Escrig, R. Gonzalez, J.A. Costa, and L. Chamudis. 2005. Development of biodegradable laminate films derived from naturally occurring carbohydrate polymers. Carbohydrate Polymers 60(1): 39-42.
49. Fannon, J.E., R.J. Hauber, and J.N. BeMiller. 1992. Surface pores of starch granules. Cereal Chemistry 69: 284-288.
50. Fannon, J.E., J.M. Shull, and J.N. BeMiller. 1993. Interior channels of starch granules. Cereal Chemistry 70: 611-613.
51. Fishman, M.L., D.R. Coffin, R.P. Konstance, and C.I. Onwulata. 2000. Extrusion of pectin/starch blends plasticized with glycerol. Carbohydrate Polymers 41(4): 317-325.
52. Fishman, M.L., D.R. Coffin, C.I. Onwulata, and R.P. Konstance. 2004. Extrusion of pectin and glycerol with various combinations of orange albedo and starch. Carbohydrate Polymers 57(4): 401-413.
53. Fishman, M.L., D.R. Coffin, C.I. Onwulata, and J.L. Willett. 2006. Two stage extrusion of plasticized pectin/poly(vinyl alcohol) blends. Carbohydrate Polymers 65(4): 421-429.
54. Fitt, L.E. and E.M. Snyder. 1984. Photomicrographs of starches. In Starch: Chemistry and Technology, 2nd edn., R.L. Whistler, J.N. Bemiller, and E.F. Paschall (eds.). San Francisco, CA: Academic Press, Inc.
55. Galicia-García, T., F. Martínez-Bustos, O. Jiménez-Arevalo, A.B. Martínez, R. Ibarra-Gómez, M. Gaytán-Martínez, and M. Mendoza-Duarte. 2011. Thermal and microstructural characterization of biodegradable films prepared by extrusion-calendering process. Carbohydrate Polymers 83(2): 354-361.
56. Gallant, D.J., B. Bouchet, and P.M. Baldwin. 1997. Microscopy of starch: Evidence of a new level of granule organization. Carbohydrate Polymers 32(3-4): 177-191.
57. Gallant, D.J., B. Bouchet, A. Buléon, and S. Pérez. 1992. Physical characteristics of starch granules and susceptibility to enzymatic degradation. European Journal of Clinical Nutrition 46(Suppl 2):S3-S16.
58. Gallant, D., A. Derrien, A. Aumaitre, and A. Guilbot. 1973. Dégradation in vitro de l’amidon par le suc pancréatique. Etude par microscopie électronique à transmission et à balayage. Starch-Stärke 25(2): 56-64.
59. Gallant, D. and A. Guilbot. 1971. Artefacts au cours de la préparation de coupes de grains d’amidon. Etude par microscopie photonique et électronique. Starch-Stärke 23(7): 244-250.
60. Glenn, G.M., A.K. Klamczynski, K.M. Holtman, J. Shey, B.S. Chiou, J. Berrios, D. Wood, W.J. Orts, and S.H. Imam. 2007. Heat expanded starch-based compositions. Journal of Agricultural and Food Chemistry 55(10): 3936-3943.
61. Glenn, G.M. and W.J. Orts. 2001. Properties of starch-based foam formed by compression/explosion processing. Industrial Crops and Products 13(2): 135-143.
62. Grassia, L. and A. D’Amore. 2009. On the interplay between viscoelasticity and structural relaxation in glassy amorphous polymers. Journal of Polymer Science, Part B: Polymer Physics 47(7): 724-739.
63. Griffin, G.J.L. 1973. Biodegradable fillers in thermoplastics. ACS Organic Coatings and Plastics Chemistry Division Preprints 33(2 Meet):88-96.
64. Guan, J., K.M. Eskridge, and M.A. Hanna. 2005. Acetylated starch-polylactic acid loose-fill packaging materials. Industrial Crops and Products 22(2): 109-123.
65. Guan, J., Q. Fang, and M.A. Hanna. 2004. Macrostructural characteristics of starch acetate extruded with natural fibers. Transactions of the American Society of Agricultural Engineers 47(1): 205-212.
66. Hall, D.M. and J.G. Sayre. 1970. Internal architecture of potato and canna starch part I: Crushing studies. Textile Research Journal 40(2): 147-157.
67. Houghton-Larsen, J. and P.A. Pedersen. 2003. Cloning and characterisation of a glucoamylase gene (GlaM) from the dimorphic zygomycete Mucor circinelloides. Applied Microbiology and Biotechnology 62(2-3): 210-217.
68. Hu, J., Z. Tao, and S. Cao. 2009. Unique structure and property of cyclodextrins and their application in transdermal drug delivery. Methods and Findings in Experimental and Clinical Pharmacology 31(7): 449-456.
69. Huang, M., J. Yu, and X. Ma. 2005. Ethanolamine as a novel plasticiser for thermoplastic starch. Polymer Degradation and Stability 90(3): 501-507.
70. Huber, K.C. and J.N. Bemiller. 1997. Visualization of channels and cavities of corn and sorghum starch granules. Cereal Chemistry 74(5): 537-541.
71. Hurkman, W.J. and D.F. Wood. 2011. High temperature during grain fill alters the morphology of protein and starch deposits in the starchy endosperm cells of developing wheat (Triticum aestivum L.) grain. Journal of Agricultural and Food Chemistry 59(9): 4938-4946.
72. Ibáñez, A.M., D.F. Wood, W.H. Yokoyama, I.M. Park, M.A. Tinoco, C.A. Hudson, K.S. Mckenzie, and C.F. Shoemaker. 2007. Viscoelastic properties of waxy and nonwaxy rice flours, their fat and protein-free starch, and the microstructure of their cooked kernels. Journal of Agricultural and Food Chemistry 55: 6761-6771.
73. Ilo, S., Y. Liu, and E. Berghofer. 1999. Extrusion cooking of rice flour and amaranth blends. LWT-Food Science and Technology 32(2): 79-88.
74. Imam, S.H., A. Burgess-Cassler, G.L. Cote, S.H. Gordon, and F.L. Baker. 1991. A study of cornstarch granule digestion by an unusually high molecular weight α-amylase secreted by Lactobacillus amylovorus. Current Microbiology 22(6): 365-370.
75. Imam, S.H., L. Chen, S.H. Gorden, R.L. Shogren, D. Weisleder, and R.V. Greene. 1998. Biodegradation of injection molded starch-poly(3-hydroxybutyrate-co-3-hydroxyvalerate) blends in a natural compost environment. Journal of Environmental Polymer Degradation 6(2): 91-98.
76. Imam, S.H., S.H. Gordon, R.L. Shogren, and R.V. Greene. 1995. Biodegradation of starch-poly (β-hydroxybutyrate-co-valerate) composites in municipal activated sludge. Journal of Environmental Polymer Degradation 3(4): 205-213.
77. Imam, S.H., S.H. Gordon, R.L. Shogren, T.R. Tosteson, N.S. Govind, and R.V. Greene. 1999. Degradation of starch-poly(β-hydroxybutyrate-Co-β-hydroxyvalerate) bioplastic in tropical coastal waters. Applied and Environmental Microbiology 65(2): 431-437.
78. Imam, S.H., S.H. Gordon, A.R. Thompson, R.E. Harry-O’kuru, and R.V. Greene. 1993. The use of CP/MAS 13C-NMR for evaluating starch degradation in injection molded starch-plastic composites. Biotechnology Techniques 7(11): 791-794.
79. Imam, S.H., J.M. Gould, S.H. Gordon, M.P. Kinney, A.M. Ramsey, and T.R. Tosteson. 1992. Fate of starchcontaining plastic films exposed in aquatic habitats. Current Microbiology 25(1): 1-8.
80. Imam, S.H. and R.E. Harry-O’Kuru. 1991. Adhesive interactions between amylolytic bacterium Lactobacillus amylovorus and insoluble cornstarch granules. Appl. Environ. Microbiol. 57: 1128-1133.
81. Imam, S.H. and W.J. Snell. 1988. The Chlamydomonas cell wall degrading enzyme, lysine, acts on two substrates within the framework of the wall. The Journal of Cell Biology 106: 2211-2221.
82. Jane, J.-L. 2009. Structural features of starch granules II. In Starch: Chemistry and Technology, R.L. Whistler and J.N. BeMiller (eds.). New York: Elsevier.
83. Jane, J., L. Shen, J. Chen, S. Lim, T. Kasemsuwan, and W.K. Nip. 1992. Physical and chemical studies of taro starches and flours. Cereal Chemistry 69: 528-535.
84. Janssen, L.P.B.M. and L. Moscicki. 2009. Thermoplastic Starch: Green Material for Various Industries. Weinheim, Germany: Wiley-VCH.
85. Jasberg, B.K., C.L. Swanson, R.L. Shogren, and W.M. Doane. 1992. Effect of moisture on injection molded starch-EAA-HDPE composites. Journal of Polymeric Material 9: 163-170.
86. Johnson, L.A. and J.B. May. 2003. Wet milling: The basis for corn biorefineries. In Corn: Chemistry and Technology, P.J. White and L.A. Johnson (eds.). St. Paul, MN: American Association of Cereal Chemists.
87. Jyothi, A.N. 2010. Starch graft copolymers: Novel applications in industry. Composite Interfaces 17(2-3): 165-174.
88. Kalichevsky, M.T., E.M. Jaroszkiewicz, and J.M.V. Blanshard. 1993. A study of the glass transition of amylopectin-sugar mixtures. Polymer 34(2): 346-358.
89. Kampeerapappun, P., D. Aht-ong, D. Pentrakoon, and K. Srikulkit. 2007. Preparation of cassava starch/montmorillonite composite film. Carbohydrate Polymers 67(2): 155-163.
90. Khanna, N.D., I. Kaur, and A. Kumar. 2011. Starch-grafted polypropylene: Synthesis and characterization. Journal of Applied Polymer Science 119(1): 602-612.
91. Kierkels, J.T.A., C.L. Dona, T.A. Tervoort, and L.E. Govaert. 2008. Kinetics of re-embrittlement of (anti) plasticized glassy polymers after mechanical rejuvenation. Journal of Polymer Science, Part B: Polymer Physics 46(2): 134-147.
92. Kim, Y., N.S. Mosier, R. Hendrickson, T. Ezeji, H. Blaschek, B. Dien, M. Cotta, B. Dale, and M.R. Ladisch. Composition of corn dry-grind ethanol by-products: DDGS, wet cake, and thin stillage. Bioresource Technology 99(12): 5165-5176.
93. Koenig, M.F. and S.J. Huang. 1995. Biodegradable blends and composites of polycaprolactone and starch derivatives. Polymer 36(9): 1877-1882.
94. Lamikanra, O., S.H. Imam, and D. Ukuku. 2005. Produce Degradation: Pathways and Prevention. Boca Raton, FL: Taylor & Francis.
95. Laza-Knoerr, A.L., R. Gref, and P. Couvreur. 2010. Cyclodextrins for drug delivery. Journal of Drug Targeting 18(9): 645-656.
96. Lee, J. and S. McCarthy. 2009. Biodegradable poly(lactic acid) blends with chemically modified polyhydroxyoctanoate through chain extension. Journal of Polymers and the Environment 17(4): 240-247.
97. Lee, J.S., K.D. Wittchen, C. Stahl, J. Strey, and F. Meinhardt. 2001. Cloning, expression, and carbon catabolite repression of the bamM gene encoding β-amylase of Bacillus megaterium DSM319. Applied Microbiology and Biotechnology 56(1-2): 205-211.
98. Lee, W.J., Y.N. Youn, Y.H. Yun, and S.D. Yoon. 2007. Physical properties of chemically modified starch(RS4)/PVA blend films-Part 1. Journal of Polymers and the Environment 15(1): 35-42.
99. Liu, H., F. Xie, L. Yu, L. Chen, and L. Li. 2009. Thermal processing of starch-based polymers. Progress in Polymer Science (Oxford) 34(12): 1348-1368.
100. Loftsson, T. and M.E. Brewster. 2010. Pharmaceutical applications of cyclodextrins: Basic science and product development. Journal of Pharmacy and Pharmacology 62(11): 1607-1621.
101. Long, Y. 2009. Biodegradable Polymer Blends and Composites from Renewable Resources. Hoboken, NJ: John Wiley & Sons, Inc.
102. Ma, U.V.L., J.D. Floros, and G.R. Ziegler. 2011. Effect of starch fractions on spherulite formation and microstructure. Carbohydrate Polymers 83(4): 1757-1765.
103. Mali, S., L.S. Sakanaka, F. Yamashita, and M.V.E. Grossmann. 2005. Water sorption and mechanical properties of cassava starch films and their relation to plasticizing effect. Carbohydrate Polymers 60(3): 283-289.
104. van de Manakker, F., T. Vermonden, C.F. van Nostrum, and W.E. Hennink. 2009. Cyclodextrin-based polymeric materials: Synthesis, properties, and pharmaceutical/biomedical applications. Biomacromolecules 10(12): 3157-3175.
105. Mani, R. and M. Bhattacharya. 1998. Properties of injection moulded starch/synthetic polymer blends-IV. Thermal and morphological properties. European Polymer Journal 34(10): 1477-1487.
106. Martin, O., E. Schwach, L. Avérous, and Y. Couturier. 2001. Properties of biodegradable multilayer films based on plasticized wheat starch. Starch-Stärke 53(8): 372-380.
107. Matzinos, P., V. Tserki, A. Kontoyiannis, and C. Panayiotou. 2002. Processing and characterization of starch/polycaprolactone products. Polymer Degradation and Stability 77(1): 17-24.
108. Meredith, P. 1981. Large and small starch granules in wheat-Are they really different? Starch-Stärke 33(2): 40-44.
109. Miladinov, V.D. and M.A. Hanna. 2001. Temperatures and ethanol effects on the properties of extruded modified starch. Industrial Crops and Products 13(1): 21-28.
110. Moad, G. 1999. Synthesis of polyolefin graft copolymers by reactive extrusion. Progress in Polymer Science (Oxford) 24(1): 81-142.
111. Mohanty, A.K., M. Misra, and L.T. Drzal. 2005. Natural Fibers, Biopolymers and Biocomposites. Boca Raton, FL: Taylor & Francis.
112. Morán, J.I., V.P. Cyras, A. Vázquez, and M.L. Foresti. 2011. Characterization of chemically modified potato starch films through enzymatic degradation. Journal of Polymers and the Environment 19(1): 217-224.
113. Moss, G.E. 1976. The microscopy of starch. In Examination and Analysis of Starch and Starch Products, J.A. Radley (ed.). London, U.K.: Applied Science Publishers Ltd.
114. Nabar, Y., R. Narayan, and M. Schindler. 2006. Twin-screw extrusion production and characterization of starch foam products for use in cushioning and insulation applications. Polymer Engineering and Science 46(4): 438-451.
115. Ohtani, T., T. Yoshino, T. Ushiki, S. Hagiwara, and T. Maekawa. 2000. Structure of rice starch granules in nanometre scale as revealed by atomic force microscopy. Journal of Electron Microscopy 49(3): 487-489.
116. Onteniente, J.-P., B. Abbès, and L.H. Safa. 2000. Fully biodegradable lubricated thermoplastic wheat starch: Mechanical and rheological properties of an injection grade. Starch-Stärke 52(4): 112-117.
117. Otero-Espinar, F.J., J.J. Torres-Labandeira, C. Alvarez-Lorenzo, and J. Blanco-Méndez. 2010. Cyclodextrins in drug delivery systems. Journal of Drug Delivery Science and Technology 20(4): 289-301.
118. Otey, F.H. and R.P. Westhoff. 1982. Biodegradable starch-based blown films. US Patent 4337181.
119. Otey, F.H., R.P. Westhoff, and C.R. Russell. 1977. Biodegradable films from starch and ethylene-acrylic acid copolymer. Industrial & Engineering Chemistry Product Research and Development 16(4): 305-308.
120. Parker, M.L., A.R. Kirby, and V.J. Morris. 2008. In situ imaging of pea starch in seeds. Food Biophysics 3(1): 66-76.
121. Paster, M., J.L. Pelligrino, and T.M. Carole. 2003. Industrial Bioproducts: Today and Tomorrow. Washington, DC: Department of Energy, Office of Energy Efficiency and Renewable Energy/Office of the Biomass Program.
122. Patil, J.S., D.V. Kadam, S.C. Marapur, and M.V. Kamalapur. 2010. Inclusion complex system; a novel technique to improve the solubility and bioavailability of poorly soluble drugs: A review. International Journal of Pharmaceutical Sciences Review and Research 2(2): 29-34.
123. Pérez, S., P. Baldwin, and D.J. Gallant. 2009. Structural features of starch granules I. In Starch: Chemistry and Technology, R.L. Whistler and J.N. BeMiller (eds.). New York: Elsevier.
124. Peters, D. 2006. Carbohydrates as fermentation raw materials. Kohlenhydrate als fermentationsrohstoff 78(3): 229-238.
125. Poutanen, K. and P. Forssell. 1996. Modification of starch properties with plasticizers. Trends in Polymer Science 4: 128-132.
126. Rahman, S., Z. Li, I. Batey, M.P. Cochrane, R. Appels, and M. Morell. 2000. Genetic alteration of starch functionality in wheat. Journal of Cereal Science 31(1): 91-110.
127. Rattanachomsri, U., S. Tanapongpipat, L. Eurwilaichitr, and V. Champreda. 2009. Simultaneous non-thermal saccharification of cassava pulp by multi-enzyme activity and ethanol fermentation by Candida tropicalis. Journal of Bioscience and Bioengineering 107(5): 488-493.
128. Rausch, K.D. and R.L. Belyea. 2006. The future of coproducts from corn processing. Applied Biochemistry and Biotechnology 128(1): 47-86.
129. Robyt, J.F. 1998. Essentials of Carbohydrate Chemistry. New York: Springer-Verlag.
130. Rodriguez-Gonzalez, F.J., B.A. Ramsay, and B.D. Favis. 2004. Rheological and thermal properties of thermoplastic starch with high glycerol content. Carbohydrate Polymers 58(2): 139-147.
131. Sasaki, Y. and K. Akiyoshi. 2010. Development of an artificial chaperone system based on cyclodextrin. Current Pharmaceutical Biotechnology 11(3): 300-305.
132. Shen, Y.D. and X.J. Lai. 2006. Structure and mechanical properties of polyethylene glycol modified poly (lactic acid)/thermoplastic starch blend films. Xiandai Huagong/Modern Chemical Industry 26(5):35-37+39.
133. Shogren, R.L., R.V. Greene, and Y.V. Wu. 1991. Complexes of starch polysaccharides and poly(ethylene coacrylic acid). Structure and stability in solution. Journal of Applied Polymer Science 42(6): 1701-1709.
134. Shogren, R.L., J.W. Lawton, and K.F. Tiefenbacher. 2002. Baked starch foams: Starch modifications and additives improve process parameters, structure and properties. Industrial Crops and Products 16(1): 69-79.
135. Shogren, R.I., A.R. Thompson, F.C. Felker, R.E. Harry-O’Kuru, S.H. Gordon, R.V. Greene, and J.M. Gould. 1992. Polymer compatibility and biodegradation of starch-poly(ethylene-co-acrylic acid)-polyethylene blends. Journal of Applied Polymer Science 44(11): 1971-1978.
136. Smith, A.M., S.C. Zeeman, and S.M. Smith. 2005. Starch degradation. Annual Review of Plant Biology 56: 73-97.
137. Stepto, R.F.T. 2003. The processing of starch as a thermoplastic. Macromolecular Symposia 201: 203-212.
138. Sun, H., P. Zhao, X. Ge, Y. Xia, Z. Hao, J. Liu, and M. Peng. 2010. Recent advances in microbial raw starch degrading enzymes. Applied Biochemistry and Biotechnology 160(4): 988-1003.
139. Svensson, B., K.S. Bak-Jensen, M.T. Jensen, J. Sauer, T.E. Gottschalk, and K.W. Rodenburg. 1999. Studies on structure, function, and protein engineering of starch-degrading enzymes. Journal of Applied Glycoscience 46(1): 49-63.
140. Swanson, C.L., R.L. Shogren, G.F. Fanta, and S.H. Imam. 1993. Starch-plastic materials-Preparation, physical properties, and biodegradability. Journal of Environmental Polymer Degradation 1(2): 155-166.
141. Thunwall, M., A. Boldizar, and M. Rigdahl. 2006. Compression molding and tensile properties of thermoplastic potato starch materials. Biomacromolecules 7(3): 981-986.
142. Thuwall, M., A. Boldizar, and M. Rigdahl. 2006. Extrusion processing of high amylose potato starch materials. Carbohydrate Polymers 65(4): 441-446.
143. Tsuji, H. and T. Tsuruno. 2010. Accelerated hydrolytic degradation of Poly(l-lactide)/Poly(d-lactide) stereocomplex up to late stage. Polymer Degradation and Stability 95(4): 477-484.
144. Van Soest, J.J.G., S.H.D. Hulleman, D. De Wit, and J.F.G. Vliegenthart. 1996. Changes in the mechanical properties of thermoplastic potato starch in relation with changes in B-type crystallinity. Carbohydrate Polymers 29(3): 225-232.
145. Vu Dang, H., C. Loisel, A. Desrumaux, and J.L. Doublier. 2009. Rheology and microstructure of cross-linked waxy maize starch/whey protein suspensions. Food Hydrocolloids 23(7): 1678-1686.
146. Walenta, E., H.P. Fink, P. Weigel, and J. Ganster. 2001a. Structure-property relationships in extruded starch, 1: Supermolecular structure of pea amylose and extruded pea amylose. Macromolecular Materials and Engineering 286(8): 456-461.
147. Walenta, E., H.P. Fink, P. Weigel, J. Ganster, and E. Schaaf. 2001b. Structure-property relationships of extruded starch, 2: Extrusion products from native starch. Macromolecular Materials and Engineering 286(8): 462-471.
148. Wang, L., R.L. Shogren, and C. Carriere. 2000. Preparation and properties of thermoplastic starch-polyester laminate sheets by coextrusion. Polymer Engineering and Science 40(2): 499-506.
149. Wellner, N., D.M.R. Georget, M.L. Parker, and V.J. Morris. 2011. In situ Raman microscopy of starch granule structures in wild type and ae mutant maize kernels. Starch-Stärke 63(3): 128-138.
150. Werpy, T. and G. Petersen. 2004. Top Value-Added Chemicals from Biomass, Vol 1. Results of Screening for Potential Candidates from Sugars and Synthesis Gas. Washington, DC: U.S. Department of Energy, Office of Biomass Program.
151. Whitaker, J.R. 1994. Principles of Enzymology for the Food Sciences, 2nd edn. New York: Marcel Dekker, Inc.
152. Wolf, B.W., L.L. Bauer, and G.C. Fahey, Jr. 1999. Effects of chemical modification on in vitro rate and extent of food starch digestion: An attempt to discover a slowly digested starch. Journal of Agricultural and Food Chemistry 47(10): 4178-4183.
153. Xanthos, M. 1992. Reactive Extrusion: Principles and Practice. New York: Hanser Publishers.
154. Xie, F., L. Yu, H. Liu, and L. Chen. 2006. Starch modification using reactive extrusion. Starch-Stärke 58(3-4): 131-139.
155. Xie, Y., D. Yu, W. Wan, X. Guo, and S. Li. 2007. Effects of heating, tensile, and high pressure treatments on aggregate structure of a low density polyethylene. Polymer-Plastics Technology and Engineering 46(4): 377-383.
156. Xu, Y.X., Y. Dzenis, and M.A. Hanna. 2005. Water solubility, thermal characteristics and biodegradability of extruded starch acetate foams. Industrial Crops and Products 21(3): 361-368.
157. Yamaguchi, M., K. Kainuma, and D. French. 1979. Electron microscopic observations of waxy maize starch. Journal of Ultrastructure Research 69(2): 249-261.
158. Yang, J.H., J.G. Yu, and X.F. Ma. 2006. Study on the properties of ethylenebisformamide and sorbitol plasticized corn starch (ESPTPS). Carbohydrate Polymers 66(1): 110-116.
159. Zhang, B. and Y.Y. Zhou. 2007. Development of initiators in graft copolymerization of acrylic monomers onto starch. Gaofenzi Cailiao Kexue Yu Gongcheng/Polymeric Materials Science and Engineering 23(2): 36-40.
160. Zobel, H.F. 1988. Starch crystal transformations and their industrial importance. Starch-Stärke 40(1): 1-7.