Melatonin as an anti-inflammatory agent in radiotherapy

Inflammopharmacology

Volumn 25, Issue 4, 2017, Pages 403-413

  Najafi, M ^a   Shirazi, A ^a   Motevaseli, E ^a   Rezaeyan, A H ^b   Salajegheh, A ^c   Rezapoor, S ^a  

^a TEHRAN UNIVERSITY OF MEDICAL SCIENCES   (Iran)

^b IRAN UNIVERSITY OF MEDICAL SCIENCES   (Iran)

^c SHIRAZ UNIVERSITY OF MEDICAL SCIENCES   (Iran)

Author keywords

Immune system; Inflammation; Melatonin; Oxidative stress; Radiotherapy

Indexed keywords

ARACHIDONIC ACID DERIVATIVE; CYTOKINE; MELATONIN; ANTIINFLAMMATORY AGENT;

ANTIINFLAMMATORY ACTIVITY; CANCER RADIOTHERAPY; DERMATITIS; DRUG EFFECT; DRUG MECHANISM; ENTERITIS; HUMAN; ICOSANOID METABOLISM; INFLAMMATION; MUCOSA INFLAMMATION; OXIDATIVE STRESS; PNEUMONIA; PRIORITY JOURNAL; PROTECTION; REVIEW; SPINAL CORD DISEASE; TUMOR CELL; ANIMAL; DRUG EFFECTS; METABOLISM; NEOPLASM; PHYSIOLOGY; RADIATION INJURY;

ANIMALS; ANTI-INFLAMMATORY AGENTS; DERMATITIS; HUMANS; INFLAMMATION; MELATONIN; MUCOSITIS; NEOPLASMS; OXIDATIVE STRESS; RADIATION INJURIES;

EID: 85014080530     PISSN: 09254692     EISSN: 15685608     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1007/s10787-017-0332-5     Document Type: Review

References (154)

1. Adams MJ, Hardenbergh PH, Constine LS, Lipshultz SE (2003) Radiation-associated cardiovascular disease. Crit Rev Oncol Hematol 45(1):55–75
2. Aghazadeh S et al (2007) Melatonin as a protective agent in spinal cord damage after gamma irradiation. Rep Prac Oncol Radiother 12(2):95–99
3. Andreassen CN, Grau C, Lindegaard JC (2003) Chemical radioprotection: a critical review of amifostine as a cytoprotector in radiotherapy. Semin Radiat Oncol 13:62–72
4. Antolín ISAAC et al (1996) Neurohormone melatonin prevents cell damage: effect on gene expression for antioxidant enzymes. FASEB J 10(8):882–890
5. Apetoh L et al (2007) Toll-like receptor 4-dependent contribution of the immune system to anticancer chemotherapy and radiotherapy. Nat Med 13(9):1050–1059
6. Balamurugan K (2016) HIF-1 at the crossroads of hypoxia, inflammation, and cancer. Int J Cancer 138(5):1058–1066
7. Balkwill F, Charles KA, Mantovani A (2005) Smoldering and polarized inflammation in the initiation and promotion of malignant disease. Cancer Cell 7(3):211–217
8. Bangha E, Elsner P, Kistler GS (1996) Suppression of UV-induced erythema by topical treatment with melatonin (N-acetyl-5-methoxytryptamine). A dose response study. Arch Dermatol Res 288(9):522–526
9. Barker HE et al (2015) The tumour microenvironment after radiotherapy: mechanisms of resistance and recurrence. Nat Rev Cancer 15(7):409–425
10. Baskar R et al (2012) Cancer and radiation therapy: current advances and future directions. Int J Med Sci 9(3):193–199
11. Becciolini A et al (1997) The effects of irradiation at different times of the day on rat intestinal goblet cells. Cell Prolif 30(3–4):161–170
12. Ben-David MA et al (2015) Melatonin for Prevention of Breast Radiation Dermatitis: A Phase II, Prospective, Double-Blind Randomized Trial. Isr Med Assoc J IMAJ 18(3–4):188–192
13. Bentzen SM (2006) Preventing or reducing late side effects of radiation therapy: radiobiology meets molecular pathology. Nat Rev Cancer 6(9):702–713
14. Bertuglia S, Marchiafava PL, Colantuoni A (1996) Melatonin prevents ischemia reperfusion injury in hamster cheek pouch microcirculation. Cardiovasc Res 31(6):947–952
15. Bhatia AL, Manda K (2004) Study on pre-treatment of melatonin against radiation-induced oxidative stress in mice. Environ Toxicol Pharmacol 18(1):13–20
16. Bordt SL et al (2001) N1E-115 mouse neuroblastoma cells express mt1 melatonin receptors and produce neurites in response to melatonin. Biochim Et Biophys Acta (BBA) Mol Cell Res 1499(3):257–264
17. Borek C (2004) Antioxidants and radiation therapy. J Nutr 134(11):3207S–3209S
18. Bower JE et al (2011) Inflammation and behavioral symptoms after breast cancer treatment: do fatigue, depression, and sleep disturbance share a common underlying mechanism? J Clin Oncol 29(26):3517–3522
19. Burdelya LG et al (2008) An agonist of toll-like receptor 5 has radioprotective activity in mouse and primate models. Science 320(5873):226–230
20. Carrillo-Vico A et al (2003) Expression of membrane and nuclear melatonin receptor mRNA and protein in the mouse immune system. Cell Mol Life Sci CMLS 60(10):2272–2278
21. Cayli SR et al (2004) Effect of combined treatment with melatonin and methylprednisolone on neurological recovery after experimental spinal cord injury. Eur Spine J 13(8):724–732
22. Cerutti P, Amstad P (1993) Inflammation and oxidative stress in carcinogenesis. Eicosanoids and Other Bioactive Lipids in Cancer, Inflammation and Radiation Injury. Springer, New York, pp 387–390
23. Chen LD et al (1995) Melatonin’s inhibitory effect on growth of ME-180 human cervical cancer cells is not related to intracellular glutathione concentrations. Cancer Lett 91(2):153–159
24. Choi YW et al (2004) Effects of Radiation Therapy on the Lung: Radiologic Appearances and Differential Diagnosis 1. Radiographics 24(4):985–997
25. Chun KS et al (2004) Nitric oxide induces expression of cyclooxygenase-2 in mouse skin through activation of NF-κB. Carcinogenesis 25(3):445–454
26. Ciriaco M et al (2013) Corticosteroid-related central nervous system side effects. J Pharmacol Pharmacother 4(5):94
27. Colombo J et al (2016) Effects of melatonin on HIF-1alpha and VEGF expression and on the invasive properties of hepatocarcinoma cells. Oncol Lett 12(1):231–237
28. Condeelis J, Pollard JW (2006) Macrophages: obligate partners for tumor cell migration, invasion, and metastasis. Cell 124(2):263–266
29. Cos S et al (1996) Effects of melatonin on the proliferation and differentiation of human neuroblastoma cells in culture. Neurosci Lett 216(2):113–116
30. Delia P et al (2002) Prevention of radiation-induced diarrhea with the use of VSL# 3, a new high-potency probiotic preparation. Am J Gastroenterol 97(8):2150
31. Deng WG et al (2006) Melatonin suppresses macrophage cyclooxygenase-2 and inducible nitric oxide synthase expression by inhibiting p52 acetylation and binding. Blood 108(2):518–524
32. Doctrow SR et al (2013) A synthetic superoxide dismutase/catalase mimetic EUK-207 mitigates radiation dermatitis and promotes wound healing in irradiated rat skin. J Invest Dermatol 133(4):1088–1096
33. Dörr W, Hendry JH (2001) Consequential late effects in normal tissues. Radiother Oncol 61(3):223–231
34. Dragicevic N et al (2011) Melatonin treatment restores mitochondrial function in Alzheimer’s mice: a mitochondrial protective role of melatonin membrane receptor signaling. J Pineal Res 51(1):75–86
35. Dunst J et al (2000) Intermittent use of amifostine during postoperative radiochemotherapy and acute toxicity in rectal cancer patients. Strahlenther Onkol 176(9):416–421
36. Eiró N, Vizoso FJ (2012) Inflammation and cancer. World J Gastrointest Surg 4(3):62–72
37. El-Missiry MA et al (2007) Ameliorative effect of melatonin against gamma-irradiation-induced oxidative stress and tissue injury. Ecotoxicol Environ Saf 66(2):278–286
38. Esrefoglu M et al (2006) Ultrastructural clues for the potent therapeutic effect of melatonin on aging skin in pinealectomized rats. Fundam Clin Pharmacol 20(6):605–611
39. Fischer TW et al (2008) Melatonin as a major skin protectant: from free radical scavenging to DNA damage repair. Exp Dermatol 17(9):713–730
40. Forrest LM et al (2003) Evaluation of cumulative prognostic scores based on the systemic inflammatory response in patients with inoperable non-small-cell lung cancer. Br J Cancer 89(6):1028–1030
41. Foulkes NS, Borjigin J, Snyder SH (1997) Rhythmic transcription: the molecular basis of circadian melatonin synthesis. Trends Neurosci 20(10):487–492
42. Georgakilas AG (2015) Role of the immune system and inflammation in ionizing radiation effects. Cancer Lett 368(2):154
43. Gilad E et al (1998) Melatonin inhibits expression of the inducible isoform of nitric oxide synthase in murine macrophages: role of inhibition of NFκB activation. FASEB J 12(9):685–693
44. Gilkes DM, Semenza GL (2013) Role of hypoxia-inducible factors in breast cancer metastasis. Future Oncol 9(11):1623–1636
45. Gitto E et al (2001) Individual and synergistic antioxidative actions of melatonin: studies with vitamin E, vitamin C, glutathione and desferrrioxamine (desferoxamine) in rat liver homogenates. J Pharm Pharmacol 53(10):1393–1401
46. Guney Y et al (2007) Melatonin prevents inflammation and oxidative stress caused by abdominopelvic and total body irradiation of rat small intestine. Braz J Med Biol Res 40(10):1305–1314
47. Gupta SC et al (2010) Regulation of survival, proliferation, invasion, angiogenesis, and metastasis of tumor cells through modulation of inflammatory pathways by nutraceuticals. Cancer Metastasis Rev 29(3):405–434
48. Haddadi G et al (2013) Radioprotective effect of melatonin on the cervical spinal cord in irradiated rats. Cell J (Yakhteh) 14(4):246
49. Hakem R (2008) DNA-damage repair; the good, the bad, and the ugly. EMBO J 27(4):589–605
50. Halin C, Detmar M (2008) Inflammation, angiogenesis, and lymphangiogenesis. Methods Enzymol 445:1–25
51. Hekim N et al (2015) Radiation triggering immune response and inflammation. Cancer Lett 368(2):156–163
52. Hicklin DJ, Ellis LM (2005) Role of the vascular endothelial growth factor pathway in tumor growth and angiogenesis. J Clin Oncol 23(5):1011–1027
53. Hill SM et al (2015) Melatonin: an inhibitor of breast cancer. Endocr Relat Cancer 22(3):R183–R204
54. Hong JH et al (1995) Induction of acute phase gene expression by brain irradiation. Int J Radiat Oncol Biol Phys 33(3):619–626
55. Hovdenak N, Fajardo LF, Hauer-Jensen M (2000) Acute radiation proctitis: a sequential clinicopathologic study during pelvic radiotherapy. Int J Radiat Oncol Biol Phys 48(4):1111–1117
56. Hovdenak N et al (2003) Profiles and time course of acute radiation toxicity symptoms during conformal radiotherapy for cancer of the prostate. Acta Oncol 42(7):741–748
57. Hu ZP et al (2013) Melatonin ameliorates vascular endothelial dysfunction, inflammation, and atherosclerosis by suppressing the TLR4/NF-κB system in high-fat-fed rabbits. J Pineal Res 55(4):388–398
58. Huether G (1993) The contribution of extrapineal sites of melatonin synthesis to circulating melatonin levels in higher vertebrates. Experientia 49(8):665–670
59. Hussein MR et al (2005) Ultrastructural evaluation of the radioprotective effects of melatonin against X-ray-induced skin damage in Albino rats. Int J Exp Pathol 86(1):45–55
60. Hussein MR et al (2008) Melatonin and roentgen irradiation-induced acute radiation enteritis in Albino rats: an animal model. Cell Biol Int 32(11):1353–1361
61. Inoue A et al (2001) Radiation pneumonitis in lung cancer patients: a retrospective study of risk factors and the long-term prognosis. Int J Radiat Oncol Biol Phys 49(3):649–655
62. Jang SS et al (2013) Melatonin reduces X-ray radiation-induced lung injury in mice by modulating oxidative stress and cytokine expression. Int J Radiat Biol 89(2):97–105
63. Jardim-Perassi BV et al (2016) Melatonin regulates angiogenic factors under hypoxia in breast cancer cell lines. Anticancer Agents Med Chem 16(3):347–358
64. Jung JI et al (2004) Thoracic Manifestations of Breast Cancer and Its Therapy 1. Radiographics 24(5):1269–1285
65. Kaur P, Asea A (2012) Radiation-induced effects and the immune system in cancer. Front Oncol 2:191
66. Kaya H et al (1999) The effect of melatonin on lipid peroxidation during radiotherapy in female rats. Strahlenther Onkol 175(6):285–288
67. Kim BC et al (2001) Melatonin reduces X-ray irradiation-induced oxidative damages in cultured human skin fibroblasts. J Dermatol Sci 26(3):194–200
68. Koc M et al (2003) Melatonin protects rat liver against irradiation-induced oxidative injury. J Radiat Res 44(3):211–215
69. Komaki R et al (2004) Effects of amifostine on acute toxicity from concurrent chemotherapy and radiotherapy for inoperable non–small-cell lung cancer: Report of a randomized comparative trial. Int J Radiat Oncol Biol Phys 58(5):1369–1377
70. Kotler M et al (1998) Melatonin increases gene expression for antioxidant enzymes in rat brain cortex. J Pineal Res 24(2):83–89
71. Lan F et al (2014) Serum toll-like receptors are potential biomarkers of radiation pneumonia in locally advanced NSCLC. Int J Clin Exp Pathol 7(11):8087–8095
72. Lauber K et al (2012) Dying cell clearance and its impact on the outcome of tumor radiotherapy. Front Oncol 2:116
73. Li F, Sethi G (2010) Targeting transcription factor NF-κB to overcome chemoresistance and radioresistance in cancer therapy. Biochim Et Biophys Acta (BBA) Rev Cancer 2:167–180
74. Lin R et al (2015) Chronic inflammation-related DNA damage response: a driving force of gastric cardia carcinogenesis. Oncotarget 6(5):2856
75. Lissoni P et al (2001) Anti-angiogenic activity of melatonin in advanced cancer patients. Neuro Endocrinol Lett 22(1):45–47
76. Lorimore SA et al (2001) Inflammatory-type responses after exposure to ionizing radiation in vivo: a mechanism for radiation-induced bystander effects? Oncogene 20(48):7085–7095
77. Lugade AA et al (2008) Radiation-induced IFN-γ production within the tumor microenvironment influences antitumor immunity. J Immunol 180(5):3132–3139
78. Mahal HS, Sharma HS, Mukherjee T (1999) Antioxidant properties of melatonin: a pulse radiolysis study. Free Radic Biol Med 26(5):557–565
79. Marozik P et al (2007) Bystander effects induced by serum from survivors of the Chernobyl accident. Exp Hematol 35(4):55–63
80. Marseglia L et al (2014) Melatonin and atopy: role in atopic dermatitis and asthma. Int J Mol Sci 15(8):13482–13493
81. Matuszak Z, Reszka KJ, Chignell CF (1997) Reaction of melatonin and related indoles with hydroxyl radicals: EPR and spin trapping investigations. Free Radic Biol Med 23(3):367–372
82. Mayo JC et al (2002) Melatonin regulation of antioxidant enzyme gene expression. Cell Mol Life Sci CMLS 59(10):1706–1713
83. Mayo JC et al (2005) Anti-inflammatory actions of melatonin and its metabolites, N1-acetyl-N2-formyl-5-methoxykynuramine (AFMK) and N1-acetyl-5-methoxykynuramine (AMK), in macrophages. J Neuroimmunol 165(1–2):139–149
84. Meacham LR, Sklar CA, Li S, Liu Q, Gimpel N, Yasui Y, Whitton JA, Stovall M, Robison LL, Oeffinger KC (2009) Diabetes mellitus in long-term survivors of childhood cancer. Arch Inter Med 169 (15):1381
85. Mehta V (2005) Radiation pneumonitis and pulmonary fibrosis in non–small-cell lung cancer: Pulmonary function, prediction, and prevention. Int J Radiat Oncol Biol Phys 63(1):5–24
86. Meira LB et al (2008) DNA damage induced by chronic inflammation contributes to colon carcinogenesis in mice. J Clin Investig 118(7):2516–2525
87. Mihandoost E et al (2014) Can melatonin help us in radiation oncology treatments? Biomed Res Int 2014:578137. doi:10.1155/2014/578137
88. Min D et al (2002) Protection from thymic epithelial cell injury by keratinocyte growth factor: a new approach to improve thymic and peripheral T-cell reconstitution after bone marrow transplantation. Blood 99(12):4592–4600
89. Mohan N et al (1995) The neurohormone melatonin inhibits cytokine, mitogen and ionizing radiation induced NF-kappa B. Biochem Mol Biol Int 37(6):1063–1070
90. Mohseni M et al (2012) Melatonin may play a role in modulation of bax and bcl-2 expression levels to protect rat peripheral blood lymphocytes from gamma irradiation-induced apoptosis. Mutat Res Fundam Mol Mech Mutagen 738–739:19–27
91. Monobe M et al (2005) Protective effects of melatonin on gamma-ray induced intestinal damage. Int J Radiat Biol 81(11):855–860
92. Movsas B et al (1997) Pulmonary radiation injury. Chest J 111(4):1061–1076
93. Mukherjee D et al (2014) Responses to ionizing radiation mediated by inflammatory mechanisms. J Pathol 232(3):289–299
94. Multhoff G, Radons J (2012) Radiation, inflammation, and immune responses in cancer. Front Oncol 2:58
95. Najafi M et al (2016) Radiation-induced oxidative stress at out-of-field lung tissues after pelvis irradiation in rats. Cell J (Yakhteh) 18(3):340
96. Nathan C (2003) Specificity of a third kind: reactive oxygen and nitrogen intermediates in cell signaling. J Clin Investig 111(6):769–778
97. Newhauser WD, Durante M (2011) Assessing the risk of second malignancies after modern radiotherapy. Nat Rev Cancer 11(6):438–448
98. Nooshinfar E et al (2016) Melatonin, an inhibitory agent in breast cancer. Breast Cancer 24:1–10
99. Ohnishi S et al (2013) DNA damage in inflammation-related carcinogenesis and cancer stem cells. Oxid Med Cell Longev 2013:387014. doi:10.1155/2013/387014
100. Fardid R, Salajegheh A, Mosleh-Shirazi MA, Sharifzadeh S, Okhovat MA, Najafi M, Rezaeyan A, Abaszadeh A (2017) Melatonin ameliorates the production of COX-2, iNOS, and the formation of 8-OHdG in non-targeted lung tissue after pelvic irradiation. Cell J 19(2):324–331
101. Okatani Y et al (2001) Melatonin stimulates glutathione peroxidase activity in human chorion. J Pineal Res 30(4):199–205
102. Onal C et al (2011) Protective effects of melatonin and octreotide against radiation-induced intestinal injury. Dig Dis Sci 56(2):359–367
103. Ong ZY et al (2010) Pro-inflammatory cytokines play a key role in the development of radiotherapy-induced gastrointestinal mucositis. Radiat Oncol 5(1):1
104. Ortiz F et al (2015) Melatonin blunts the mitochondrial/NLRP3 connection and protects against radiation-induced oral mucositis. J Pineal Res 58(1):34–49
105. Pablos MI et al (1995) Melatonin stimulates the activity of the detoxifying enzyme glutathione peroxidase in several tissues of chicks. J Pineal Res 19(3):111–115
106. Pablos MI et al (1998) Rhythms of glutathione peroxidase and glutathione reductase in brain of chick and their inhibition by light. Neurochem Int 32(1):69–75
107. Peddi PF, Shatsky RA, Hurvitz SA (2014) Noninfectious pneumonitis with the use of mTOR inhibitors in breast cancer. Cancer Treat Rev 40(2):320–326
108. Perez-Sala D, Lamas S (2001) Regulation of cyclooxygenase-2 expression by nitric oxide in cells. Antioxid Redox Signal 3(2):231–248
109. Philip B et al (2013) HIF expression and the role of hypoxic microenvironments within primary tumours as protective sites driving cancer stem cell renewal and metastatic progression. Carcinogenesis 34(8):1699–1707
110. Reiter RJ, Tan DX, Burkhardt S (2002) Reactive oxygen and nitrogen species and cellular and organismal decline: amelioration with melatonin. Mech Ageing Dev 123(8):1007–1019
111. Reits EA et al (2006) Radiation modulates the peptide repertoire, enhances MHC class I expression, and induces successful antitumor immunotherapy. J Exp Med 203(5):1259–1271
112. Rezaeyan A et al (2016a) Evaluating radioprotective effect of hesperidin on acute radiation damage in the lung tissue of rats. J Biomed Phys Eng 6(3):165–174
113. Rezaeyan A et al (2016b) Radioprotective effects of hesperidin on oxidative damages and histopathological changes induced by X-irradiation in rats heart tissue. J Med Phys Assoc Med Phys India 41(3):182
114. Rezvani M (2003) Treatment of radiation-induced normal tissue lesions. Iran J Radiat Res 1(2):63–78
115. Roach MIII et al (1995) Radiation pneumonitis following combined modality therapy for lung cancer: analysis of prognostic factors. J Clin Oncol 13(10):2606–2612
116. Robbins MEC, Zhao W (2004) Chronic oxidative stress and radiation-induced late normal tissue injury: a review. Int J Radiat Biol 80(4):251–259
117. Rödel F et al (2012) Immunomodulatory properties and molecular effects in inflammatory diseases of low-dose X-irradiation. Front Oncol 2:120
118. Rodriguez C et al (2004) Regulation of antioxidant enzymes: a significant role for melatonin. J Pineal Res 36(1):1–9
119. Rosiello RA, Merrill WW (1990) Radiation-induced lung injury. Clin Chest Med 11(1):65–71
120. Roth JA, Rabin R, Agnello K (1997) Melatonin suppression of PC12 cell growth and death. Brain Res 768(1–2):63–70
121. Rubio S et al (2007) Inhibition of proliferation and induction of apoptosis by melatonin in human myeloid HL-60 cells. J Pineal Res 42(2):131–138
122. Sainz RM et al (2003a) Melatonin and cell death: differential actions on apoptosis in normal and cancer cells. Cell Mol Life Sci 60(7):1407–1426
123. Sainz RM et al (2003b) Antioxidant activity of melatonin in Chinese hamster ovarian cells: changes in cellular proliferation and differentiation. Biochem Biophys Res Commun 302(3):625–634
124. Schaue D, Kachikwu EL, McBride WH (2012) Cytokines in radiobiological responses: a review. Radiat Res 178(6):505–523
125. Sekine I et al (2006) Retrospective analysis of steroid therapy for radiation-induced lung injury in lung cancer patients. Radiother Oncol 80(1):93–97
126. Şener G et al (2003) Melatonin ameliorates ionizing radiation-induced oxidative organ damage in rats. Life Sci 74(5):563–572
127. Serin M et al (2007) The histopathological evaluation of the effectiveness of melatonin as a protectant against acute lung injury induced by radiation therapy in a rat model. Int J Radiat Biol 83(3):187–193
128. Sewerynek E et al (1995) Oxidative damage in the liver induced by ischemia-reperfusion: protection by melatonin. Hepatogastroenterology 43(10):898–905
129. Shakhov AN et al (2012) Prevention and mitigation of acute radiation syndrome in mice by synthetic lipopeptide agonists of Toll-like receptor 2 (TLR2). PLoS One 7(3):e33044
130. Shiao SL, Coussens LM (2010) The tumor-immune microenvironment and response to radiation therapy. J Mammary Gland Biol Neoplas 15(4):411–421
131. Shirazi A (2011) Radioprotective effect of melatonin in reducing oxidative stress in rat lenses. Radiother Oncol 98:S21
132. Shirazi A, Mahdavi SR, Trott KR (2004) Radiation myelopathy: a radiobiological review. Rep Pract Oncol Radiother 9(4):119–127
133. Shirazi A et al (2005) Short-term changes in prostacyclin secretory profile of irradiated rat cervical spinal cord. Prostaglandins Leukot Essent Fat Acids 72(5):373–378
134. Shirazi A et al (2010) Evaluation of melatonin for modulation of apoptosis-related genes in irradiated cervical spinal cord. Int J Low Radiat 7(6):436–445
135. Shirazi A et al (2013a) Radio-protective effects of melatonin against irradiation-induced oxidative damage in rat peripheral blood. Phys Med 29(1):65–74
136. Shirazi A et al (2013b) Evaluation of radio-protective effect of melatonin on whole body irradiation induced liver tissue damage. Cell 14(4):294–297
137. Slominski A, Pruski D (1993) Melatonin inhibits proliferation and melanogenesis in rodent melanoma cells. Exp Cell Res 206(2):189–194
138. Slominski A et al (2008) Melatonin in the skin: synthesis, metabolism and functions. Trends Endocrinol Metab 19(1):17–24
139. Somosy Z et al (2002) Morphological aspects of ionizing radiation response of small intestine. Micron 33(2):167–178
140. Sprung CN et al (2015) Immunological markers that predict radiation toxicity. Cancer Lett 368(2):191–197
141. Stasica P, Ulanski P, Rosiak JM (1998) Melatonin as a hydroxyl radical scavenger. J Pineal Res 25(1):65–66
142. Tan DX et al (2003) Mechanistic and comparative studies of melatonin and classic antioxidants in terms of their interactions with the ABTS cation radical. J Pineal Res 34(4):249–259
143. Tan DX et al (2007) One molecule, many derivatives: A never-ending interaction of melatonin with reactive oxygen and nitrogen species? J Pineal Res 42(1):28–42
144. Tan DX et al (2013) Mitochondria and chloroplasts as the original sites of melatonin synthesis: a hypothesis related to melatonin’s primary function and evolution in eukaryotes. J Pineal Res 54(2):127–138
145. Tan DX et al (2015) Melatonin as a potent and inducible endogenous antioxidant: synthesis and metabolism. Molecules 20(10):18886–18906
146. Tavassoli A, Ghasemi D (2015) Radioprotective effect of melatonin on radiation-induced lung injury and lipid peroxidation in rats. Cell J 17(1):111
147. Tsoutsou PG, Koukourakis MI (2006) Radiation pneumonitis and fibrosis: mechanisms underlying its pathogenesis and implications for future research. Int J Radiat Oncol Biol Phys 66(5):1281–1293
148. Wang Y et al (2004) Activation of nuclear factor κB in vivo selectively protects the murine small intestine against ionizing radiation-induced damage. Cancer Res 64(17):6240–6246
149. Yang QH et al (2007) Antiproliferative effects of melatonin on the growth of rat pituitary prolactin-secreting tumor cells in vitro. J Pineal Res 42(2):172–179
150. Yi C et al (2014) Melatonin enhances the anti-tumor effect of fisetin by inhibiting COX-2/iNOS and NF-κB/p300 signaling pathways. PLoS One 9(7):e99943
151. Yilmaz S, Yilmaz E (2006) Effects of melatonin and vitamin E on oxidative–antioxidative status in rats exposed to irradiation. Toxicology 222(1):1–7
152. Ying SW, Niles LP, Crocker C (1993) Human malignant melanoma cells express high-affinity receptors for melatonin: antiproliferative effects of melatonin and 6-chloromelatonin. Eur J Pharmacol Mol Pharmacol 246(2):89–96
153. Zhang S et al (2013) Melatonin inhibits cell growth and migration, but promotes apoptosis in gastric cancer cell line, SGC7901. Biotech Histochem 88(6):281–289
154. Zhao W, Robbins MEC (2009) Inflammation and chronic oxidative stress in radiation-induced late normal tissue injury: therapeutic implications. Curr Med Chem 16(2):130–143