Effects of Word Frequency and Transitional Probability on Word Reading Durations of Younger and Older Speakers

Language and Speech

Volumn 60, Issue 2, 2017, Pages 289-317

  Moers, Cornelia ^a   Meyer, Antje ^a,b   Janse, Esther ^a,b  

^a MAX PLANCK INSTITUTE FOR PSYCHOLINGUISTICS   (Netherlands)

^b RADBOUD UNIVERSITY NIJMEGEN   (Netherlands)

Author keywords

aging; lexical access; reading aloud; transitional probability; Word frequency

Indexed keywords

ADOLESCENT; ADULT; AGING; CASE REPORT; FACILITATION; FEMALE; HUMAN; LANGUAGE; MALE; PROBABILITY; READING; AGE; AGED; CHILD; COMPARATIVE STUDY; LINGUISTICS; MIDDLE AGED; SPEECH; SPEECH ANALYSIS; TIME FACTOR; VERY ELDERLY; VOICE;

ADOLESCENT; AGE FACTORS; AGED; AGED, 80 AND OVER; CHILD; FEMALE; HUMANS; LINGUISTICS; MALE; MIDDLE AGED; PROBABILITY; READING; SPEECH ACOUSTICS; SPEECH PRODUCTION MEASUREMENT; TIME FACTORS; VOICE QUALITY;

EID: 85023781096     PISSN: 00238309     EISSN: 17566053     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1177/0023830916649215     Document Type: Article

References (115)

1. Aghababian V., Nazir T. A., (2000). Developing normal reading skills: Aspects of the visual processes underlying word recognition. Journal of Experimental Child Psychology, 76(2), 123–150. doi: 10.1006/jecp.1999.2540.
2. Allen P. A., Smith A. F., Lien M.-C., Grabbe J., Murphy M. D., (2005). Evidence for an activation locus of the word-frequency effect in lexical decision. Journal of Experimental Psychology: Human Perception and Performance, 31(4), 713–721. doi: 10.1037/0096–1523.31.4.713.
3. Ambridge B., Kidd E., Rowland C. F., Theakston A. L., (2015). The ubiquity of frequency effects in first language acquisition. Journal of Child Language, 42(2), 239–273. doi: doi:10.1017/S030500091400049X.
4. Anderson I. H., Swanson D. E., (1937). Common factors in eye-movements in silent and oral reading. Psychological Monographs, 48(3), 61–77. doi: 10.1037/h0093393.
5. Andrews S., Hersch J., (2010). Lexical precision in skilled readers: Individual differences in masked neighbor priming. Journal of Experimental Psychology: General, 139(2), 299–318. doi: 10.1037/a0018366.
6. Arnon I., Cohen Priva U. C., (2013). More than words: The effect of multi-word frequency and constituency on phonetic duration. Language and Speech, 56(3), 349–371. doi:10.1177/0023830913484891.
7. Arnon I., Snider N., (2010). More than words: Frequency effects for multi-word phrases. Journal of Memory and Language, 62, 67–82. doi:10.1016/j.jml.2009.09.005.
8. Aylett M., Turk A., (2004). The smooth signal redundancy hypothesis: A functional explanation for relationships between redundancy, prosodic prominence, and duration in spontaneous speech. Language and Speech, 47(1), 31–56. doi: 10.1177/00238309040470010201.
9. Baayen R.H., (2011). LanguageR: Data sets and functions with “Analyzing Linguistic Data: A practical introduction to statistics.” R package version 1.4. Retrieved from http://cran.r-project.org/web/packages/languageR/
10. Baese-Berk M., Goldrick M., (2009). Mechanisms of interaction in speech production. Language and Cognitive Processes, 24(4), 527–554. doi: 10.1080/01690960802299378.
11. Baker R. E., Bradlow A. R., (2009). Variability in word duration as a function of probability, speech style, and prosody. Language and Speech, 52(4), 391–413. doi: 10.1177/0023830909336575.
12. Balota D. A., Ferraro F. R., (1996). Lexical, sublexical, and implicit memory processes in healthy young and healthy older adults and in individuals with dementia of the Alzheimer type. Neuropsychology, 10(1), 82–95. doi: 10.1037/0894–4105.10.1.82.
13. Barr D. J., Levy R., Scheepers C., Tily H. J., (2013). Random effects structure for confirmatory hypothesis testing: Keep it maximal. Journal of Memory and Language, 68(3), 255–278. doi: http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.jml.2012.11.001.
14. Bates D., Maechler M., Bolker B., (2014). lme4: Linear mixed-effects models using Eigen and S4. R package version 1.1–7. Retrieved from http://lme4.r-forge.r-project.org/
15. Beckman M. E., Edwards J., (1990). Lengthening and shortenings and the nature of prosodic constituency. In Kingston J., Beckman M. E., (Eds.), Papers in laboratory phonology I (pp. 152–178). Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press.
16. Bell A., Brenier J. M., Gregory M., Girand C., Jurafsky D., (2009). Predictability effects on durations of content and function words in conversational English. Journal of Memory and Language, 60(1), 92–111. doi: http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.jml.2008.06.003.
17. Bell A., Jurafsky D., Fosler-Lussier E., Girand C., Gregory M., Gildea D., (2003). Effects of disfluencies, predictability, and utterance position on word form variation in English conversation. Journal of the Acoustical Society of America, 113(2), 1001–1024. http://dx.doi.org/10.1121/1.1534836.
18. Ben-David B. M., Erel H., Goy H., Schneider B. A., (2015). “Older is always better”: Age-related differences in vocabulary scores across 16 years. Psychology and Aging, 30(4), 856–862. doi: 10.1037/pag0000051.
19. Blythe H. I., Joseph H. S. S. L., (2011). Children’s eye movements during reading. In Liversedge S. P., Gilchrist I., Everling S., (Eds.), The Oxford handbook of eye movements (pp. 643–662). Oxford, UK: Oxford University Press.
20. Boersma P., Weenink D., (2012). Praat: doing phonetics by computer, Version 5.3. Retrieved from http://www.fon.hum.uva.nl/praat/
21. Breznitz Z., Berman L., (2003). The underlying factors of word reading rate. Educational Psychology Review, 15(3), 247–265. doi: 10.1023/a:1024696101081.
22. Buswell G. T., (1921). The relationship between eye-perception and voice-response in reading. Journal of Educational Psychology, 12(4), 217–227. doi: 10.1037/h0070548.
23. Buz E., Jaeger T. F., (2015). The (in)dependence of articulation and lexical planning during isolated word production. Language, Cognition and Neuroscience, 31(3), 404–424. doi: 10.1080/23273798.2015.1105984.
24. Bybee J. L., (2006) Frequency of use and the organization of language. Oxford, UK: Oxford University Press.
25. Calfee R., Drum P., (1986). Research on teaching reading. In Wittrock M. C., (Ed.), Handbook of research on teaching (pp. 804–849). New York, NY: Macmillan Publishing Company.
26. Chater N., Manning C. D., (2006). Probabilistic models of language processing and acquisition. Trends in Cognitive Sciences, 10(7), 335–344. doi: http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.tics.2006.05.006.
27. Clopper C. G., Pierrehumbert J. B., (2008). Effects of semantic predictability and regional dialect on vowel space reduction. Journal of the Acoustical Society of America, 124(3), 1682–1688. http://doi.org/10.1121/1.2953322.
28. Coltheart V., Laxon V. J., Keating C., (1988). Effects of word imageability and age of acquisition on children’s reading. British Journal of Psychology, 79(1), 1–12. doi: 10.1111/j.2044–8295.1988.tb02270.x.
29. Coltheart M., Rastle K., Perry C., Langdon R., Ziegler J., (2001). DRC: A dual route cascaded model of visual word recognition and reading aloud. Psychological Review, 108(1), 204–256. doi:10.1037/0033–295X.108.1.204.
30. Cucchiarini C., Driesen J., Van Hamme H., Sanders E., (2008). Recording speech of children, non-natives and elderly people for HLT applications: The JASMIN-CGN corpus. Proceedings of the Sixth International Conference on Language Resources and Evaluation (LREC’08), Marrakech, Morocco. Retrieved from http://www.lrec-conf.org/proceedings/lrec2008/summaries/366.html
31. DeLong K. A., Groppe D. M., Urbach T. P., Kutas M., (2012). Thinking ahead or not? Natural aging and anticipation during reading. Brain and Language, 121(3), 226–239. doi: 10.1016/j.bandl.2012.02.006.
32. Diependaele K., Lemhöfer K., Brysbaert M., (2012). The word frequency effect in first- and second-language word recognition: A lexical entrenchment account. The Quarterly Journal of Experimental Psychology, 66(5), 843–863. doi: 10.1080/17470218.2012.720994.
33. Federmeier K. D., Kutas M., (2005). Aging in context: Age-related changes in context use during language comprehension. Psychophysiology, 42(2), 133–141. doi: 10.1111/j.1469–8986.2005.00274.x.
34. Federmeier K. D., Kutas M., Schul R., (2010). Age-related and individual differences in the use of prediction during language comprehension. Brain and Language, 115(3), 149–161. doi: http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.bandl.2010.07.006.
35. Fougeron C., Keating P. A., (1997). Articulatory strengthening at edges of prosodic domains. Journal of the Acoustical Society of America, 101(6), 3728–3740. doi: 10.1121/1.418332.
36. Frisson S., Rayner K., Pickering M. J., (2005). Effects of contextual predictability and transitional probability on eye movements during reading. Journal of Experimental Psychology: Learning, Memory, and Cognition, 31(5), 862–877. doi:10.1037/0278–7393.31.5.862.
37. Gahl S., (2008). Time and thyme are not homophones: The effect of lemma frequency on word durations in spontaneous speech. Language, 84(3), 474–496. doi:10.1353/lan.0.0035.
38. Gahl S., Garnsey S. M., (2004). Knowledge of grammar, knowledge of usage: Syntactic probabilities affect pronunciation variation. Language, 80(4), 748–775. doi: 10.1353/lan.2004.0185.
39. Gahl S., Yao Y., Johnson K., (2012). Why reduce? Phonological neighborhood density and phonetic reduction in spontaneous speech. Journal of Memory and Language, 66(4), 789–806. doi: http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.jml.2011.11.006.
40. Goldrick M., Baker H. R., Murphy A., Baese-Berk M., (2011). Interaction and representational integration: Evidence from speech errors. Cognition, 121(1), 58–72. doi: http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.cognition.2011.05.006.
41. Gollan T. H., Montoya R. I., Cera C., Sandoval T. C., (2008). More use almost always means a smaller frequency effect: Aging, bilingualism, and the weaker links hypothesis. Journal of Memory and Language, 58(3), 787–814. doi: http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.jml.2007.07.001.
42. Gregory M. L., Raymond W. D., Bell A., Fosler-Lussier E., Jurafsky D., (1999). The effects of collocational strength and contextual predictability in lexical production. Chicago Linguistic Society, 35, 151–166.
43. Hahn L. W., (2012). Measuring local context as context-word probabilities. Behavior Research Methods, 44(2), 344–360. doi: 10.3758/s13428–011–0148-y.
44. Hand C. J., Miellet S., O’Donnell P. J., Sereno S. C., (2010). The frequency–predictability interaction in reading: It depends where you’re Ccoming from. Journal of Experimental Psychology: Human Perception and Performance, 36(5), 1294–1313. doi: 10.1037/a0020363
45. Hanique I., Ernestus M., (2011). Final /t/ reduction in Dutch past-participles: The role of word predictability and morphological decomposability. In Proceedings of the 12th Annual Conference of the International Speech Communication Association (Interspeech 2011), Florence, Italy (pp. 2849–2852). Retrieved from http://www.mirjamernestus.nl/Ernestus/publications/Hanique_Ernestus_2011_Interspeech.pdf
46. Hanique I., Schuppler B., Ernestus M., (2010). Morphological and predictability effects on schwa reduction: The case of Dutch word-initial syllables. In Proceedings of the 11th Annual Conference of the International Speech Communication Association (Interspeech 2010), Makuhari, Japan (pp. 933–936). Retrieved from http://www.mirjamernestus.nl/Ernestus/publications/Hanique_Schuppler_Ernestus_2010_Interspeech.pdf
47. Hartshorne J. K., Germine L. T., (2015). When does cognitive functioning peak? The asynchronous rise and fall of different cognitive abilities across the life span. Psychological Science, 26(4), 433–443. doi: 10.1177/0956797614567339.
48. Hauk O., Pulvermüller F., (2004). Effects of word length and frequency on the human event-related potential. Clinical Neurophysiology, 115(5), 1090–1103. doi: http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.clinph.2003.12.020.
49. Huey E. B., (1908). The psychology and pedagogy of reading. Cambridge, MA: MIT Press.
50. Huestegge L., Radach R., Corbic D., Huestegge S. M., (2009). Oculomotor and linguistic determinants of reading development: A longitudinal study. Vision Research, 49(24), 2948–2959. doi: http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.visres.2009.09.012.
51. Hyönä J., Olson R. K., (1995). Eye fixation patterns among dyslexic and normal readers: Effects of word length and word frequency. Journal of Experimental Psychology: Learning, Memory, and Cognition, 21(6), 1430–1440. http://dx.doi.org/10.1037/0278–7393.21.6.1430.
52. Inhoff A. W., Solomon M., Radach R., Seymour B. A., (2011). Temporal dynamics of the eye–voice span and eye movement control during oral reading. Journal of Cognitive Psychology, 23(5), 543–558. doi: 10.1080/20445911.2011.546782.
53. Jacobs C. L., Yiu L. K., Watson D. G., Dell G. S., (2015). Why are repeated words produced with reduced durations? Evidence from inner speech and homophone production. Journal of Memory and Language, 84, 37–48. doi: 10.1016/j.jml.2015.05.004.
54. Janse E., Jesse A., (2014). Working memory affects older adults’ use of context in spoken-word recognition. Quarterly Journal of Experimental Psychology, 67(9), 1842–1862. doi: 10.1080/17470218.2013.879391.
55. Janssen N., Barber H. A., (2012). Phrase frequency effects in language production. PLoS ONE, 7(3), e33202. doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0033202.
56. Jescheniak J. D., Levelt W. J. M., (1994). Word frequency effects in speech production: Retrieval of syntactic information and of phonological form. Journal of Experimental Psychology: Learning, Memory, and Cognition, 20(4), 824–843. doi: 10.1037/0278–7393.20.4.824.
57. Joseph H., Nation K., Liversedge S. P., (2013). Using eye movements to investigate word frequency effects in children’s sentence reading. School Psychology Review, 42(2), 207–222.
58. Jurafsky D., Bell A., Gregory M., Raymond W. D., (2001). Probabilistic Relations between words: Evidence from reduction in lexical production. In Bybee J. L., Hopper P. J., (Eds.), Frequency and the emergence of linguistic structure (pp. 229–254). Amsterdam, The Netherlands: John Benjamins.
59. Kahn J. M., Arnold J. E., (2012). A processing-centered look at the contribution of givenness to durational reduction. Journal of Memory and Language, 67(3), 311–325. doi: http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.jml.2012.07.002.
60. Kemper S., Bontempo D., Schmalzried R., McKedy W., Tagliaferri B., Kieweg D., (2014). Tracking reading: Dual task costs of oral reading for young versus older adults. Journal of Psycholinguist Research, 43(1), 59–80. doi: 10.1007/s10936–013–9240-z.
61. Kliegl R., Grabner E., Rolfs M., Engbert R., (2004). Length, frequency, and predictability effects of words on eye movements in reading. European Journal of Cognitive Psychology, 16(1/2), 262–284. doi: 10.1080/09541440340000213.
62. Kuperman V., Bresnan J., (2012). The effects of construction probability on word durations during spontaneous incremental sentence production. Journal of Memory and Language, 66(4), 588–611. doi: http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.jml.2012.04.003.
63. Kuperman V., Van Dyke J. A., (2013). Reassessing word frequency as a determinant of word recognition for skilled and unskilled readers. Journal of Experimental Psychology: Human Perception & Performance, 39(3), 802–823. doi: 10.1037/a0030859.
64. Lieberman P., (1963). Some effects of semantic and grammatical context on the production and perception of speech. Language and Speech, 6(3), 172–187. doi:10.1177/002383096300600306.
65. Mahowald K., Fedorenko E., Piantadosi S. T., Gibson E., (2013). Info/information theory: Speakers choose shorter words in predictive contexts. Cognition, 126(2), 313–318. doi: http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.cognition.2012.09.010.
66. McDonald S. A., Shillcock R. C., (2003a). Eye movements reveal the on-Line computation of lexical probabilities during reading. Psychological Science, 14(6), 648–652. doi: 10.1046/j.0956–7976.2003.psci_1480.x.
67. McDonald S. A., Shillcock R. C., (2003b). Low-level predictive inference in reading: The influence of transitional probabilities on eye movements. Vision Research, 43(16), 1735–1751. doi: http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/S0042–6989(03)00237–2.
68. Moers C., Janse E., Meyer A. S., (2015). Probabilistic reduction in reading aloud: A comparison of younger and older adults. In Wolters M., Livingstone J., Beattie B., Smith R., MacMahon M., Stuart-Smith J.. (Eds.), Proceedings of the 18th International Congress of Phonetic Sciences [ICPhS 2015]. London, UK: International Phonetics Association.
69. Morrison C. M., Hirsh K. W., Chappell T., Ellis A. W., (2002). Age and age of acquisition: An evaluation of the cumulative frequency hypothesis. European Journal of Cognitive Psychology, 14(4), 435–459. doi: 10.1080/09541440143000159.
70. Mousikou B., Rastle K., (2015). Lexical frequency effects on articulation: A comparison of picture naming and reading aloud. Frontiers in Psychology, 6, 1571. doi: 10.3389/fpsyg.2015.01571.
71. Nation K., Snowling M. J., (1998). Individual differences in contextual facilitation: Evidence from dyslexia and poor reading comprehension. Child Development, 69(4), 996–1011. doi: 10.1111/j.1467–8624.1998.tb06157.x.
72. Navarrete E., Basagni B., Alario F. X., Costa A., (2006). Does word frequency affect lexical selection in speech production? The Quarterly Journal of Experimental Psychology, 59(10), 1681–1690. doi: 10.1080/17470210600750558.
73. Oostdijk N., (2002). The design of the Spoken Dutch Corpus. In Peters P., Collins P., Smith A., (Eds.), New Frontiers of Corpus Research (pp. 105–112). Amsterdam, The Netherlands: Rodopi.
74. Perea M., Soares A. P., Comesana M., (2013). Contextual diversity is a main determinant of word identification times in young readers. Journal of Experimental Child Psychology, 116(1), 37–44. doi: 10.1016/j.jecp.2012.10.014.
75. Perfetti C., (2007). Reading ability: Lexical quality to comprehension. Scientific Studies of Reading, 11(4), 357–383. doi: 10.1080/10888430701530730.
76. Pluymaekers M., Ernestus M., Baayen R. H., (2005a). Articulatory planning is continuous and sensitive to informational redundancy. Phonetica, 62(2–4), 146–159. doi: 10.1159/000090095.
77. Pluymaekers M., Ernestus M., Baayen R. H., (2005b). Lexical frequency and acoustic reduction in spoken Dutch. Journal of the Acoustical Society of America, 118(4), 2561–2569. http://dx.doi.org/10.1121/1.2011150.
78. R Development Core Team (2014). R: A language and environment for statistical computing [Computer software]. R Foundation for Statistical Computing, Vienna, Austria. Retrieved from http://www.R-project.org
79. Ramscar M., Hendrix P., Shaoul C., Milin P., Baayen H., (2014). The myth of cognitive decline: Non-linear dynamics of lifelong learning. Topics in Cognitive Science, 6(1), 5–42. doi: 10.1111/tops.12078.
80. Rayner K., (1998). Eye movements in reading and information processing: 20 years of research. Psychological Bulletin, 124(3), 372–422. doi: 10.1037/0033–2909.124.3.372.
81. Rayner K., Clifton C., Jr. (2009). Language processing in reading and speech perception is fast and incremental: Implications for event-related potential research. Biological Psychology, 80(1), 4–9. doi: http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.biopsycho.2008.05.002.
82. Rayner K., Reichle E. D., (2010). Models of the reading process. Wiley Interdisciplinary Reviews: Cognitive Science, 1(6), 787–799. doi: 10.1002/wcs.68.
83. Rayner K., Reichle E. D., Stroud M. J., Williams C. C., Pollatsek A., (2006). The effect of word frequency, word predictability, and font difficulty on the eye movements of young and older readers. Psychology and Aging, 21(3), 448–465. doi: 10.1037/0882–7974.21.3.448.
84. Reali F., Christiansen M. H., (2007). Word chunk frequencies affect the processing of pronomial object-relative clauses. The Quarterly Journal of Experimental Psychology, 60(2), 161–170. doi: 10.1080/17470210600971469.
85. Revill K. P., Spieler D. H., (2012). The effect of lexical frequency on spoken word recognition in young and older listeners. Psychology and Aging, 27(1), 80–87. doi:10.1037/a0024113.
86. Robert C., Mathey S., Postal V., (2009). Différences liées à l’âge dans la reconnaissance visuelle des mots chez l’adulte. European Review of Applied Psychology, 59(2), 139–151. doi: http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.erap.2008.08.001.
87. Rodriguez-Aranda C., Jakobsen M., (2011). Differential contribution of cognitive and psychomotor functions to the age-related slowing of speech production. Journal of the International Neuropsychological Society, 17(5), 807–821. doi: 10.1017/s1355617711000828.
88. Saffran J. R., Aslin R. N., Newport E. L., (1996). Statistical learning by 8-month-old infants. Science, 274(5294), 1926–1928. doi: 10.1126/science.274.5294.1926.
89. Salthouse T. A., (1996). The processing-speed theory of adult age differences in cognition. Psychological Review, 103(3), 403–428. doi: 10.1037/0033–295x.103.3.403.
90. Schroeder S., (2011). What readers have and do: Effects of students’ verbal ability and reading time components on comprehension with and without text availability. Journal of Educational Psychology, 103(4), 877–896. doi: 10.1037/a0023731.
91. Seidenberg M. S., McClelland J. L., (1989). A distributed, developmental model of word recognition and naming. Psychological Review, 96(4), 523–568. doi: 10.1037/0033–295x.96.4.523.
92. Sereno S. C., Rayner K., Posner M. I., (1998). Establishing a time-line of word recognition: Evidence from eye movements and event-related potentials. Neuroreport, 9(10), 2195–2200.
93. Seyfarth S., (2014). Word informativity influences acoustic duration: Effects of contextual predictability on lexical representation. Cognition, 133(1), 140–155. doi: http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.cognition.2014.06.013.
94. Share D. L., (1995). Phonological recoding and self-teaching: Sine qua non of reading acquisition. Cognition, 55(2), 151–218. doi: http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/0010-0277(94)00645-2.
95. Shriberg E., Stolcke A., (1996). Word predictability after hesitations: A corpus-based study. In Proceedings of the International Conference on Spoken Language Processing 3, 1868–1871.
96. Siyanova-Chanturia A., Conklin K., van Heuven W. J. B., (2011). Seeing a phrase “Time and again” matters: The role of phrasal frequency in the processing of multiword sequences. Journal of Experimental Psychology: Learning, Memory, and Cognition, 37(3), 776–784. doi: 10.1037/a0022531.
97. Smith N. J., Levy R., (2011). Cloze but no cigar: The complex relationship between cloze, corpus, and subjective probabilities in language processing. In Proceedings of the 33rd Annual Conference of the Cognitive Science Society, pp. 1637–1642. Retrieved from http://idiom.ucsd.edu/~rlevy/papers/smith-levy-2011-cogsci.pdf
98. Smith N. J., Levy R., (2013). The effect of word predictability on reading time is logarithmic. Cognition, 128(3), 302–319. doi: http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.cognition.2013.02.013.
99. Spieler D. H., Balota D. A., (2000). Factors influencing word naming in younger and older adults. Psychology and Aging, 15(2), 225–231. doi:10.1037/0882–7974.15.2.225.
100. Stoltzfus E. R., Hasher L., Zacks R. T., Ulivi M., Goldstein D., (1993). Investigations of inhibition and interference in younger and older adults. Journal of Gerontology: Psychological Sciences, 48(4), 179–188. doi: 10.1093/geronj/48.4.P179.
101. Thompson S. P., Newport E. L., (2007). Statistical learning of syntax: The role of transitional probability. Language Learning and Development, 3(1), 1–42. doi: 10.1080/15475440709336999.
102. Tily H., Gahl S., Arnon I., Snider N., Kothari A., Bresnan J., (2009). Syntactic probabilities affect pronunciation variation in spontaneous speech. Language and Cognition, 1(2), 147–165. doi: 10.1515/LANGCOG.2009.008.
103. Tremblay A., Derwing B., Libben G., Westbury C., (2011). Processing advantages of lexical bundles: Evidence from self-paced reading and sentence recall tasks. Language Learning, 61(2), 569–613. doi: 10.1111/j.1467–9922.2010.00622.x.
104. Trouvain J., (2003). Tempo variation in speech production: implications for speech synthesis. Doctoral dissertation, Saarland University. Retrieved from http://www.coli.uni-saarland.de/~trouvain/publications.html
105. Trouvain J., Grice M., (1999). The effect of tempo on prosodic structure. In Proceedings of the 14th International Congress of Phonetic Sciences (ICPhS), San Francisco, USA. Retrieved from http://www.coli.uni-saarland.de/~trouvain/publications.html
106. Valle A., Binder K. S., Walsh C. B., Nemier C., Bangs K. E., (2013). Eye movements, prosody, and word frequency among average- and high-skilled second-grade readers. School Psychology Review, 42(2), 171–190.
107. Vorstius C., Radach R., Lonigan C. J., (2014). Eye movements in developing readers: A comparison of silent and oral sentence reading. Visual Cognition, 22(3/4), 458–485. doi: 10.1080/13506285.2014.881445.
108. Wang H.-C., Pomplun M., Chen M., Ko H., Rayner K., (2010). Estimating the effect of word predictability on eye movements in Chinese reading using latent semantic analysis and transitional probability. The Quarterly Journal of Experimental Psychology, 63(7), 1374–1386. doi: 10.1080/17470210903380814.
109. Weismer G., Liss J. M., (1991). Speech motor control and aging. In Ripich D., (Ed.), Handbook of geriatric communication disorders (pp. 205–225). Austin, TX: Pro-Ed.
110. Whitford V., Titone D., (2013). The effects of reading comprehension and launch site on frequency–predictability interactions during paragraph reading. The Quarterly Journal of Experimental Psychology, 67(6), 1151–1165. doi: 10.1080/17470218.2013.848216.
111. Wingfield A., Alexander A. H., Cavigelli S., (1994). Does memory constrain utilization of top-down information in spoken word recognition? Evidence from normal aging. Language and Speech, 37(3), 221–235. doi:10.1177/002383099403700301.
112. Wurm L. H., Fisicaro S. A., (2014). What residualizing predictors in regression analyses does (and what it does not do). Journal of Memory and Language, 72, 37–48. doi: http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.jml.2013.12.003.
113. York R., (2012). Residualization is not the answer: Rethinking how to address multicollinearity. Social Science Research, 41(6), 1379–1386. doi: http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.ssresearch.2012.05.014.
114. Zevin J. D., Seidenberg M. S., (2004). Age-of-acquisition effects in reading aloud: Tests of cumulative frequency and frequency trajectory. Memory & Cognition, 32(1), 31–38. doi: 10.3758/bf03195818.
115. Ziegler J. C., Goswami U., (2005). Reading acquisition, developmental dyslexia, and skilled reading across languages: A psycholinguistic grain size theory. Psychological Bulletin, 131(1), 3–29. doi: 10.1037/0033–2909.131.1.3.