Reading through the life span: Individual differences in psycholinguistic effects

Journal of Experimental Psychology: Learning Memory and Cognition

Volumn 43, Issue 8, 2017, Pages 1298-1338

  Davies, Rob A I ^a   Birchenough, Julia M H ^b   Arnell, Ruth ^c   Grimmond, Debbie ^d   Houlson, Sam ^e  

^a LANCASTER UNIVERSITY   (United Kingdom)

^b OXFORD BROOKES UNIVERSITY   (United Kingdom)

^c UNIVERSITY OF EXETER   (United Kingdom)

^d UNIVERSITY OF READING   (United Kingdom)

^e UNIVERSITY OF BRISTOL   (United Kingdom)

Author keywords

Ageing; Development; Individual differences; Reading; Word recognition

Indexed keywords

ADOLESCENT; ADULT; AGED; AGING; CHILD; DECISION MAKING; HUMAN; INDIVIDUALITY; LANGUAGE DEVELOPMENT; LANGUAGE TEST; MIDDLE AGED; PATTERN RECOGNITION; PSYCHOLINGUISTICS; PSYCHOLOGY; REACTION TIME; READING; SEMANTICS; STATISTICAL MODEL; VERY ELDERLY; YOUNG ADULT;

ADOLESCENT; ADULT; AGED; AGED, 80 AND OVER; AGING; CHILD; CHILD LANGUAGE; DECISION MAKING; HUMANS; INDIVIDUALITY; LANGUAGE TESTS; LINEAR MODELS; MIDDLE AGED; PATTERN RECOGNITION, VISUAL; PSYCHOLINGUISTICS; REACTION TIME; READING; SEMANTICS; YOUNG ADULT;

EID: 85015610172     PISSN: 02787393     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1037/xlm0000366     Document Type: Article

References (152)

1. Adelman, J. S., Brown, G. D. A., & Quesada, J. F. (2006). Contextual diversity, not word frequency, determines word-naming and lexical decision times. Psychological Science, 17, 814-823. http://dx.doi.org/ 10.1111/j.1467-9280.2006.01787.x
2. Adelman, J. S., Sabatos-DeVito, M. G., Marquis, S. J., & Estes, Z. (2014). Individual differences in reading aloud: A mega-study, item effects, and some models. Cognitive Psychology, 68, 113-160. http://dx.doi.org/10 .1016/j.cogpsych.2013.11.001
3. Allen, P. A., Bucur, B., Grabbe, J., Work, T., & Madden, D. J. (2011). Influence of encoding difficulty, word frequency, and phonological regularity on age differences in word naming. Experimental Aging Research, 37, 261-292. http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/0361073X.2011 .568805
4. Allen, P. A., Madden, D. J., & Crozier, L. C. (1991). Adult age differences in letter-level and word-level processing. Psychology and Aging, 6, 261-271. http://dx.doi.org/10.1037/0882-7974.6.2.261
5. Allen, P. A., Madden, D. J., Weber, T. A., & Groth, K. E. (1993). Influence of age and processing stage on visual word recognition. Psychology and Aging, 8, 274-282. http://dx.doi.org/10.1037/0882-7974.8.2.274
6. Andrews, S. (1982). Phonological recoding: Is the regularity effect consistent? Memory & Cognition, 10, 565-575. http://dx.doi.org/10.3758/ BF03202439
7. Andrews, S. (1989). Frequency and neighbourhod effects on lexical access: Activation or search? Journal of Experimental Psychology: Learning, Memory, and Cognition, 15, 802-814. http://dx.doi.org/10.1037/0278- 7393.15.5.802
8. Andrews, S. (1992). Frequency and neighbourhood effects on lexical access: Lexical similarity or orthographic redundancy? Journal of Experimental Psychology: Learning, Memory, and Cognition, 18, 234- 254. http://dx.doi.org/10.1037/0278-7393.18.2.234
9. Andrews, S., & Hersch, J. (2010). Lexical precision in skilled readers: Individual differences in masked neighbor priming. Journal of Experimental Psychology: General, 139, 299-318. http://dx.doi.org/10.1037/ a0018366
10. Baayen, R. H. (2008). Analyzing linguistic data. New York, NY: Cambridge University Press. http://dx.doi.org/10.1017/CBO9780511801686
11. Baayen, R. H., Davidson, D. J., & Bates, D. M. (2008). Mixed-effects modeling with crossed random effects for subjects and items. Journal of Memory and Language, 59, 390-412. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.jml .2007.12.005
12. Balota, D. A., & Chumbley, J. I. (1984). Are lexical decisions a good measure of lexical access? The role of word frequency in the neglected decision stage. Journal of Experimental Psychology: Human Perception and Performance, 10, 340-357. http://dx.doi.org/10.1037/0096-1523.10 .3.340
13. Balota, D. A., Cortese, M. J., Sergent-Marshall, S. D., Spieler, D. H., & Yap, M. (2004). Visual word recognition of single-syllable words. Journal of Experimental Psychology: General, 133, 283-316. http://dx .doi.org/10.1037/0096-3445.133.2.283
14. Balota, D. A., & Duchek, J. M. (1988). Age-related differences in lexical access, spreading activation, and simple pronunciation. Psychology and Aging, 3, 84-93. http://dx.doi.org/10.1037/0882-7974.3.1.84
15. Balota, D. A., & Ferraro, F. R. (1993). A dissociation of frequency and regularity effects in pronunciation performance across young adults, older adults, and individuals with senile dementia of the Alzheimer type. Journal of Memory and Language, 32, 573-592. http://dx.doi.org/10 .1006/jmla.1993.1029
16. Balota, D. A., & Ferraro, F. R. (1996). Lexical, sublexical, and implicit memory processes in healthy young and healthy older adults and in individuals with dementia of the Alzheimer type. Neuropsychology, 10, 82-95. http://dx.doi.org/10.1037/0894-4105.10.1.82
17. Balota, D. A., Yap, M. J., Hutchison, K. A., Cortese, M. J., Kessler, B., Loftis, B.,. Treiman, R. (2007). The English lexicon project. Behavior Research Methods, 39, 445-459. http://dx.doi.org/10.3758/BF03193014
18. Barr, D. J., Levy, R., Scheepers, C., & Tily, H. J. (2013). Random effects structure for confirmatory hypothesis testing: Keep it maximal. Journal of Memory and Language, 68, 255-278. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.jml 012.11.001
19. Barry, C., Johnston, R. A., & Wood, R. F. (2006). Effects of age of acquisition, age, and repetition priming on object naming. Visual Cognition, 13, 911-927. http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/13506280544000101
20. Bartón, K. (2016). MuMIn: Multi-model inference. R package version, 1, 15. 6. Retrieved from https://cran.r-project.org/web/packages/MuMIn/ index.html
21. Bates, D., Kliegl, R., Vasishth, S., & Baayen, H. (2015). Parsimonious mixed models. arXiv preprint: 1506.04967.
22. Bates, D., Maechler, M., Bolker, B., Walker, S., Christensen, R. H. B., Singmann, H.,. Green, P. (2016). lme4: Linear mixed-effects models using Eigen and S4. R package version, 1, 1-12. Retrieved from https:// github.com/lme4/lme4/
23. Bell, A., Jurafsky, D., Fosler-Lussier, E., Girand, C., Gregory, M., & Gildea, D. (2003). Effects of disfluencies, predictability, and utterance position on word form variation in English conversation. The Journal of the Acoustical Society of America, 113, 1001-1024. http://dx.doi.org/10 .1121/1.1534836
24. Bonin, P., Barry, C., Méot, A., & Chalard, M. (2004). The influence of age of acquisition in word reading and other tasks: A never-ending story? Journal of Memory and Language, 50, 456-476. http://dx.doi.org/10 .1016/j.jml.2004.02.001
25. Bonin, P., Méot, A., Mermillod, M., Ferrand, L., & Barry, C. (2009). The effects of age of acquisition and frequency trajectory on object naming: Comments on Pérez (2007). Quarterly Journal of Experimental Psychology: Human Experimental Psychology, 62, 1132-1140. http://dx.doi .org/10.1080/17470210802618850
26. Bowles, N. L., & Poon, L. W. (1981). The effect of age on speed of lexical access. Experimental Aging Research, 7, 417-425. http://dx.doi.org/10 .1080/03610738108259822
27. Brysbaert, M., & Ghyselinck, M.
28. Brysbaert, M., & New, B. (2009). Moving beyond Kuc?era and Francis: A critical evaluation of current word frequency norms and the introduction of a new and improved word frequency measure for American English. Behavior Research Methods, 41, 977-990. http://dx.doi.org/10.3758/ BRM.41.4.977
29. Burani, C., Marcolini, S., & Stella, G. (2002). How early does morpholexical reading develop in readers of a shallow orthography? Brain and Language, 81, 568-586. http://dx.doi.org/10.1006/brln.2001.2548
30. Butler, B., & Hains, S. (1979). Individual differences in word recognition latency. Memory & Cognition, 7, 68-76. http://dx.doi.org/10.3758/ BF03197587
31. Carroll, J. B., & White, M. N. (1973). Word frequency and age of acquisition as determiners of picture-naming latency. The Quarterly Journal of Experimental Psychology, 25, 85-95. http://dx.doi.org/10 .1080/14640747308400325
32. Castles, A., & Coltheart, M. (1993). Varieties of developmental dyslexia. Cognition, 47, 149-180. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/0010-0277(93)90003-E
33. Cerella, J. (1985). Information processing rates in the elderly. Psychological Bulletin, 98, 67-83. http://dx.doi.org/10.1037/0033-2909.98.1.67
34. Cerella, J., & Hale, S. (1994). The rise and fall in information-processing rates over the life span. Acta Psychologica, 86, 109-197. http://dx.doi .org/10.1016/0001-6918(94)90002-7
35. Chateau, D., & Jared, D. (2000). Exposure to print and word recognition processes. Memory & Cognition, 28, 143-153. http://dx.doi.org/10 .3758/BF03211582
36. Chumbley, J. I., & Balota, D. A. (1984). A word's meaning affects the decision in lexical decision. Memory & Cognition, 12, 590-606. http:// dx.doi.org/10.3758/BF03213348
37. Cohen, J. (1983). The cost of dichotomization. Applied Psychological Measurement, 7, 249-253. http://dx.doi.org/10.1177/014662168300700301
38. Cohen, J., Cohen, P., West, S. G., & Aiken, L. S. (2003). Applied multiple regression/correlation analysis for the behavioural sciences (3rd ed.). Mahwah, NJ: Erlbaum.
39. Cohen-Shikora, E. R., & Balota, D. A. (2016). Visual word recognition across the adult lifespan. Psychology and Aging, 31, 488-502. http://dx .doi.org/10.1037/pag0000100
40. Coltheart, M. (1978). Lexical access in simple reading tasks. In G. Underwood (Ed.), Strategies in information processing (pp. 151-216). London, UK: Academic Press.
41. Coltheart, M., Curtis, B., Atkins, P., & Haller, M. (1993). Models of reading aloud: Dual-route and parallel-distributed processing approaches. Psychological Review, 100, 589-608. http://dx.doi.org/10 .1037/0033-295X.100.4.589
42. Coltheart, M., Davelaar, E., Jonasson, J. T., & Besner, D. (1977). Access to the internal lexicon. In S. Dornic (Ed.), Attention and performance VI (pp. 535-555). Hillsdale, NJ: LEA.
43. Coltheart, M., & Rastle, K. (1994). Serial processing in reading aloud: Evidence for dual-route models of reading. Journal of Experimental Psychology: Human Perception and Performance, 20, 1197-1211. http://dx.doi.org/10.1037/0096-1523.20.6.1197
44. Coltheart, M., Rastle, K., Perry, C., Langdon, R., & Ziegler, J. (2001). DRC: A dual route cascaded model of visual word recognition and reading aloud. Psychological Review, 108, 204-256. http://dx.doi.org/ 10.1037/0033-295X.108.1.204
45. Comalli, P. E., Jr. (1965). Cognitive functioning in a group of 80-90-yearold men. Journal of Gerontology, 20, 14-17. http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/ geronj/20.1.14
46. Cortese, M. J., & Fugett, A. (2004). Imageability ratings for 3,000 monosyllabic words. Behavior Methods and Research, Instrumentation, & Computers, 36, 384-387.
47. Cortese, M. J., & Khanna, M. M. (2007). Age of acquisition predicts naming and lexical-decision performance above and beyond 22 other predictor variables: An analysis of 2,342 words. The Quarterly Journal of Experimental Psychology, 60, 1072-1082. http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/ 17470210701315467
48. Davis, C. J. (2005). N-watch: A program for deriving neighborhood size and other psycholinguistic statistics. Behavior Research Methods, 37, 65-70. http://dx.doi.org/10.3758/BF03206399
49. Dilkina, K., McClelland, J. L., & Plaut, D. C. (2008). A single-system account of semantic and lexical deficits in five semantic dementia patients. Cognitive Neuropsychology, 25, 136-164. http://dx.doi.org/10 .1080/02643290701723948
50. Ellis, A. W., & Lambon Ralph, M. A. (2000). Age of acquisition effects in adult lexical processing reflect loss of plasticity in maturing systems: Insights from connectionist networks. Journal of Experimental Psychology: Learning, Memory, and Cognition, 26, 1103-1123. http://dx.doi .org/10.1037/0278-7393.26.5.1103
51. Faubert, J. (2002). Visual perception and aging. Canadian Journal of Experimental Psychology, 56, 164-176.
52. Faust, M. E., Balota, D. A., Spieler, D. H., & Ferraro, F. R. (1999). Individual differences in information-processing rate and amount: Implications for group differences in response latency. Psychological Bulletin, 125, 777-799.
53. Forster, K. I., & Forster, J. C. (2003). DMDX: A windows display program with millisecond accuracy. Behavior Research Methods, Instruments & Computers, 35, 116-124. http://dx.doi.org/10.3758/BF03195503
54. Frederickson, N., Frith, U., & Reason, R. (1997). Phonological Assessment Battery [PhAB]: Manual and test materials. London, UK: Nfer Nelson Publishing Company Ltd.
55. Gahl, S. (2008). Time and thyme are not homophones: The effect of lemma frequency on word durations in spontaneous speech. Language, 84, 474-496. http://dx.doi.org/10.1353/lan.0.0035
56. Gahl, S., & Strand, J. F. (2016). Many neighborhoods: Phonological and perceptual neighborhood density in lexical production and perception. Journal of Memory and Language, 89, 162-178. http://dx.doi.org/10 .1016/j.jml.2015.12.006
57. Gahl, S., Yao, Y., & Johnson, K. (2012). Why reduce? Phonological neighborhood density and phonetic reduction in spontaneous speech. Journal of Memory and Language, 66, 789-806. http://dx.doi.org/10 .1016/j.jml.2011.11.006
58. Gelman, A., & Hill, J. (2006). Data analysis using regression and multilevel/ hierarchical models. New York, NY: Cambridge University Press. http://dx.doi.org/10.1017/CBO9780511790942
59. Ghyselinck, M., Lewis, M. B., & Brysbaert, M. (2004). Age of acquisition and the cumulative-frequency hypothesis: A review of the literature and a new multi-task investigation. Acta Psychologica, 115, 43-67. http:// dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.actpsy.2003.11.002
60. Glushko, R. (1979). The organization and activation of orthographic knowledge in reading aloud. Journal of Experimental Psychology, 5, 674-691.
61. Hale, S. (1990). A global developmental trend in cognitive processing speed. Child Development, 61, 653- 663. http://dx.doi.org/10.2307/ 1130951
62. Hale, S., Lima, S. D., & Myerson, J. (1991). General cognitive slowing in the nonlexical domain: An experimental validation. Psychology and Aging, 6, 512-521. http://dx.doi.org/10.1037/0882-7974.6.4.512
63. Hale, S., & Myerson, J. (1996). Experimental evidence for differential slowing in the lexical and nonlexical domains. Aging, Neuropsychology, and Cognition, 3, 154-165. http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/13825589608256621
64. Hale, S., Myerson, J., & Wagstaff, D. (1987). General slowing of nonverbal information processing: Evidence for a power law. Journal of Gerontology, 42, 131-136. http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/geronj/42.2.131
65. Harm, M. W., & Seidenberg, M. S. (2004). Computing the meanings of words in reading: Cooperative division of labor between visual and phonological processes. Psychological Review, 111, 662-720. http://dx .doi.org/10.1037/0033-295X.111.3.662
66. Hartshorne, J. K., & Germine, L. T. (2015). When does cognitive functioning peak? The asynchronous rise and fall of different cognitive abilities across the life span. Psychological Science, 26, 433-443. http:// dx.doi.org/10.1177/0956797614567339
67. Horn, J. L. (1982). The theory of fluid and crystallized intelligence in relation to concepts of cognitive psychology and aging in adulthood. In F. I. M. Craik & S. Trehub (Eds.), Aging and cognitive processes (pp. 237-278). Boston, MA: Plenum Press. http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/978-1- 4684-4178-9_14
68. Huttenlocher, J. (1984). Word recognition and word production in children. In H. Bouma & D. G. Bouwhuis (Eds.), Attention and performance X (pp. 447-457). Hillsdale, NJ: Erlbaum.
69. Johnson, P. C. (2014). Extension of Nakagawa & Schielzeth's R(2)GLMM to random slopes models. Methods in Ecology and Evolution, 5, 944- 946. http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/2041-210X.12225
70. Johnston, R., & Barry, C. (2006). Age of acquisition and lexical processing. Visual Cognition, 13, 789-845. http://dx.doi.org/10 .1080/13506280544000066
71. Juhasz, B. J. (2005). Age-of-acquisition effects in word and picture identification. Psychological Bulletin, 131, 684-712. http://dx.doi.org/10 .1037/0033-2909.131.5.684
72. Kail, R. (1986). Sources of age differences in speed of processing. Child Development, 57, 969-987. http://dx.doi.org/10.2307/1130372
73. Kail, R. (1991). Developmental change in speed of processing during childhood and adolescence. Psychological Bulletin, 109, 490-501. http://dx.doi.org/10.1037/0033-2909.109.3.490
74. Kessler, B., Treiman, R., & Mullennix, J. (2002). Phonetic biases in voice key response time measurements. Journal of Memory and Language, 47, 145-171. http://dx.doi.org/10.1006/jmla.2001.2835
75. Keuleers, E., Lacey, P., Rastle, K., & Brysbaert, M. (2012). The British Lexicon Project: Lexical decision data for 28,730 monosyllabic and disyllabic English words. Behavior Research Methods, 44, 287-304. http://dx.doi.org/10.3758/s13428-011-0118-4
76. Kuperman, V., Stadthagen-Gonzalez, H., & Brysbaert, M. (2012). Age-ofacquisition ratings for 30,000 English words. Behavior Research Methods, 44, 978-990. http://dx.doi.org/10.3758/s13428-012-0210-4
77. Kuznetsova, A., Brockhoff, P. B., & Christensen, R. H. B. (2016). lmerTest: Tests in Linear Mixed Effects Models. R package version, 2.0-32. Retrieved from https://cran.r-project.org/web/packages/lmerTest/index .html
78. Lambon Ralph, M. A., & Ehsan, S. (2006). Age of acquisition effects depend on the mapping between representations and the frequency of occurrence: Empirical and computational evidence. Visual Cognition, 13, 928-948. http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/13506280544000110
79. Laxon, V. J., Coltheart, V., & Keating, C. (1988). Children find friendly words friendly too: Words with many orthographic neighbours are easier to read and spell. British Journal of Educational Psychology, 58, 103- 119. http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/j.2044-8279.1988.tb00882.x
80. Laxon, V., Gallagher, A., & Masterson, J. (2002). The effects of familiarity, orthographic neighbourhood density, letter-length and graphemic complexity on children's reading accuracy. British Journal of Psychology, 93, 269-287. http://dx.doi.org/10.1348/000712602162580
81. Lewellen, M. J., Goldinger, S. D., Pisoni, D. B., & Greene, B. G. (1993). Lexical familiarity and processing efficiency: Individual differences in naming, lexical decision, and semantic categorization. Journal of Experimental Psychology: General, 122, 316-330. http://dx.doi.org/10 .1037/0096-3445.122.3.316
82. Lewis, M. B., Gerhand, S., & Ellis, H. D. (2001). Re-evaluating age-ofacquisition effects: Are they simply cumulative-frequency effects? Cognition, 78, 189-205. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/S0010-0277(00)00117-7
83. Li, S. C., Lindenberger, U., & Sikström, S. (2001). Aging cognition: From neuromodulation to representation. Trends in Cognitive Sciences, 5, 479-486. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/S1364-6613(00)01769-1
84. Lima, S. D., Hale, S., & Myerson, J. (1991). How general is general slowing? Evidence from the lexical domain. Psychology and Aging, 6, 416-425. http://dx.doi.org/10.1037/0882-7974.6.3.416
85. Lorch, R. F., Jr., & Myers, J. L. (1990). Regression analyses of repeated measures data in cognitive research. Journal of Experimental Psychology: Learning, Memory, and Cognition, 16, 149-157. http://dx.doi.org/ 10.1037/0278-7393.16.1.149
86. Madden, D. J. (1992). Four to ten milliseconds per year: Age-related slowing of visual word identification. Journal of Gerontology, 47, P59- P68. http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/geronj/47.2.P59
87. Masterson, J., & Hayes, M. (2007). Development and data for UK versions of an author and title recognition test for adults. Journal of Research in Reading, 30, 212-219. http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/j.1467-9817.2006 .00320.x
88. McClelland, J., & Rumelhart, D. E. (1981). An interactive tivation model of context effects in letter perception: Part 1. An account of basic findings. Psychological Review, 88, 375-407. http://dx.doi.org/10.1037/ 0033-295X.88.5.375
89. McKoon, G., & Ratcliff, R. (2016). Adults with poor reading skills: How lexical knowledge interacts with scores on standardized reading comprehension tests. Cognition, 146, 453-469. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j .cognition.2015.10.009
90. Mermillod, M., Bonin, P., Méot, A., Ferrand, L., & Paindavoine, M. (2012). Computational evidenceat frequency trajectory theory does not oppose but emerges from age-of-acquisition theory. Cognitive Science, 36, 1499 -1531. http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/j.1551-6709.2012 .01266.x
91. Moers, C., Meyer, A., & Janse, E. (2016). Effects of word frequency and transitional probability on word reading durations of younger and older speakers. Language and Speech. Advance online publication. http://dx .doi.org/10.1177/0023830916649215
92. Monaghan, J., & Ellis, A. W. (2002). What exactly interacts with spellingsound consistency in word naming? Journal of Experimental Psychology: Learning, Memory, and Cognition, 28, 183-206. http://dx.doi.org/ 10.1037/0278-7393.28.1.183
93. Monaghan, P., & Ellis, A. (2010). Modeling reading development: Cumulative, incremental learning in a computational model of word naming. Journal of Memory and Language, 63, 506-525. http://dx.doi.org/10 .1016/j.jml.2010.08.003
94. Morrison, C. M., & Ellis, A. W. (1995). Roles of word frequency and age of acquisition in word naming and lexical decision. Journal of Experimental Psychology: Learning, Memory, and Cognition, 21, 116-133. http://dx.doi.org/10.1037/0278-7393.21.1.116
95. Morrison, C. M., Hirsh, K. W., Chappell, T. D., & Ellis, A. W. (2002). Age and age of acquisition: An evaluation of the cumulative frequency hypothesis. European Journal of Cognitive Psychology, 14, 435-459. http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/09541440143000159
96. Morton, J. (1969). The interaction of information in word recognition. Psychological Review, 76, 165-178. http://dx.doi.org/10.1037/h0027366
97. Mousikou, P., & Rastle, K. (2015). Lexical frequency effects on articulation: A comparison of picture naming and reading aloud. Frontiers in Psychology, 6, 1571. Advance online publication. http://dx.doi.org/10 .3389/fpsyg.2015.01571
98. Murray, W. S., & Forster, K. I. (2004). Serial mechanisms in lexical access: The rank hypothesis. Psychological Review, 111, 721-756. http://dx.doi.org/10.1037/0033-295X.111.3.721
99. Nakagawa, S., & Schielzeth, H. (2013). A general and simple method for obtaining R2 from generalized linear mixed-effects models. Methods in Ecology and Evolution, 4, 133-142. http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/j.2041- 210x.2012.00261.x
100. Nieuwenhuis, S., Forstmann, B. U., & Wagenmakers, E.-J. (2011). Erroneous analyses of interactions in neuroscience: A problem of significance. Nature Neuroscience, 14, 1105-1107. http://dx.doi.org/10.1038/ nn.2886
101. Noble, C., Baker, B. L., & Jones, T. A. (1964). Age and sex parameters in psychomotor learning. Perceptual and Motor Skills, 19, 935-945. http:// dx.doi.org/10.2466/pms.1964.19.3.935
102. Norris, D. (2006). The Bayesian reader: Explaining word recognition as an optimal Bayesian decision process. Psychological Review, 113, 327- 357. http://dx.doi.org/10.1037/0033-295X.113.2.327
103. Norris, D. (2009). Putting it all together: A unified account of word recognition and reaction-time distributions. Psychological Review, 116, 207-219. http://dx.doi.org/10.1037/a0014259
104. Olson, R. K., Kliegl, R., Davidson, B. J., & Foltz, G. (1985). Individual and development differences in reading disability. In G. E. MacKinnon & T. G. Waller (Eds.), Reading research: Advances in theory and practice (pp. 1-64). Orlando, FL: Academic Press.
105. Perfetti, C. A. (2007). Reading ability: Lexical quality to comprehension. Scientific Studies of Reading, 11, 357-383. http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/ 10888430701530730
106. Perfetti, C. A., & Hart, L. (2001). The lexical bases of comprehension skill. In D. Gorfien (Ed.), On the consequences of meaning selection (pp. 67-86). Washington, DC: American Psychological Association.
107. Perfetti, C. A., & Hart, L. (2002). The lexical quality hypothesis. In L. Vehoeven, C. Elbro, & P. Reitsma (Eds.), Precursors of functional literacy (pp. 189-213). Amsterdam, the Netherlands: John Benjamins. http://dx.doi.org/10.1075/swll.11.14per
108. Perry, C., Ziegler, J. C., & Zorzi, M. (2007). Nested incremental modeling in the development of computational theories: The CDP± model of reading aloud. Psychological Review, 114, 273-315. http://dx.doi.org/ 10.1037/0033-295X.114.2.273
109. Pinheiro, J. C., & Bates, D. M. (2000). Mixed-effects models in S and S-plus (Statistics and Computing). New York, NY: Springer. http://dx .doi.org/10.1007/978-1-4419-0318-1
110. Plaut, D. C. (1997). Structure and function in the lexical system: Insights from distributed models of word reading and lexical decision. Language and Cognitive Processes, 12, 765- 806. http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/ 016909697386682
111. Plaut, D. C., McClelland, J. L., Seidenberg, M. S., & Patterson, K. (1996). Understanding normal and impaired word reading: Computational principles in quasi-regular domains. Psychological Review, 103, 56-115. http://dx.doi.org/10.1037/0033-295X.103.1.56
112. Protopapas, A. (2007). CheckVocal: A program to facilitate checking the accuracy and response time of vocal responses from DMDX. Behavior Research Methods, 39, 859-862. http://dx.doi.org/10.3758/ BF03192979
113. Rabbitt, P., Diggle, P., Holland, F., & McInnes, L. (2004). Practice and drop-out effects during a 17-year longitudinal study of cognitive aging. The Journals of Gerontology Series B, Psychological Sciences and Social Sciences, 59, P84-P97. http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/geronb/59.2 .P84
114. Rabbitt, P. M. A., McInnes, L., Diggle, P., Holland, F., Bent, N., Abson, V.,. Horan, M. (2004). The University of Manchester longitudinal study of cognition in normal healthy old age, 1983 through 2003. Aging, Neuropsychology, and Cognition, 11, 245-279. http://dx.doi.org/10 .1080/13825580490511116
115. Ratcliff, R., Gomez, P., & McKoon, G. (2004). A diffusion model account of the lexical decision task. Psychological Review, 111, 159-182. http:// dx.doi.org/10.1037/0033-295X.111.1.159
116. Ratcliff, R., Love, J., Thompson, C. A., & Opfer, J. E. (2012). Children are not like older adults: A diffusion model analysis of developmental changes in speeded responses. Child Development, 83, 367-381. http:// dx.doi.org/10.1111/j.1467-8624.2011.01683.x
117. Ratcliff, R., Thapar, A., Gomez, P., & McKoon, G. (2004). A diffusion model analysis of the effects of aging in the lexical-decision task. Psychology and Aging, 19, 278-289. http://dx.doi.org/10.1037/0882- 7974.19.2.278
118. Ratcliff, R., Thapar, A., & McKoon, G. (2010). Individual differences, aging, and IQ in two-choice tasks. Cognitive Psychology, 60, 127-157. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.cogpsych.2009.09.001
119. R Core Team. (2016). R: A language and environment for statistical computing. R foundation for statistical computing. Vienna, Austria. Retrieved from http://www.R-project.org
120. Salthouse, T. A. (1996). The processing-speed theory of adult age differences in cognition. Psychological Review, 103, 403-428. http://dx.doi .org/10.1037/0033-295X.103.3.403
121. Salthouse, T. A. (2004). What and when of cognitive aging. Current Directions in Psychological Science, 13, 140-144. http://dx.doi.org/10 .1111/j.0963-7214.2004.00293.x
122. Salthouse, T. A. (2014). Quantity and structure of word knowledge across adulthood. Intelligence, 46, 122-130. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.intell .2014.05.009
123. Schneider, B. A., & Pichora-Fuller, M. K. (2000). Implication of perceptual deterioation for cognitive aging research. In F. I. M. Craik & T. A. Salthouse (Eds.), The handbook of aging and cognition (2nd ed., pp. 155-219). Mahwah, NJ: Erlbaum.
124. Sears, C. R., Hino, Y., & Lupker, S. J. (1995). Neighbourhood size and neighbourhood frequency effects in word recognition. Journal of Experimental Psychology: Human Perception and Performance, 21, 876-900. http://dx.doi.org/10.1037/0096-1523.21.4.876
125. Sears, C. R., Siakaluk, P. D., Chow, V. C., & Buchanan, L. (2008). Is there an effect of print exposure on the word frequency effect and the neighborhood size effect? Journal of Psycholinguistic Research, 37, 269-291. http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/s10936-008-9071-5
126. Seidenberg, M. S., & McClelland, J. L. (1989). A distributed, developmental model of word recognition and naming. Psychological Review, 96, 523-568. http://dx.doi.org/10.1037/0033-295X.96.4.523
127. Seidenberg, M. S., & Plaut, D. C. (1998). Evaluating word-reading models at the item level: Matching the grain of theory and data. Psychological Science, 9, 234-237.
128. Seyfarth, S. (2014). Word informativity influences acoustic duration: Effects of contextual predictability on lexical representation. Cognition, 133, 140-155. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.cognition.2014.06.013
129. Silberzahn, R., & Uhlmann, E. L. (2015). Crowdsourced research: Many hands make tight work. Nature, 526, 189-191. http://dx.doi.org/10 .1038/526189a
130. Simmons, J. P., Nelson, L. D., & Simonsohn, U. (2011). False-positive psychology: Undisclosed flexibility in data collection and analysis allows presenting anything as significant. Psychological Science, 22, 1359-1366. http://dx.doi.org/10.1177/0956797611417632
131. Snijders, T. A., & Bosker, R. J. (2012). Multilevel analysis: An introduction to basic and advanced multilevel modeling (2nd Edition). Berlin, Germany: Springer.
132. Spieler, D. H., & Balota, D. A. (1997). Bringing computational models of word naming down to the item level. Psychological Science, 8, 411- 416. http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/j.1467-9280.1997.tb00453.x
133. Spieler, D. H., & Balota, D. A. (2000). Factors influencing word naming in younger and older adults. Psychology and Aging, 15, 225-231. http:// dx.doi.org/10.1037/0882-7974.15.2.225
134. Stainthorp, R. (1997). A children's author recognition test: A useful tool in reading research. Journal of Research in Reading, 20, 148-158. http:// dx.doi.org/10.1111/1467-9817.00027
135. Stelmach, G. E., Goggin, N. L., & Amrhein, P. C. (1988). Aging and the restructuring of precued movements. Psychology and Aging, 3, 151-157. http://dx.doi.org/10.1037/0882-7974.3.2.151
136. Strain, E., Patterson, K., & Seidenberg, M. S. (1995). Semantic effects in single-word naming. Journal of Experimental Psychology: Learning, Memory, and Cognition, 21, 1140-1154. http://dx.doi.org/10.1037/ 0278-7393.21.5.1140
137. Tainturier, M. J., Tremblay, M., & Lecours, A. R. (1989). Aging and the word frequency effect: A lexical decision investigation. Neuropsychologia, 27, 1197-1202. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/0028-3932(89)90103-6
138. Tainturier, M. J., Tremblay, M., & Lecours, A. R. (1992). Educational level and the word frequency effect: A lexical decision investigation. Brain and Language, 43, 460-474. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/0093- 934X(92)90112-R
139. Taraban, R., & McClelland, J. L. (1987). Conspiracy effects in word pronunciation. Journal of Memory and Language, 26, 608-631. http:// dx.doi.org/10.1016/0749-596X(87)90105-7
140. Torgesen, J. K., Wagner, R. K., & Rashotte, C. A. (1999). TOWRE Test of word reading efficiency. Austin, TX: Pro-ed.
141. van Heuven, W. J. B., Mandera, P., Keuleers, E., & Brysbaert, M. (2014). SUBTLEX-UK: A new and improved word frequency database for British English. The Quarterly Journal of Experimental Psychology, 67, 1176-1190. http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/17470218.2013.850521
142. Van Orden, G. C., Pennington, B. F., & Stone, G. O. (1990). Word identification in reading and the promise of subsymbolic psycholinguistics. Psychological Review, 97, 488-522. http://dx.doi.org/10.1037/ 0033-295X.97.4.488
143. Verhaeghen, P., & Salthouse, T. A. (1997). Meta-analyses of age-cognition relations in adulthood: Estimates of linear and nonlinear age effects and structural models. Psychological Bulletin, 122, 231-249. http://dx.doi .org/10.1037/0033-2909.122.3.231
144. Wagenmakers, E. J., van der Maas, H. L., & Grasman, R. P. (2007). An EZ-diffusion model for response time and accuracy. Psychonomic Bulletin & Review, 14, 3-22. http://dx.doi.org/10.3758/BF03194023
145. Wechsler, D. (2008). Wechsler adult intelligence scale-Fourth edition (WAIS-IV). San Antonio, TX: NCS Pearson.
146. Yap, M. J., & Balota, D. A. (2009). Visual word recognition of multisyllabic words. Journal of Memory and Language, 60, 502-529. http://dx .doi.org/10.1016/j.jml.2009.02.001
147. Yap, M. J., Balota, D. A., Sibley, D. E., & Ratcliff, R. (2012). Individual differences in visual word recognition: Insights from the English Lexicon Project. Journal of Experimental Psychology: Human Perception and Performance, 38, 53-79. http://dx.doi.org/10.1037/a0024177
148. Yarkoni, T., Balota, D., & Yap, M. (2008). Moving beyond Coltheart's N: A new measure of orthographic similarity. Psychonomic Bulletin & Review, 15, 971-979. http://dx.doi.org/10.3758/PBR.15.5.971
149. Zeguers, M. H., Snellings, P., Tijms, J., Weeda, W. D., Tamboer, P., Bexkens, A., & Huizenga, H. M. (2011). Specifying theories of developmental dyslexia: A diffusion model analysis of word recognition. Developmental Science, 14, 1340 -1354. http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/j .1467-7687.2011.01091.x
150. Zevin, J. D., & Seidenberg, M. S. (2002). Age of acquisition effects in word reading and other tasks. Journal of Memory and Language, 47, 1-29. http://dx.doi.org/10.1006/jmla.2001.2834
151. Zevin, J. D., & Seidenberg, M. S. (2004). Age-of-acquisition effects in reading aloud: Tests of cumulative frequency and frequency trajectory. Memory & Cognition, 32, 31-38. http://dx.doi.org/10.3758/BF03195818
152. Ziegler, J. C., Castel, C., Pech-Georgel, C., George, F., Alario, F. X., & Perry, C. (2008). Developmental dyslexia and the dual route model of reading: Simulating individual differences and subtypes. Cognition, 107, 151-178. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.cognition.2007.09.004