A psychology of the human brain–gut–microbiome axis

Social and Personality Psychology Compass

Volumn 11, Issue 4, 2017, Pages

  Allen, Andrew P ^a   Dinan, Timothy G ^a   Clarke, Gerard ^a   Cryan, John F ^a  

^a UNIVERSITY COLLEGE CORK   (Ireland)

Author keywords

brain gut microbiome axis; cognition; Microbiome; mood; stress

Indexed keywords

EID: 85017517664     PISSN: None     EISSN: 17519004     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1111/spc3.12309     Document Type: Article

References (185)

1. Adlerberth, I., & Wold, A. E. (2009). Establishment of the gut microbiota in Western infants. Acta Paediatrica, 98(2), 229–238.
2. Adlerberth, I., Lindberg, E., Åberg, N., Hesselmar, B., Saalman, R., Strannegård, I. L., & Wold, A. E. (2006). Reduced enterobacterial and increased staphylococcal colonization of the infantile bowel: An effect of hygienic lifestyle? Pediatric Research, 59(1), 96–101.
3. Akkasheh, G., Kashani-Poor, Z., Tajabadi-Ebrahimi, M., Jafari, P., Akbari, H., Taghizadeh, M., … Esmaillzadeh, A. (2016). Clinical and metabolic response to probiotic administration in patients with major depressive disorder: A randomized, double-blind, placebo-controlled trial. Nutrition, 32(3), 315–320.
4. Alcock, J., Maley, C. C., & Aktipis, C. (2014). Is eating behavior manipulated by the gastrointestinal microbiota? Evolutionary pressures and potential mechanisms. Bioessays, 36(10), 940–949.
5. Alivisatos, A. P., Blaser, M. J., Brodie, E. L., Chun, M., Dangl, J. L., Donohue, T. J., … Knight, R. (2015). A unified initiative to harness Earth's microbiomes. Science, 350(6260), 507–508.
6. Allen, A. P., & Smith, A. P. (2012). Effects of chewing gum and time-on-task on alertness and attention. Nutritional Neuroscience, 15(4), 176–185.
7. Allen, A. P., Kennedy, P. J., Cryan, J. F., Dinan, T. G., & Clarke, G. (2014). Biological and psychological markers of stress in humans: Focus on the Trier Social Stress Test. Neuroscience & Biobehavioral Reviews, 38, 94–124.
8. Allen, A. P., Kennedy, P. J., Dockray, S., Cryan, J. F., Dinan, T. G., & Clarke, G. (2017). The Trier Social Stress Test: Principles and practice. Neurobiology of Stress, 6, 113–126. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ynstr.2016.11.001
9. Allen, A. P., Curran, E. A., Duggan, Á., Cryan, J. F., Chorcoráin, A. N., Dinan, T. G., … Clarke, G. (2017). A systematic review of the psychobiological burden of informal caregiving for patients with dementia: Focus on cognitive and biological markers of chronic stress. Neuroscience & Biobehavioral Reviews, 73, 123–164.
10. Allen, A. P., Hutch, W., Borre, Y., Kennedy, P. J., Temko, A., Boylan, G., … Clarke, G. (2016). Bifidobacterium longum 1714 as a translational psychobiotic: Modulation of stress, electrophysiology and neurocognition in healthy volunteers. Translational Psychiatry, 6(11), e939.
11. Andersson, J. O., Doolittle, W. F., & Nesbø, C. L. (2001). Are there bugs in our genome? Science, 292(5523), 1848–1850.
12. Arentsen, T., Raith, H., Qian, Y., Forssberg, H., & Diaz-Heijtz, R. (2015). Host microbiota modulates development of social preference in mice. Microbial Ecology in Health and Disease, 26.
13. Bailey, M. T., Dowd, S. E., Galley, J. D., Hufnagle, A. R., Allen, R. G., & Lyte, M. (2011). Exposure to a social stressor alters the structure of the intestinal microbiota: implications for stressor-induced immunomodulation. Brain, Behavior, and Immunity, 25(3), 397–407.
14. Barrett, E., Ross, R. P., O'Toole, P. W., Fitzgerald, G. F., & Stanton, C. (2012). γ-Aminobutyric acid production by culturable bacteria from the human intestine. Journal of Applied Microbiology, 113(2), 411–417.
15. Barrett, L. (2015). Why brains are not computers, why behaviorism is not satanism, and why dolphins are not aquatic apes. The Behavior Analyst, 39(1), 9–23.
16. Benton, D., Williams, C., & Brown, A. (2007). Impact of consuming a milk drink containing a probiotic on mood and cognition. European Journal of Clinical Nutrition, 61(3), 355–361.
17. Bercik, P., Denou, E., Collins, J., Jackson, W., Lu, J., Jury, J., … Verdu, E. F. (2011). The intestinal microbiota affect central levels of brain-derived neurotropic factor and behavior in mice. Gastroenterology, 141(2), 599–609.
18. Beura, L. K., Hamilton, S. E., Bi, K., Schenkel, J. M., Odumade, O. A., Casey, K. A., … Sekaly, R. P. (2016). Normalizing the environment recapitulates adult human immune traits in laboratory mice. Nature, 532(7600), 512–516.
19. Bomba, A., Nemcova, R., Gancarcikova, S., Herich, R., Guba, P., & Mudronova, D. (2002). Improvement of the probiotic effect of micro-organisms by their combination with maltodextrins, fructo-oligosaccharides and polyunsaturated fatty acids. British Journal of Nutrition, 88(S1), S95–S99.
20. Bordenstein, S. R., & Theis, K. R. (2015). Host biology in light of the microbiome: Ten principles of holobionts and hologenomes. PLoS Biol, 13(8), e1002226.
21. Borghi, A. M., & Cimatti, F. (2010). Embodied cognition and beyond: Acting and sensing the body. Neuropsychologia, 48(3), 763–773.
22. Borre, Y. E., O'Keeffe, G. W., Clarke, G., Stanton, C., Dinan, T. G., & Cryan, J. F. (2014). Microbiota and neurodevelopmental windows: Implications for brain disorders. Trends in Molecular Medicine, 20(9), 509–518.
23. Bravo, J. A., Forsythe, P., Chew, M. V., Escaravage, E., Savignac, H. M., Dinan, T. G., … Cryan, J. F. (2011). Ingestion of Lactobacillus strain regulates emotional behavior and central GABA receptor expression in a mouse via the vagus nerve. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, 108(38), 16050–16055.
24. Buffington, S. A., Di Prisco, G. V., Auchtung, T. A., Ajami, N. J., Petrosino, J. F., & Costa-Mattioli, M. (2016). Microbial reconstitution reverses maternal diet-induced social and synaptic deficits in offspring. Cell, 165(7), 1762–1775.
25. Cabeza, R., & Nyberg, L. (2000). Imaging cognition II: An empirical review of 275 PET and fMRI studies. Journal of Cognitive Neuroscience, 12(1), 1–47.
26. Cantarel, B. L., Lombard, V., & Henrissat, B. (2012). Complex carbohydrate utilization by the healthy human microbiome. PloS one, 7(6), e28742.
27. Chung, Y. C., Jin, H. M., Cui, Y., Kim, D. S., Jung, J. M., Park, J. I., … Chae, S. W. (2014). Fermented milk of Lactobacillus helveticus IDCC3801 improves cognitive functioning during cognitive fatigue tests in healthy older adults. Journal of Functional Foods, 10, 465–474.
28. Claesson, M. J., Cusack, S., O'Sullivan, O., Greene-Diniz, R., de Weerd, H., Flannery, E., … Stanton, C. (2011). Composition, variability, and temporal stability of the intestinal microbiota of the elderly. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, 108(Supplement 1), 4586–4591.
29. Claesson, M. J., Jeffery, I. B., Conde, S., Power, S. E., O'Connor, E. M., Cusack, S., … Fitzgerald, G. F. (2012). Gut microbiota composition correlates with diet and health in the elderly. Nature, 488(7410), 178–184.
30. Clarke, G., Grenham, S., Scully, P., Fitzgerald, P., Moloney, R. D., Shanahan, F., … Cryan, J. F. (2013). The microbiome-gut-brain axis during early life regulates the hippocampal serotonergic system in a sex-dependent manner. Molecular Psychiatry, 18(6), 666–673.
31. Clarke, G., O'Mahony, S. M., Dinan, T. G., & Cryan, J. F. (2014). Priming for health: gut microbiota acquired in early life regulates physiology, brain and behaviour. Acta Paediatrica, 103(8), 812–819.
32. Clarke, G., Stilling, R. M., Kennedy, P. J., Stanton, C., Cryan, J. F., & Dinan, T. G. (2014). Minireview: Gut microbiota: the neglected endocrine organ. Molecular Endocrinology, 28(8), 1221–1238.
33. Conlon, M. A., & Bird, A. R. (2015). The impact of diet and lifestyle on gut microbiota and human health. Nutrients, 7(1), 17–44.
34. Craig, A. D. (2002). How do you feel? Interoception: The sense of the physiological condition of the body. Nature Reviews Neuroscience, 3(8), 655–666.
35. Craig, A. D. (2003). Interoception: The sense of the physiological condition of the body. Current Opinion in Neurobiology, 13(4), 500–505.
36. Crumeyrolle-Arias, M., Jaglin, M., Bruneau, A., Vancassel, S., Cardona, A., Daugé, V., … Rabot, S. (2014). Absence of the gut microbiota enhances anxiety-like behavior and neuroendocrine response to acute stress in rats. Psychoneuroendocrinology, 42, 207–217.
37. Cryan, J. F., & Dinan, T. G. (2012). Mind-altering microorganisms: the impact of the gut microbiota on brain and behaviour. Nature Reviews Neuroscience, 13(10), 701–712.
38. Damasio, A. R., Everitt, B. J., & Bishop, D. (1996). The somatic marker hypothesis and the possible functions of the prefrontal cortex [and discussion]. Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society of London B: Biological Sciences, 351(1346), 1413–1420.
39. Dantzer, R., O'Connor, J. C., Freund, G. G., Johnson, R. W., & Kelley, K. W. (2008). From inflammation to sickness and depression: When the immune system subjugates the brain. Nature Reviews Neuroscience, 9(1), 46–56.
40. David, L. A., Materna, A. C., Friedman, J., Campos-Baptista, M. I., Blackburn, M. C., Perrotta, A., … Alm, E. J. (2014). Host lifestyle affects human microbiota on daily timescales. Genome Biology, 15(7), 1.
41. De Filippo, C., Cavalieri, D., Di Paola, M., Ramazzotti, M., Poullet, J. B., Massart, S., … Lionetti, P. (2010). Impact of diet in shaping gut microbiota revealed by a comparative study in children from Europe and rural Africa. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, 107(33), 14691–14696.
42. De Palma, G., Collins, S. M., Bercik, P., & Verdu, E. F. (2014). The microbiota–gut–brain axis in gastrointestinal disorders: Stressed bugs, stressed brain or both? The Journal of Physiology, 592(14), 2989–2997.
43. De Palma, G., Blennerhassett, P., Lu, J., Deng, Y., Park, A. J., Green, W., … Surette, M. G. (2015). Microbiota and host determinants of behavioural phenotype in maternally separated mice. Nature Communications, 6. Article No. 7735. https://doi.org/10.1038/ncomms8735
44. De Vugt, M. E., Nicolson, N. A., Aalten, P., Lousberg, R., Jolle, J., & Verhey, F. R. (2005). Behavioral problems in dementia patients and salivary cortisol patterns in caregivers. The Journal of Neuropsychiatry and Clinical Neurosciences, 17(2), 201–207.
45. Desbonnet, L., Clarke, G., Shanahan, F., Dinan, T. G., & Cryan, J. F. (2014). Microbiota is essential for social development in the mouse. Molecular Psychiatry, 19(2), 146.
46. Dickerson, S. S., & Kemeny, M. E. (2004). Acute stressors and cortisol responses: A theoretical integration and synthesis of laboratory research. Psychological Bulletin, 130(3), 355–391.
47. Dinan, T. G., Stanton, C., & Cryan, J. F. (2013). Psychobiotics: A novel class of psychotropic. Biological Psychiatry, 74(10), 720–726.
48. Dinan, T. G., Stilling, R. M., Stanton, C., & Cryan, J. F. (2015). Collective unconscious: How gut microbes shape human behavior. Journal of Psychiatric Research, 63, 1–9.
49. Dong, W. Z., Zou, D. W., Li, Z. S., Zou, X. P., Zhu, A. Y., Xu, G. M., … Man, X. H. (2004). Study of visceral hypersensitivity in irritable bowel syndrome. Chinese Journal of Digestive Diseases, 5(3), 103–109.
50. Douglas, A. E., & Werren, J. H. (2016). Holes in the hologenome: Why host-microbe symbioses are not holobionts. mBio, 7(2), e02099-15.
51. Eisenstein, M. (2016). Microbiome: Bacterial broadband. Nature, 533(7603), S104–S106.
52. Eklund, A., Nichols, T. E., & Knutsson, H. (2016). Cluster failure: Why fMRI inferences for spatial extent have inflated false-positive rates. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, 113(28), 7900–7905.
53. Epstein, S. (1994). Integration of the cognitive and the psychodynamic unconscious. American Psychologist, 49(8), 709–724.
54. Etters, L., Goodall, D., & Harrison, B. E. (2008). Caregiver burden among dementia patient caregivers: a review of the literature. Journal of the American Academy of Nurse Practitioners, 20(8), 423–428.
55. Evans, J. S. B. (2007). On the resolution of conflict in dual process theories of reasoning. Thinking & Reasoning, 13(4), 321–339.
56. Falony, G., Joossens, M., Vieira-Silva, S., Wang, J., Darzi, Y., Faust, K., … Tito, R. Y. (2016). Population-level analysis of gut microbiome variation. Science, 352(6285), 560–564.
57. Fernandez-Real, J. M., Serino, M., Blasco, G., Puig, J., Daunis-i-Estadella, J., Ricart, W., … Portero-Otin, M. (2015). Gut microbiota interacts with brain microstructure and function. The Journal of Clinical Endocrinology & Metabolism, 100(12), 4505–4513.
58. Finegold, S. M., Dowd, S. E., Gontcharova, V., Liu, C., Henley, K. E., Wolcott, R. D., … Liu, M. (2010). Pyrosequencing study of fecal microflora of autistic and control children. Anaerobe, 16(4), 444–453.
59. Francisconi, C. F., Sperber, A. D., Fang, X., Fukudo, S., Gerson, M. J., Kang, J. Y., & Schmulson, M. (2016). Multicultural aspects in functional gastrointestinal disorders (FGIDs). Gastroenterology, 150(6), 1344–1354.
60. Freud, S. (1895). Project for a scientific psychology. The Standard Edition of the Complete Psychological Works of Sigmund Freud, 1, 1886–1899.
61. Gareau, M. G. (2014). Microbiota-gut-brain axis and cognitive function. In M. Lyte, & J. F. Cryan (Eds.), Microbial endocrinology: The microbiota-gut-brain axis in health and disease. (pp. 357–371). New York: Springer.
62. Gareau, M. G., Wine, E., Rodrigues, D. M., Cho, J. H., Whary, M. T., Philpott, D. J., … Sherman, P. M. (2010). Bacterial infection causes stress-induced memory dysfunction in mice. Gut. https://doi.org/10.1136/gut.2009.202515
63. Giannetti, E., Maglione, M., Alessandrella, A., Strisciuglio, C., De Giovanni, D., Campanozzi, A., … Staiano, A. (2017). A mixture of 3 Bifidobacteria decreases abdominal pain and improves the quality of life in children with irritable bowel syndrome: A multicenter, randomized, double-blind, placebo-controlled, crossover trial. Journal of Clinical Gastroenterology, 51(1), e5–e10.
64. Gibbons, L., Belizán, J. M., Lauer, J. A., Betrán, A. P., Merialdi, M., & Althabe, F. (2010). The global numbers and costs of additionally needed and unnecessary caesarean sections performed per year: Overuse as a barrier to universal coverage. World Health Report, 30, 1–31.
65. Glick-Bauer, M., & Yeh, M. C. (2014). The health advantage of a vegan diet: Exploring the gut microbiota connection. Nutrients, 6(11), 4822–4838.
66. Golubeva, A. V., Crampton, S., Desbonnet, L., Edge, D., O'Sullivan, O., Lomasney, K. W., … Cotter, P. D. (2015). Prenatal stress-induced alterations in major physiological systems correlate with gut microbiota composition in adulthood. Psychoneuroendocrinology, 60, 58–74.
67. Gray, J. N. (2002). Straw dogs. Thoughts on humans and other animals. New York: Farrar, Straus & Giroux.
68. Grayson, M. (2016). Irritable bowel syndrome: 4 big questions. Nature, 533(7603), S118–S118.
69. Grenham, S., Clarke, G., Cryan, J. F., & Dinan, T. G. (2011). Brain–gut–microbe communication in health and disease. Frontiers in Physiology, 2, 94.
70. Griffiths, D. J. (2001). Endogenous retroviruses in the human genome sequence. Genome Biology, 2(6), 1.
71. Haig, D. A. (2015). Going retro: Transposable elements, embryonic stem cells, and the mammalian placenta. Bioessays, 37, 1154.
72. Hanski, I., von Hertzen, L., Fyhrquist, N., Koskinen, K., Torppa, K., Laatikainen, T., … Vartiainen, E. (2012). Environmental biodiversity, human microbiota, and allergy are interrelated. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, 109(21), 8334–8339.
73. Hill, C. J., Lynch, D. B., Murphy, K., Ulaszewska, M., Jeffery, I. B., O'Shea, C. A., … Ross, R. P. (2017). Evolution of gut microbiota composition from birth to 24 weeks in the INFANTMET Cohort. Microbiome, 5(1), 4.
74. Hoban, A. E., Stilling, R. M., Ryan, F. J., Shanahan, F., Dinan, T. G., Claesson, M. J., … Cryan, J. F. (2016). Regulation of prefrontal cortex myelination by the microbiota. Translational Psychiatry, 6(4), e774.
75. Hoisington, A. J., Brenner, L. A., Kinney, K. A., Postolache, T. T., & Lowry, C. A. (2015). The microbiome of the built environment and mental health. Microbiome, 3(1), 1.
76. Huang, R., Wang, K., & Hu, J. (2016). Effect of probiotics on depression: A systematic review and meta-analysis of randomized controlled trials. Nutrients, 8(8), 483.
77. Jaarsma, P., & Welin, S. (2012). Autism as a natural human variation: Reflections on the claims of the neurodiversity movement. Health Care Analysis, 20(1), 20–30.
78. Jarczok, M. N., Jarczok, M., Mauss, D., Koenig, J., Li, J., Herr, R. M., & Thayer, J. F. (2013). Autonomic nervous system activity and workplace stressors—A systematic review. Neuroscience & Biobehavioral Reviews, 37(8), 1810–1823.
79. Jeffery, I. B., O'Toole, P. W., Öhman, L., Claesson, M. J., Deane, J., Quigley, E. M., & Simrén, M. (2012). An irritable bowel syndrome subtype defined by species-specific alterations in faecal microbiota. Gut, 61(7), 997–1006.
80. Jemelka, R. P., & Russo, J. (1993). Histories of sexual victimization in patients with irritable bowel syndrome or inflammatory bowel disease. American Journal of Psychiatry, 150, 1502–1506.
81. Jiang, H., Ling, Z., Zhang, Y., Mao, H., Ma, Z., Yin, Y., … Li, L. (2015). Altered fecal microbiota composition in patients with major depressive disorder. Brain, Behavior, and Immunity, 48, 186–194.
82. Kassam, Z., Lee, C. H., Yuan, Y., & Hunt, R. H. (2013). Fecal microbiota transplantation for Clostridium difficile infection: systematic review and meta-analysis. The American Journal of Gastroenterology, 108(4), 500–508.
83. Kelly, J. R., Allen, A. P., Temko, A., Hutch, W., Kennedy, P. J., Farid, N., … Clarke, G. (2017). Lost in translation? The potential psychobiotic Lactobacillus rhamnosus (JB-1) fails to modulate stress or cognitive performance in healthy male subjects. Brain, Behavior, and Immunity, 61, 50–59. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.bbi.2016.11.018
84. Kelly, J. R., Borre, Y., O'Brien, C., Patterson, E., El Aidy, S., Deane, J., … Hoban, A. E. (2016). Transferring the blues: Depression-associated gut microbiota induces neurobehavioural changes in the rat. Journal of Psychiatric Research, 82, 109–118.
85. Kennedy, P. J., Clarke, G., Quigley, E. M., Groeger, J. A., Dinan, T. G., & Cryan, J. F. (2012). Gut memories: Towards a cognitive neurobiology of irritable bowel syndrome. Neuroscience & Biobehavioral Reviews, 36(1), 310–340.
86. Kennedy, P. J., Cryan, J. F., Quigley, E. M. M., Dinan, T. G., & Clarke, G. (2014a). A sustained hypothalamic–pituitary–adrenal axis response to acute psychosocial stress in irritable bowel syndrome. Psychological Medicine, 44(14), 3123–3134.
87. Kennedy, P. J., Clarke, G., O'Neill, A., Groeger, J. A., Quigley, E. M. M., Shanahan, F., … Dinan, T. G. (2014b). Cognitive performance in irritable bowel syndrome: Evidence of a stress-related impairment in visuospatial memory. Psychological Medicine, 44(07), 1553–1566.
88. Kennedy, P. J., Cryan, J. F., Dinan, T. G., & Clarke, G. (2014c). Irritable bowel syndrome: A microbiome-gut-brain axis disorder. World Journal of Gastroenterology, 20(39), 14105–14125.
89. Kennedy, P. J., Allen, A. P., O'Neill, A., Quigley, E. M., Cryan, J. F., Dinan, T. G., & Clarke, G. (2015). Acute tryptophan depletion reduces kynurenine levels: Implications for treatment of impaired visuospatial memory performance in irritable bowel syndrome. Psychopharmacology, 232(8), 1357–1371.
90. Kiecolt-Glaser, J. K., Dura, J. R., Speicher, C. E., Trask, O. J., & Glaser, R. (1991). Spousal caregivers of dementia victims: Longitudinal changes in immunity and health. Psychosomatic Medicine, 53(4), 345–362.
91. Kiverstein, J., & Miller, M. (2015). The embodied brain: Towards a radical embodied cognitive neuroscience. Frontiers in Human Neuroscience, 9, 237.
92. Koen, J. D., & Yonelinas, A. P. (2014). The effects of healthy aging, amnestic mild cognitive impairment, and Alzheimer's disease on recollection and familiarity: A meta-analytic review. Neuropsychology Review, 24(3), 332–354.
93. Koloski, N. A., Jones, M., & Talley, N. J. (2016). Evidence that independent gut-to-brain and brain-to-gut pathways operate in the irritable bowel syndrome and functional dyspepsia: A 1-year population-based prospective study. Alimentary Pharmacology & Therapeutics, 44(6), 592–600.
94. Kuhl, P. K., Conboy, B. T., Padden, D., Nelson, T., & Pruitt, J. (2005). Early speech perception and later language development: Implications for the “critical period”. Language Learning and Development, 1(3-4), 237–264.
95. Lander, E. S., Linton, L. M., Birren, B., Nusbaum, C., Zody, M. C., Baldwin, J., … Funke, R. (2001). Initial sequencing and analysis of the human genome. Nature, 409(6822), 860–921.
96. Lavialle, C., Cornelis, G., Dupressoir, A., Esnault, C., Heidmann, O., Vernochet, C., & Heidmann, T. (2013). Paleovirology of ‘syncytins’, retroviral env genes exapted for a role in placentation. Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society B, 368(1626), 20120507. 1–10.
97. Lax, S., Nagler, C. R., & Gilbert, J. A. (2015). Our interface with the built environment: Immunity and the indoor microbiota. Trends in Immunology, 36(3), 121–123.
98. Leach, J. D., & Sobolik, K. D. (2010). High dietary intake of prebiotic inulin-type fructans in the prehistoric Chihuahuan Desert. British Journal of Nutrition, 103(11), 1558–1561.
99. Li, L., Xiong, L., Zhang, S., Yu, Q., & Chen, M. (2014). Cognitive–behavioral therapy for irritable bowel syndrome: A meta-analysis. Journal of Psychosomatic Research, 77(1), 1–12.
100. Lin, P. Y., Huang, S. Y., & Su, K. P. (2010). A meta-analytic review of polyunsaturated fatty acid compositions in patients with depression. Biological Psychiatry, 68(2), 140–147.
101. Loewenstein, G. (1996). Out of control: Visceral influences on behavior. Organizational Behavior and Human Decision Processes, 65(3), 272–292.
102. Lozupone, C. A., Stombaugh, J. I., Gordon, J. I., Jansson, J. K., & Knight, R. (2012). Diversity, stability and resilience of the human gut microbiota. Nature, 489(7415), 220–230.
103. Luczynski, P., Neufeld, K. A. M., Oriach, C. S., Clarke, G., Dinan, T. G., & Cryan, J. F. (2016). Growing up in a bubble: Using germ-free animals to assess the influence of the gut microbiota on brain and behaviour. International Journal of Neuropsychopharmacology. https://doi.org/10.1093/ijnp/pyw020
104. Luczynski, P., Whelan, S. O., O'Sullivan, C., Clarke, G., Shanahan, F., Dinan, T. G., & Cryan, J. F. (2016). Adult microbiota-deficient mice have distinct dendritic morphological changes: Differential effects in the amygdala and hippocampus. European Journal of Neuroscience, 44(9), 2654–2666.
105. Lyte, M. (2013). Microbial endocrinology in the microbiome-gut-brain axis: How bacterial production and utilization of neurochemicals influence behavior. PLoS Pathogens, 9(11), e1003726.
106. Mackworth, N. H. (1948). The breakdown of vigilance during prolonged visual search. Quarterly Journal of Experimental Psychology, 1(1), 6–21.
107. MacLachlan, M. (2006). Culture and health: A critical perspective towards global health. John Wiley & Sons.
108. Mardis, E. R. (2008). The impact of next-generation sequencing technology on genetics. Trends in Genetics, 24(3), 133–141.
109. Mark, G. M., & Smith, A. P. (2008). Stress models: A review and suggested new direction. Occupational Health Psychology, 3, 111–144.
110. Martínez, I., Stegen, J. C., Maldonado-Gómez, M. X., Eren, A. M., Siba, P. M., Greenhill, A. R., & Walter, J. (2015). The gut microbiota of rural Papua New Guineans: Composition, diversity patterns, and ecological processes. Cell Reports, 11(4), 527–538.
111. Mayer, E. A. (2011). Gut feelings: The emerging biology of gut–brain communication. Nature Reviews Neuroscience, 12(8), 453–466.
112. Mayer, E. A., Knight, R., Mazmanian, S. K., Cryan, J. F., & Tillisch, K. (2014). Gut microbes and the brain: Paradigm shift in neuroscience. The Journal of Neuroscience, 34(46), 15490–15496.
113. McFall-Ngai, M., Hadfield, M. G., Bosch, T. C., Carey, H. V., Domazet-Lošo, T., Douglas, A. E., … Hentschel, U. (2013). Animals in a bacterial world, a new imperative for the life sciences. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, 110(9), 3229–3236.
114. Messaoudi, M., Lalonde, R., Violle, N., Javelot, H., Desor, D., Nejdi, A., … Cazaubiel, J. M. (2011). Assessment of psychotropic-like properties of a probiotic formulation (Lactobacillus helveticus R0052 and Bifidobacterium longum R0175) in rats and human subjects. British Journal of Nutrition, 105(05), 755–764.
115. Miller, V., Carruthers, H. R., Morris, J., Hasan, S. S., Archbold, S., & Whorwell, P. J. (2015). Hypnotherapy for irritable bowel syndrome: An audit of one thousand adult patients. Alimentary Pharmacology & Therapeutics, 41(9), 844–855.
116. Moeller, A. H., Foerster, S., Wilson, M. L., Pusey, A. E., Hahn, B. H., & Ochman, H. (2016). Social behavior shapes the chimpanzee pan-microbiome. Science Advances, 2(1), e1500997.
117. Montiel-Castro, A. J., González-Cervantes, R. M., Bravo-Ruiseco, G., & Pacheco-López, G. (2013). The microbiota–gut–brain axis: Neurobehavioral correlates, health and sociality. Frontiers in Integrative Neuroscience. https://doi.org/10.3389/fnint.2013.00070
118. Mortelmans, K., Wang-Johanning, F., & Johanning, G. L. (2016). The role of human endogenous retroviruses in brain development and function. Apmis, 124(1-2), 105–115.
119. Murphy, E. A., Velazquez, K. T., & Herbert, K. M. (2015). Influence of high-fat diet on gut microbiota: A driving force for chronic disease risk. Current Opinion in Clinical Nutrition & Metabolic Care, 18(5), 515–520.
120. Naseribafrouei, A., Hestad, K., Avershina, E., Sekelja, M., Linløkken, A., Wilson, R., & Rudi, K. (2014). Correlation between the human fecal microbiota and depression. Neurogastroenterology & Motility, 26(8), 1155–1162.
121. Neufeld, K. M., Kang, N., Bienenstock, J., & Foster, J. A. (2011). Reduced anxiety-like behavior and central neurochemical change in germ-free mice. Neurogastroenterology & Motility, 23(3), 255–e119.
122. Nowakowski, M. E., McCabe, R., Rowa, K., Pellizzari, J., Surette, M., Moayyedi, P., & Anglin, R. (2016). The gut microbiome: Potential innovations for the understanding and treatment of psychopathology. Canadian Psychology/Psychologie Canadienne, 57(2), 67.
123. O'Mahony, S. M., Clarke, G., Borre, Y. E., Dinan, T. G., & Cryan, J. F. (2015). Serotonin, tryptophan metabolism and the brain-gut-microbiome axis. Behavioural Brain Research, 277, 32–48.
124. Oriach, C. S., Robertson, R. C., Stanton, C., Cryan, J. F., & Dinan, T. G. (2016). Food for thought: The role of nutrition in the microbiota–gut–brain axis. Clinical Nutrition Experimental, 6, 25–38.
125. Parracho, H. M., Gibson, G. R., Knott, F., Bosscher, D., Kleerebezem, M., & McCartney, A. L. (2010). A double-blind, placebo-controlled, crossover-designed probiotic feeding study in children diagnosed with autistic spectrum disorders. International Journal of Probiotics & Prebiotics, 5(2), 69–74.
126. Pennycook, G., Fugelsang, J. A., & Koehler, D. J. (2015). What makes us think? A three-stage dual-process model of analytic engagement. Cognitive Psychology, 80, 34–72.
127. Pingali, P. (2007). Westernization of Asian diets and the transformation of food systems: Implications for research and policy. Food Policy, 32(3), 281–298.
128. Pirbaglou, M., Katz, J., de Souza, R. J., Stearns, J. C., Motamed, M., & Ritvo, P. (2016). Probiotic supplementation can positively affect anxiety and depressive symptoms: A systematic review of randomized controlled trials. Nutrition Research, 36(9), 889–898.
129. Pokusaeva, K., Fitzgerald, G. F., & van Sinderen, D. (2011). Carbohydrate metabolism in Bifidobacteria. Genes & Nutrition, 6(3), 285–306.
130. Prince, M., Wimo, A., Guerchet, M., Ali, G. C., Wu, Y. T., & Prina, M. (2015). World alzheimer report 2015. The global impact of dementia. An analysis of prevalence, incidence, cost & trends; Alzheimer's Disease International: London.
131. Qin, J., Li, R., Raes, J., Arumugam, M., Burgdorf, K. S., Manichanh, C., … Mende, D. R. (2010). A human gut microbial gene catalogue established by metagenomic sequencing. Nature, 464(7285), 59–65.
132. Reilly, J., Baker, G. A., Rhodes, J., & Salmon, P. (1999). The association of sexual and physical abuse with somatization: Characteristics of patients presenting with irritable bowel syndrome and non-epileptic attack disorder. Psychological Medicine, 29(02), 399–406.
133. Reimann, M., & Bechara, A. (2010). The somatic marker framework as a neurological theory of decision-making: Review, conceptual comparisons, and future neuroeconomics research. Journal of Economic Psychology, 31(5), 767–776.
134. Remes-Troche, J. M., Torres-Aguilera, M., Montes-Martínez, V., Jiménez-García, V. A., & Roesch-Dietlen, F. (2015). Prevalence of irritable bowel syndrome in caregivers of patients with chronic diseases. Neurogastroenterology & Motility, 27(6), 824–831.
135. Reuter, J. A., Spacek, D. V., & Snyder, M. P. (2015). High-throughput sequencing technologies. Molecular Cell, 58(4), 586–597.
136. Robertson, R. C., Oriach, C. S., Murphy, K., Moloney, G. M., Cryan, J. F., Dinan, T. G., … Stanton, C. (2017). Omega-3 polyunsaturated fatty acids critically regulate behaviour and gut microbiota development in adolescence and adulthood. Brain, Behavior, and Immunity, 59, 21–37.
137. Romero, L. M., Dickens, M. J., & Cyr, N. E. (2009). The reactive scope model—a new model integrating homeostasis, allostasis, and stress. Hormones and Behavior, 55(3), 375–389.
138. Salzberg, S. L., White, O., Peterson, J., & Eisen, J. A. (2001). Microbial genes in the human genome: Lateral transfer or gene loss? Science, 292(5523), 1903–1906.
139. Sandhu, K. V., Sherwin, E., Schellekens, H., Stanton, C., Dinan, T. G., & Cryan, J. F. (2017). Feeding the microbiota-gut-brain axis: Diet, microbiome, and neuropsychiatry. Translational Research, 179, 223–244.
140. Sarkar, A., Lehto, S. M., Harty, S., Dinan, T. G., Cryan, J. F., & Burnet, P. W. (2016). Psychobiotics and the manipulation of bacteria–gut–brain signals. Trends in Neurosciences, 39(11), 763–781.
141. Sarris, J., Logan, A. C., Akbaraly, T. N., Amminger, G. P., Balanzá-Martínez, V., Freeman, M. P., … Nanri, A. (2015). Nutritional medicine as mainstream in psychiatry. The Lancet Psychiatry, 2(3), 271–274.
142. Sasselli, V., Pachnis, V., & Burns, A. J. (2012). The enteric nervous system. Developmental Biology, 366(1), 64–73.
143. Savignac, H. M., Kiely, B., Dinan, T. G., & Cryan, J. F. (2014). Bifidobacteria exert strain-specific effects on stress-related behavior and physiology in BALB/c mice. Neurogastroenterology & Motility, 26(11), 1615–1627.
144. Savignac, H. M., Tramullas, M., Kiely, B., Dinan, T. G., & Cryan, J. F. (2015). Bifidobacteria modulate cognitive processes in an anxious mouse strain. Behavioural Brain Research, 287, 59–72.
145. Schnorr, S. L., Candela, M., Rampelli, S., Centanni, M., Consolandi, C., Basaglia, G., … Fiori, J. (2014). Gut microbiome of the Hadza hunter-gatherers. Nature Communications, 5.
146. Segerstrom, S. C., & Miller, G. E. (2004). Psychological stress and the human immune system: A meta-analytic study of 30 years of inquiry. Psychological Bulletin, 130(4), 601–630.
147. Skinner, E. A., Edge, K., Altman, J., & Sherwood, H. (2003). Searching for the structure of coping: A review and critique of category systems for classifying ways of coping. Psychological Bulletin, 129(2), 216–269.
148. Slavich, G. M., & Irwin, M. R. (2014). From stress to inflammation and major depressive disorder: A social signal transduction theory of depression. Psychological Bulletin, 140(3), 774–815.
149. Slovic, P., Finucane, M. L., Peters, E., & MacGregor, D. G. (2007). The affect heuristic. European Journal of Operational Research, 177(3), 1333–1352.
150. Smits, L. P., Bouter, K. E., de Vos, W. M., Borody, T. J., & Nieuwdorp, M. (2013). Therapeutic potential of fecal microbiota transplantation. Gastroenterology, 145(5), 946–953.
151. Staddon, J. E. R. (1989). Animal psychology: The tyranny of anthropocentrism. In P. P. G. Bateson, & P. H. Klopfer (Eds.), Perspectives in ethology, vol. 8: Whither ethology? (pp. 123–135). New York: Plenum Press.
152. Stalder, T., Tietze, A., Steudte, S., Alexander, N., Dettenborn, L., & Kirschbaum, C. (2014). Elevated hair cortisol levels in chronically stressed dementia caregivers. Psychoneuroendocrinology, 47, 26–30.
153. Stilling, R. M., Bordenstein, S. R., Dinan, T. G., & Cryan, J. F. (2014). Friends with social benefits: host-microbe interactions as a driver of brain evolution and development? Frontiers in Cellular and Infection Microbiology, 4, 147.
154. Stilling, R. M., Dinan, T. G., & Cryan, J. F. (2016). The brain's Geppetto—microbes as puppeteers of neural function and behaviour? Journal of Neurovirology, 22(1), 14–21.
155. Su, K. P., Huang, S. Y., Chiu, C. C., & Shen, W. W. (2003). Omega-3 fatty acids in major depressive disorder: A preliminary double-blind, placebo-controlled trial. European Neuropsychopharmacology, 13(4), 267–271.
156. Suárez-Hitz, K. A., Otto, B., Bidlingmaier, M., Schwizer, W., Fried, M., & Ehlert, U. (2012). Altered psychobiological responsiveness in women with irritable bowel syndrome. Psychosomatic Medicine, 74(2), 221–231.
157. Sullivan, H. S. (1953). The interpersonal theory of psychiatry. New York: Norton.
158. Sulloway, F. J. (1979). Freud, biologist of the mind: Beyond the psychoanalytic legend. New York: Basic Books.
159. Theis, K. R., Dheilly, N. M., Klassen, J. L., Brucker, R. M., Baines, J. F., Bosch, T. C., … Sapp, J. (2016). Getting the hologenome concept right: An eco-evolutionary framework for hosts and their microbiomes. mSystems, 1(2), e00028-16.
160. Tillisch, K. (2014). The effects of gut microbiota on CNS function in humans. Gut Microbes, 5(3), 404–410.
161. Tillisch, K., Labus, J., Kilpatrick, L., Jiang, Z., Stains, J., Ebrat, B., … Mayer, E. A. (2013). Consumption of fermented milk product with probiotic modulates brain activity. Gastroenterology, 144(7), 1394–1401.
162. Toner, B. B., Segal, Z. V., Emmott, S., Myran, D., Ali, A., DiGasbarro, I., & Stuckless, N. (1998). Cognitive-behavioral group therapy for patients with irritable bowel syndrome. International Journal of Group Psychotherapy, 48(2), 215–243.
163. Uttal, W. R. (2001). The new phrenology: The limits of localizing cognitive processes in the brain. Cambridge, MA: The MIT press.
164. Van Oudenhove, L., Levy, R. L., Crowell, M. D., Drossman, D. A., Halpert, A. D., Keefer, L., … Naliboff, B. D. (2016). Biopsychosocial aspects of functional gastrointestinal disorders: How central and environmental processes contribute to the development and expression of functional gastrointestinal disorders. Gastroenterology, 150(6), 1355–1367.
165. Verster, J. C., & Roth, T. (2013). Vigilance decrement during the on-the-road driving tests: The importance of time-on-task in psychopharmacological research. Accident Analysis & Prevention, 58, 244–248.
166. Villarreal, L. P. (2011). Viral ancestors of antiviral systems. Viruses, 3(10), 1933–1958.
167. Vul, E., Harris, C., Winkielman, P., & Pashler, H. (2009). Puzzlingly high correlations in fMRI studies of emotion, personality, and social cognition. Perspectives on Psychological Science, 4(3), 274–290.
168. Wall, R., Cryan, J. F., Ross, R. P., Fitzgerald, G. F., Dinan, T. G., & Stanton, C. (2014). Bacterial neuroactive compounds produced by psychobiotics. In M. Lyte, & J. F. Cryan (Eds.), Microbial endocrinology: The microbiota-gut-brain axis in health and disease. (pp. 221–239). New York: Springer.
169. Wang, L., Christophersen, C. T., Sorich, M. J., Gerber, J. P., Angley, M. T., & Conlon, M. A. (2011). Low relative abundances of the mucolytic bacterium Akkermansia muciniphila and Bifidobacterium spp. in feces of children with autism. Applied and Environmental Microbiology, 77(18), 6718–6721.
170. Werker, J. F., & Tees, R. C. (2005). Speech perception as a window for understanding plasticity and commitment in language systems of the brain. Developmental Psychobiology, 46(3), 233–251.
171. Whitebird, R. R., Kreitzer, M., Crain, A. L., Lewis, B. A., Hanson, L. R., & Enstad, C. J. (2013). Mindfulness-based stress reduction for family caregivers: A randomized controlled trial. The Gerontologist, 53(4), 676–686.
172. Whitehead, W. E., Palsson, O., & Jones, K. R. (2002). Systematic review of the comorbidity of irritable bowel syndrome with other disorders: What are the causes and implications? Gastroenterology, 122(4), 1140–1156.
173. Whorwell, P. J., Altringer, L., Morel, J., Bond, Y., Charbonneau, D., O'Mahony, L., … Quigley, E. M. (2006). Efficacy of an encapsulated probiotic Bifidobacterium infantis 35624 in women with irritable bowel syndrome. The American Journal of Gastroenterology, 101(7), 1581–1590.
174. Wilson, A. D., & Golonka, S. (2013). Embodied cognition is not what you think it is. Frontiers in Psychology. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2013.00058
175. Wood, J. J., McLeod, B. D., Sigman, M., Hwang, W. C., & Chu, B. C. (2003). Parenting and childhood anxiety: Theory, empirical findings, and future directions. Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry, 44(1), 134–151.
176. World Health Organization (2002). Globalization, Diet and Non Communicable Diseases. Geneva: World Health Organisation.
177. Wylie, K. M., Weinstock, G. M., & Storch, G. A. (2012). Emerging view of the human virome. Translational Research, 160(4), 283–290.
178. Yano, J. M., Yu, K., Donaldson, G. P., Shastri, G. G., Ann, P., Ma, L., … Hsiao, E. Y. (2015). Indigenous bacteria from the gut microbiota regulate host serotonin biosynthesis. Cell, 161(2), 264–276.
179. Yerkes, R. M. (1933). Concerning the anthropocentrism of psychology. Psychological Review, 40(2), 209.
180. Yong, E. (2016). I contain multitudes: The microbes within us and a grander view of life. New York: Random House.
181. Yu, H. N., Zhu, J., Pan, W. S., Shen, S. R., Shan, W. G., & Das, U. N. (2014). Effects of fish oil with a high content of n-3 polyunsaturated fatty acids on mouse gut microbiota. Archives of Medical Research, 45(3), 195–202.
182. Zheng, P., Zeng, B., Zhou, C., Liu, M., Fang, Z., Xu, X., … Zhang, X. (2016). Gut microbiome remodeling induces depressive-like behaviors through a pathway mediated by the host's metabolism. Molecular Psychiatry, 21(6), 786–796.
183. Zhernakova, A., Kurilshikov, A., Bonder, M. J., Tigchelaar, E. F., Schirmer, M., Vatanen, T., … Wang, J. (2016). Population-based metagenomics analysis reveals markers for gut microbiome composition and diversity. Science, 352(6285), 565–569.
184. Zhou, Q., & Verne, G. N. (2011). New insights into visceral hypersensitivity—clinical implications in IBS. Nature Reviews Gastroenterology and Hepatology, 8(6), 349–355.
185. Žižek, S. (1997). The plague of fantasies. London: Verso.