BK polyomavirus: Clinical aspects, immune regulation, and emerging therapies

Clinical Microbiology Reviews

Volumn 30, Issue 2, 2017, Pages 503-528

  Ambalathingal, George R ^a,c   Francis, Ross S ^b,c   Smyth, Mark J ^a,c   Smith, Corey ^a   Khanna, Rajiv ^a  

^a QIMR BERGHOFER MEDICAL RESEARCH INSTITUTE   (Australia)

^b PRINCESS ALEXANDRA HOSPITAL   (Australia)

^c UNIVERSITY OF QUEENSLAND   (Australia)

Author keywords

B cell responses; Immunotherapy; Natural killer cells; Pathogenesis; T cell immunity; T cells; Transplant; Virus

Indexed keywords

ANTIVIRUS AGENT; BRINCIDOFOVIR; CD8 ANTIGEN; CIDOFOVIR; IMMUNOGLOBULIN; LEFLUNOMIDE; QUINOLONE DERIVATIVE;

ADAPTIVE IMMUNITY; B LYMPHOCYTE; BK VIRUS INFECTION; CLINICAL FEATURE; GENE STRUCTURE; HEMATOPOIETIC STEM CELL TRANSPLANTATION; HEMORRHAGIC CYSTITIS; HUMAN; IMMUNOCOMPROMISED PATIENT; IMMUNOREGULATION; IMMUNOSUPPRESSIVE TREATMENT; INNATE IMMUNITY; KIDNEY DISEASE; KIDNEY TUBULE CELL; NATURAL KILLER CELL; NONHUMAN; PERSISTENT VIRUS INFECTION; PHASE 3 CLINICAL TRIAL (TOPIC); POLYMERASE CHAIN REACTION; RANDOMIZED CONTROLLED TRIAL (TOPIC); REVIEW; STENOSIS; T LYMPHOCYTE; UROTHELIUM; VIRAL TROPISM; VIRUS CELL INTERACTION; VIRUS ENTRY; VIRUS GENE; VIRUS IMMUNITY; VIRUS MORPHOLOGY; VIRUS REACTIVATION; VIRUS REPLICATION; BK VIRUS; GENETICS; IMMUNOLOGY; POLYOMAVIRUS INFECTIONS; TUMOR VIRUS INFECTIONS; VIROLOGY;

ANTIVIRAL AGENTS; BK VIRUS; HUMANS; IMMUNOCOMPROMISED HOST; POLYOMAVIRUS INFECTIONS; TUMOR VIRUS INFECTIONS;

EID: 85014031247     PISSN: 08938512     EISSN: 10986618     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1128/CMR.00074-16     Document Type: Review

References (252)

1. Gardner SD, Field AM, Coleman DV, Hulme B. 1971. New human papovavirus (B.K.) isolated from urine after renal transplantation. Lancet i:1253–1257.
2. Bennett SM, Broekema NM, Imperiale MJ. 2012. BK polyomavirus: emerging pathogen. Microbes Infect 14:672-683. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.micinf.2012.02.002.
3. Chatterjee M, Weyandt TB, Frisque RJ. 2000. Identification of archetype and rearranged forms of BK virus in leukocytes from healthy individuals. J Med Virol 60:353–362.
4. Knowles WA. 2006. Discovery and epidemiology of the human polyomaviruses BK virus (BKV) and JC virus (JCV). Adv Exp Med Biol 577: 19–45. https://doi.org/10.1007/0-387-32957-9_2.
5. Boukoum H, Nahdi I, Sahtout W, Skiri H, Segondy M, Aouni M. 2016. BK and JC virus infections in healthy patients compared to kidney transplant recipients in Tunisia. Microb Pathog 97:204-208. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.micpath.2016.06.015.
6. Ramos E, Drachenberg CB, Wali R, Hirsch HH. 2009. The decade of polyomavirus BK-associated nephropathy: state of affairs. Transplantation 87:621-630. https://doi.org/10.1097/TP.0b013e318197c17d.
7. van Aalderen MC, Heutinck KM, Huisman C, ten Berge IJ. 2012. BK virus infection in transplant recipients: clinical manifestations, treatment options and the immune response. Neth J Med 70:172–183.
8. Comoli P, Binggeli S, Ginevri F, Hirsch HH. 2006. Polyomavirusassociated nephropathy: update on BK virus-specific immunity. Transpl Infect Dis 8:86-94. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1399-3062.2006.00167.x.
9. Erard V, Storer B, Corey L, Nollkamper J, Huang ML, Limaye A, Boeckh M. 2004. BK virus infection in hematopoietic stem cell transplant recipients: frequency, risk factors, and association with postengraftment hemorrhagic cystitis. Clin Infect Dis 39:1861–1865. https://doi.org/10.1086/426140.
10. Goudsmit J, Wertheim-van Dillen P, van Strien A, van der Noordaa J. 1982. The role of BK virus in acute respiratory tract disease and the presence of BKV DNA in tonsils. J Med Virol 10:91–99. https://doi.org/10.1002/jmv.1890100203.
11. Doerries K. 2006. Human polyomavirus JC and BK persistent infection. Adv Exp Med Biol 577:102–116. https://doi.org/10.1007/0-387-32957-9_8.
12. Vago L, Cinque P, Sala E, Nebuloni M, Caldarelli R, Racca S, Ferrante P, Trabottoni G, Costanzi G. 1996. JCV-DNA and BKV-DNA in the CNS tissue and CSF of AIDS patients and normal subjects. Study of 41 cases and review of the literature. J Acquir Immune Defic Syndr Hum Retrovirol 12:139-146. https://doi.org/10.1097/00042560-199606010-00006.
13. Bressollette-Bodin C, Coste-Burel M, Hourmant M, Sebille V, Andre- Garnier E, Imbert-Marcille BM. 2005. A prospective longitudinal study of BK virus infection in 104 renal transplant recipients. Am J Transplant 5:1926-1933. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1600-6143.2005.00934.x.
14. Imperiale MJ, Major EO. 2007. Polyomaviruses, p 2263–2298. In Knipe DM, Howley PM, Griffin DE, Lamb RA, Martin MA, Roizman B, Straus SE (ed), Fields virology, 5th ed. Lippincott Williams & Wilkins, Philadelphia, PA.
15. Hurdiss DL, Morgan EL, Thompson RF, Prescott EL, Panou MM, Macdonald A, Ranson NA. 2016. New structural insights into the genome and minor capsid proteins of BK polyomavirus using cryo-electron microscopy. Structure 24:528–536. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.str.2016.02.008.
16. Dugan AS, Eash S, Atwood WJ. 2006. Update on BK virus entry and intracellular trafficking. Transpl Infect Dis 8:62-67. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1399-3062.2006.00153.x.
17. Dugan AS, Eash S, Atwood WJ. 2005. An N-linked glycoprotein with alpha(2,3)-linked sialic acid is a receptor for BK virus. J Virol 79: 14442–14445. https://doi.org/10.1128/JVI.79.22.14442-14445.2005.
18. Dugan AS, Gasparovic ML, Atwood WJ. 2008. Direct correlation between sialic acid binding and infection of cells by two human polyomaviruses (JC virus and BK virus). J Virol 82:2560-2564. https://doi.org/10.1128/JVI.02123-07.
19. Low JA, Magnuson B, Tsai B, Imperiale MJ. 2006. Identification of gangliosides GD1b and GT1b as receptors for BK virus. J Virol 80: 1361–1366. https://doi.org/10.1128/JVI.80.3.1361-1366.2006.
20. Eash S, Querbes W, Atwood WJ. 2004. Infection of Vero cells by BK virus is dependent on caveolae. J Virol 78:11583–11590. https://doi.org/10.1128/JVI.78.21.11583-11590.2004.
21. Moriyama T, Sorokin A. 2008. Intracellular trafficking pathway of BK virus in human renal proximal tubular epithelial cells. Virology 371: 336–349. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.virol.2007.09.030.
22. Jiang M, Abend JR, Tsai B, Imperiale MJ. 2009. Early events during BK virus entry and disassembly. J Virol 83:1350-1358. https://doi.org/10.1128/JVI.02169-08.
23. Nakanishi A, Itoh N, Li PP, Handa H, Liddington RC, Kasamatsu H. 2007. Minor capsid proteins of simian virus 40 are dispensable for nucleocapsid assembly and cell entry but are required for nuclear entry of the viral genome. J Virol 81:3778-3785. https://doi.org/10.1128/JVI.02664-06.
24. Nakanishi A, Li PP, Qu Q, Jafri QH, Kasamatsu H. 2007. Molecular dissection of nuclear entry-competent SV40 during infection. Virus Res 124:226-230. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.virusres.2006.10.001.
25. Nakanishi A, Shum D, Morioka H, Otsuka E, Kasamatsu H. 2002. Interaction of the Vp3 nuclear localization signal with the importin alpha 2/beta heterodimer directs nuclear entry of infecting simian virus 40. J Virol 76:9368-9377. https://doi.org/10.1128/JVI.76.18.9368-9377.2002.
26. Cubitt CL. 2006. Molecular genetics of the BK virus. Adv Exp Med Biol 577:85–95. https://doi.org/10.1007/0-387-32957-9_6.
27. Chenciner N, Meneguzzi G, Corallini A, Grossi MP, Grassi P, Barbanti- Brodano G, Milanesi G. 1980. Integrated and free viral DNA in hamster tumors induced by BK virus. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A 77:975–979. https://doi.org/10.1073/pnas.77.2.975.
28. Pater MM, Pater A, di Mayorca G, Beth E, Giraldo G. 1982. BK virustransformed inbred hamster brain cells: status of viral DNA in subclones. Mol Cell Biol 2:837-844. https://doi.org/10.1128/MCB.2.7.837.
29. Gorrill T, Feliciano M, Mukerjee R, Sawaya BE, Khalili K, White MK. 2006. Activation of early gene transcription in polyomavirus BK by human immunodeficiency virus type 1 Tat. J Gen Virol 87:1557–1566. https://doi.org/10.1099/vir.0.81569-0.
30. Harris KF, Christensen JB, Radany EH, Imperiale MJ. 1998. Novel mechanisms of E2F induction by BK virus large-T antigen: requirement of both the pRb-binding and the J domains. Mol Cell Biol 18:1746-1756. https://doi.org/10.1128/MCB.18.3.1746.
31. De Gascun CF, Carr MJ. 2013. Human polyomavirus reactivation: disease pathogenesis and treatment approaches. Clin Dev Immunol 2013: 373579. https://doi.org/10.1155/2013/373579.
32. Carbone M, Rizzo P, Grimley PM, Procopio A, Mew DJ, Shridhar V, de Bartolomeis A, Esposito V, Giuliano MT, Steinberg SM, Levine AS, Giordano A, Pass HI. 1997. Simian virus-40 large-T antigen binds p53 in human mesotheliomas. Nat Med 3:908-912. https://doi.org/10.1038/nm0897-908.
33. Sriaroon CNGJ, Vincent A, Tucci V, Kharfan Dabaja M, Sandin R. 2010. BK virus: microbiology, epidemiology, pathogenesis, clinical manifestations and treatment. Asian Biomed 4:3–18.
34. Wang W, Simmons DT. 2009. Simian virus 40 large T antigen can specifically unwind the central palindrome at the origin of DNA replication. J Virol 83:3312–3322. https://doi.org/10.1128/JVI.01867-08.
35. Mastrangelo IA, Hough PV, Wall JS, Dodson M, Dean FB, Hurwitz J. 1989. ATP-dependent assembly of double hexamers of SV40 T antigen at the viral origin of DNA replication. Nature 338:658–662. https://doi.org/10.1038/338658a0.
36. Harris KF, Christensen JB, Imperiale MJ. 1996. BK virus large T antigen: interactions with the retinoblastoma family of tumor suppressor proteins and effects on cellular growth control. J Virol 70:2378-2386.
37. Pipas JM. 1992. Common and unique features of T antigens encoded by the polyomavirus group. J Virol 66:3979-3985.
38. Shivakumar CV, Das GC. 1996. Interaction of human polyomavirus BK with the tumor-suppressor protein p53. Oncogene 13:323–332.
39. Cicala C, Avantaggiati ML, Graessmann A, Rundell K, Levine AS, Carbone M. 1994. Simian virus 40 small-t antigen stimulates viral DNA replication in permissive monkey cells. J Virol 68:3138-3144.
40. Howe AK, Gaillard S, Bennett JS, Rundell K. 1998. Cell cycle progression in monkey cells expressing simian virus 40 small t antigen from adenovirus vectors. J Virol 72:9637–9644.
41. Whalen B, Laffin J, Friedrich TD, Lehman JM. 1999. SV40 small T antigen enhances progression to _G2 during lytic infection. Exp Cell Res 251:121–127. https://doi.org/10.1006/excr.1999.4572.
42. Drachenberg CB, Papadimitriou JC, Wali R, Cubitt CL, Ramos E. 2003. BK polyoma virus allograft nephropathy: ultrastructural features from viral cell entry to lysis. Am J Transplant 3:1383–1392. https://doi.org/10.1046/j.1600-6135.2003.00237.x.
43. Li TC, Takeda N, Kato K, Nilsson J, Xing L, Haag L, Cheng RH, Miyamura T. 2003. Characterization of self-assembled virus-like particles of human polyomavirus BK generated by recombinant baculoviruses. Virology 311:115–124. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0042-6822(03)00141-7.
44. Jin L, Gibson PE, Booth JC, Clewley JP. 1993. Genomic typing of BK virus in clinical specimens by direct sequencing of polymerase chain reaction products. J Med Virol 41:11–17. https://doi.org/10.1002/jmv.1890410104.
45. Krumbholz A, Bininda-Emonds OR, Wutzler P, Zell R. 2008. Evolution of four BK virus subtypes. Infect Genet Evol 8:632-643. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.meegid.2008.05.006.
46. Zheng HY, Nishimoto Y, Chen Q, Hasegawa M, Zhong S, Ikegaya H, Ohno N, Sugimoto C, Takasaka T, Kitamura T, Yogo Y. 2007. Relationships between BK virus lineages and human populations. Microbes Infect 9:204-213. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.micinf.2006.11.008.
47. Ikegaya H, Saukko PJ, Tertti R, Metsarinne KP, Carr MJ, Crowley B, Sakurada K, Zheng HY, Kitamura T, Yogo Y. 2006. Identification of a genomic subgroup of BK polyomavirus spread in European populations. J Gen Virol 87:3201–3208. https://doi.org/10.1099/vir.0.82266-0.
48. Nishimoto Y, Zheng HY, Zhong S, Ikegaya H, Chen Q, Sugimoto C, Kitamura T, Yogo Y. 2007. An Asian origin for subtype IV BK virus based on phylogenetic analysis. J Mol Evol 65:103–111. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00239-006-0269-6.
49. Takasaka T, Goya N, Tokumoto T, Tanabe K, Toma H, Ogawa Y, Hokama S, Momose A, Funyu T, Fujioka T, Omori S, Akiyama H, Chen Q, Zheng HY, Ohta N, Kitamura T, Yogo Y. 2004. Subtypes of BK virus prevalent in Japan and variation in their transcriptional control region. J Gen Virol 85:2821–2827. https://doi.org/10.1099/vir.0.80363-0.
50. Jin L, Pietropaolo V, Booth JC, Ward KH, Brown DW. 1995. Prevalence and distribution of BK virus subtypes in healthy people and immunocompromised patients detected by PCR-restriction enzyme analysis. Clin Diagn Virol 3:285–295. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0928-0197(94)00044-1.
51. Yogo Y, Sugimoto C, Zhong S, Homma Y. 2009. Evolution of the BK polyomavirus: epidemiological, anthropological and clinical implications. Rev Med Virol 19:185–199. https://doi.org/10.1002/rmv.613.
52. Olsen GH, Hirsch HH, Rinaldo CH. 2009. Functional analysis of polyomavirus BK non-coding control region quasispecies from kidney transplant recipients. J Med Virol 81:1959-1967. https://doi.org/10.1002/jmv.21605.
53. Broekema NM, Imperiale MJ. 2012. Efficient propagation of archetype BK and JC polyomaviruses. Virology 422:235–241. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.virol.2011.10.026.
54. Carr MJ, McCormack GP, Mutton KJ, Crowley B. 2006. Unique BK virus non-coding control region (NCCR) variants in hematopoietic stem cell transplant recipients with and without hemorrhagic cystitis. J Med Virol 78:485-493. https://doi.org/10.1002/jmv.20566.
55. Grey F, Meyers H, White EA, Spector DH, Nelson J. 2007. A human cytomegalovirus-encoded microRNA regulates expression of multiple viral genes involved in replication. PLoS Pathog 3:e163. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.ppat.0030163.
56. Broekema NM, Imperiale MJ. 2013. miRNA regulation of BK polyomavirus replication during early infection. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A 110:8200–8205. https://doi.org/10.1073/pnas.1301907110.
57. Tian YC, Li YJ, Chen HC, Wu HH, Weng CH, Chen YC, Lee CC, Chang MY, Hsu HH, Yen TH, Hung CC, Yang CW. 2014. Polyomavirus BK-encoded microRNA suppresses autoregulation of viral replication. Biochem Biophys Res Commun 447:543–549. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.bbrc.2014.04.030.
58. Womer KL, Huang Y, Herren H, Dibadj K, Peng R, Murawski M, Shraybman R, Patton P, Clare-Salzler MJ, Kaplan B. 2010. Dendritic cell deficiency associated with development of BK viremia and nephropathy in renal transplant recipients. Transplantation 89:115–123. https://doi.org/10.1097/TP.0b013e3181bc6096.
59. Drake DR, III, Shawver ML, Hadley A, Butz E, Maliszewski C, Lukacher AE. 2001. Induction of polyomavirus-specific CD8(+) T lymphocytes by distinct dendritic cell subpopulations. J Virol 75:544-547. https://doi.org/10.1128/JVI.75.1.544-547.2001.
60. Drake DR, III, Moser JM, Hadley A, Altman JD, Maliszewski C, Butz E, Lukacher AE. 2000. Polyomavirus-infected dendritic cells induce antiviral CD8(+) T lymphocytes. J Virol 74:4093-4101. https://doi.org/10.1128/JVI.74.9.4093-4101.2000.
61. Gedvilaite A, Dorn DC, Sasnauskas K, Pecher G, Bulavaite A, Lawatscheck R, Staniulis J, Dalianis T, Ramqvist T, Schonrich G, Raftery MJ, Ulrich R. 2006. Virus-like particles derived from major capsid protein VP1 of different polyomaviruses differ in their ability to induce maturation in human dendritic cells. Virology 354:252–260. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.virol.2006.07.007.
62. Bohl DL, Storch GA, Ryschkewitsch C, Gaudreault-Keener M, Schnitzler MA, Major EO, Brennan DC. 2005. Donor origin of BK virus in renal transplantation and role of HLA C7 in susceptibility to sustained BK viremia. Am J Transplant 5: 2213–2221. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1600-6143.2005.01000.x.
63. Trydzenskaya H, Juerchott K, Lachmann N, Kotsch K, Kunert K, Weist B, Schonemann C, Schindler R, Nickel P, Melzig MF, Hugo C, Thomusch O, Neumann AU, Reinke P, Babel N. 2013. The genetic predisposition of natural killer cell to BK virus-associated nephropathy in renal transplant patients. Kidney Int 84:359-365. https://doi.org/10.1038/ki.2013.59.
64. Bauman Y. 2011. An identical miRNA of the human JC and BK polyoma viruses targets the stress-induced ligand ULBP3 to escape immune elimination. Cell Host Microbe 9:93–102. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.chom.2011.01.008.
65. Dugan AS, Maginnis MS, Jordan JA, Gasparovic ML, Manley K, Page R, Williams G, Porter E, O’Hara BA, Atwood WJ. 2008. Human alphadefensins inhibit BK virus infection by aggregating virions and blocking binding to host cells. J Biol Chem 283:31125–31132. https://doi.org/10.1074/jbc.M805902200.
66. Ribeiro A, Wornle M, Motamedi N, Anders HJ, Grone EF, Nitschko H, Kurktschiev P, Debiec H, Kretzler M, Cohen CD, Grone HJ, Schlondorff D, Schmid H. 2012. Activation of innate immune defense mechanisms contributes to polyomavirus BK-associated nephropathy. Kidney Int 81:100-111. https://doi.org/10.1038/ki.2011.311.
67. Abend JR, Low JA, Imperiale MJ. 2010. Global effects of BKV infection on gene expression in human primary kidney epithelial cells. Virology 397:73–79. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.virol.2009.10.047.
68. Mannon RB, Hoffmann SC, Kampen RL, Cheng OC, Kleiner DE, Ryschkewitsch C, Curfman B, Major E, Hale DA, Kirk AD. 2005. Molecular evaluation of BK polyomavirus nephropathy. Am J Transplant 5:2883–2893. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1600-6143.2005.01096.x.
69. Egli A, Infanti L, Dumoulin A, Buser A, Samaridis J, Stebler C, Gosert R, Hirsch HH. 2009. Prevalence of polyomavirus BK and JC infection and replication in 400 healthy blood donors. J Infect Dis 199:837-846. https://doi.org/10.1086/597126.
70. Randhawa PS, Gupta G, Vats A, Shapiro R, Viscidi RP. 2006. Immunoglobulin G, A, and M responses to BK virus in renal transplantation. Clin Vaccine Immunol 13:1057–1063. https://doi.org/10.1128/CVI.00114-06.
71. Comoli P, Cioni M, Basso S, Gagliardone C, Potenza L, Verrina E, Luppi M, Zecca M, Ghiggeri GM, Ginevri F. 2013. Immunity to polyomavirus BK infection: immune monitoring to regulate the balance between risk of BKV nephropathy and induction of alloimmunity. Clin Dev Immunol 2013:256923. https://doi.org/10.1155/2013/256923.
72. O’Donnell CD, Vogel L, Wright A, Das SR, Wrammert J, Li GM, McCausland M, Zheng NY, Yewdell JW, Ahmed R, Wilson PC, Subbarao K. 2012. Antibody pressure by a human monoclonal antibody targeting the 2009 pandemic H1N1 virus hemagglutinin drives the emergence of a virus with increased virulence in mice. mBio 3:e00120-12. https://doi.org/10.1128/mBio.00120-12.
73. Li C, Diprimio N, Bowles DE, Hirsch ML, Monahan PE, Asokan A, Rabinowitz J, Agbandje-McKenna M, Samulski RJ. 2012. Single amino acid modification of adeno-associated virus capsid changes transduction and humoral immune profiles. J Virol 86:7752–7759. https://doi.org/10.1128/JVI.00675-12.
74. Ciarlet M, Hoshino Y, Liprandi F. 1997. Single point mutations may affect the serotype reactivity of serotype G11 porcine rotavirus strains: a widening spectrum? J Virol 71:8213-8220.
75. Pastrana DV, Ray U, Magaldi TG, Schowalter RM, Cuburu N, Buck CB. 2013. BK polyomavirus genotypes represent distinct serotypes with distinct entry tropism. J Virol 87:10105–10113. https://doi.org/10.1128/JVI.01189-13.
76. Pastrana DV, Brennan DC, Cuburu N, Storch GA, Viscidi RP, Randhawa PS, Buck CB. 2012. Neutralization serotyping of BK polyomavirus infection in kidney transplant recipients. PLoS Pathog 8:e1002650. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.ppat.1002650.
77. Ginevri F, Azzi A, Hirsch HH, Basso S, Fontana I, Cioni M, Bodaghi S, Salotti V, Rinieri A, Botti G, Perfumo F, Locatelli F, Comoli P. 2007. Prospective monitoring of polyomavirus BK replication and impact of pre-emptive intervention in pediatric kidney recipients. Am J Transplant 7:2727–2735. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1600-6143.2007.01984.x.
78. Schachtner T, Muller K, Stein M, Diezemann C, Sefrin A, Babel N, Reinke P. 2011. BK virus-specific immunity kinetics: a predictor of recovery from polyomavirus BK-associated nephropathy. Am J Transplant 11: 2443–2452. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1600-6143.2011.03693.x.
79. Chen Y, Trofe J, Gordon J, Du Pasquier RA, Roy-Chaudhury P, Kuroda MJ, Woodle ES, Khalili K, Koralnik IJ. 2006. Interplay of cellular and humoral immune responses against BK virus in kidney transplant recipients with polyomavirus nephropathy. J Virol 80:3495–3505. https://doi.org/10.1128/JVI.80.7.3495-3505.2006.
80. Hammer MH, Brestrich G, Andree H, Engelmann E, Rosenberger C, Tillmann H, Zwinger S, Babel N, Nickel P, Volk HD, Reinke P. 2006. HLA type-independent method to monitor polyoma BK virus-specific CD4 and CD8 T-cell immunity. Am J Transplant 6:625-631. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1600-6143.2005.01221.x.
81. Binggeli S, Egli A, Schaub S, Binet I, Mayr M, Steiger J, Hirsch HH. 2007. Polyomavirus BK-specific cellular immune response to VP1 and large T-antigen in kidney transplant recipients. Am J Transplant 7:1131–1139. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1600-6143.2007.01754.x.
82. Renner FC, Dietrich H, Bulut N, Celik D, Freitag E, Gaertner N, Karoui S, Mark J, Raatz C, Weimer R, Feustel A. 2013. The risk of polyomavirusassociated graft nephropathy is increased by a combined suppression of CD8 and CD4 cell-dependent immune effects. Transplant Proc 45: 1608–1610. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.transproceed.2013.01.026.
83. Schaenman JM, Korin Y, Sidwell T, Kandarian F, Harre N, Gjertson D, Lum EL, Reddy U, Huang E, Pham PT, Bunnapradist S, Danovitch GM, Veale J, Gritsch HA, Reed EF. 7 July 2016. Increased frequency of BK virus-specific polyfunctional CD8+ T cells predict successful control of BK viremia after kidney transplantation. Transplantation https://doi.org/10.1097/tp.0000000000001314.
84. Walker S, Fazou C, Crough T, Holdsworth R, Kiely P, Veale M, Bell S, Gailbraith A, McNeil K, Jones S, Khanna R. 2007. Ex vivo monitoring of human cytomegalovirus-specific CD8+ T-cell responses using QuantiFERON-CMV. Transpl Infect Dis 9:165–170. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1399-3062.2006.00199.x.
85. Randhawa PS, Popescu I, Macedo C, Zeevi A, Shapiro R, Vats AN, Metes D. 2006. Detection of CD8+ T cells sensitized to BK virus large T antigen in healthy volunteers and kidney transplant recipients. Hum Immunol 67:298-302. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.humimm.2006.02.031.
86. Schneidawind D, Schmitt A, Wiesneth M, Mertens T, Bunjes D, Freund M, Schmitt M. 2010. Polyomavirus BK-specific CD8+ T cell responses in patients after allogeneic stem cell transplant. Leuk Lymphoma 51: 1055–1062. https://doi.org/10.3109/10428191003746323.
87. Mueller K, Schachtner T, Sattler A, Meier S, Friedrich P, Trydzenskaya H, Hinrichs C, Trappe R, Thiel A, Reinke P, Babel N. 2011. BK-VP3 as a new target of cellular immunity in BK virus infection. Transplantation 91: 100–107. https://doi.org/10.1097/TP.0b013e3181fe1335.
88. Zhou W, Sharma M, Martinez J, Srivastava T, Diamond DJ, Knowles W, Lacey SF. 2007. Functional characterization of BK virus-specific CD4+ T cells with cytotoxic potential in seropositive adults. Viral Immunol 20:379-388. https://doi.org/10.1089/vim.2007.0030.
89. Blyth E, Clancy L, Simms R, Gaundar S, O’Connell P, Micklethwaite K, Gottlieb DJ. 2011. BK virus-specific T cells for use in cellular therapy show specificity to multiple antigens and polyfunctional cytokine responses. Transplantation 92:1077–1084. https://doi.org/10.1097/TP.0b013e31823328c0.
90. Krymskaya L, Sharma MC, Martinez J, Haq W, Huang EC, Limaye AP, Diamond DJ, Lacey SF. 2005. Cross-reactivity of T lymphocytes recognizing a human cytotoxic T-lymphocyte epitope within BK and JC virus VP1 polypeptides. J Virol 79:11170-11178. https://doi.org/10.1128/JVI.79.17.11170-11178.2005.
91. Trydzenskaya H, Sattler A, Muller K, Schachtner T, Dang-Heine C, Friedrich P, Nickel P, Hoerstrup J, Schindler R, Thiel A, Melzig MF, Reinke P, Babel N. 2011. Novel approach for improved assessment of phenotypic and functional characteristics of BKV-specific T-cell immunity. Transplantation 92:1269-1277. https://doi.org/10.1097/TP.0b013e318234e0e5.
92. Weist BJ, Schmueck M, Fuehrer H, Sattler A, Reinke P, Babel N. 2014. The role of CD4(+) T cells in BKV-specific T cell immunity. Med Microbiol Immunol 203:395-408. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00430-014-0348-z.
93. Weist BJ, Wehler P, El Ahmad L, Schmueck-Henneresse M, Millward JM, Nienen M, Neumann AU, Reinke P, Babel N. 2015. A revised strategy for monitoring BKV-specific cellular immunity in kidney transplant patients. Kidney Int 88:1293–1303. https://doi.org/10.1038/ki.2015.215.
94. Hirsch HH, Randhawa P, AST Infectious Diseases Community of Practice. 2013. BK polyomavirus in solid organ transplantation. Am J Transplant 13(Suppl 4):S179-S188. https://doi.org/10.1111/ajt.12110.
95. Hirsch HH, Vincenti F, Friman S, Tuncer M, Citterio F, Wiecek A, Scheuermann EH, Klinger M, Russ G, Pescovitz MD, Prestele H. 2013. Polyomavirus BK replication in de novo kidney transplant patients receiving tacrolimus or cyclosporine: a prospective, randomized, multicenter study. Am J Transplant 13:136-145. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1600-6143.2012.04320.x.
96. Zeng G, Huang Y, Huang Y, Lyu Z, Lesniak D, Randhawa P. 2016. Antigen-specificity of T cell infiltrates in biopsies with T cell-mediated rejection and BK polyomavirus viremia: analysis by next generation sequencing. Am J Transplant 16:3131–3138. https://doi.org/10.1111/ajt.13911.
97. Mutlu E, Koksoy S, Mutlu D, Yilmaz VT, Kocak H, Dinckan A, Suleymanlar G, Gultekin M. 2015. Quantitative analysis of BKV-specific CD4+ T cells before and after kidney transplantation. Transpl Immunol 33:20-26. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.trim.2015.05.005.
98. Sharma MC, Zhou W, Martinez J, Krymskaya L, Srivastava T, Haq W, Diamond DJ, Lacey SF. 2006. Cross-reactive CTL recognizing two HLAA* 02-restricted epitopes within the BK virus and JC virus VP1 polypeptides are frequent in immunocompetent individuals. Virology 350: 128–136. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.virol.2006.02.040.
99. Chen Y, Trofe J, Gordon J, Autissier P, Woodle ES, Koralnik IJ. 2008. BKV and JCV large T antigen-specific CD8+ T cell response in HLA A*0201+ kidney transplant recipients with polyomavirus nephropathy and patients with progressive multifocal leukoencephalopathy. J Clin Virol 42:198-202. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jcv.2008.01.005.
100. Tagaram HR, Watson AM, Lemonnier FA, Staveley-O’Carroll K, Tevethia SS, Schell TD. 2008. An SV40 VP1-derived epitope recognized by CD8+ T cells is naturally processed and presented by HLA-A*0201 and crossreactive with human polyomavirus determinants. Virology 376: 183–190. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.virol.2008.02.033.
101. Li J, Melenhorst J, Hensel N, Rezvani K, Sconocchia G, Kilical Y, Hou J, Curfman B, Major E, Barrett AJ. 2006. T-cell responses to peptide fragments of the BK virus T antigen: implications for cross-reactivity of immune response to JC virus. J Gen Virol 87:2951–2960. https://doi.org/10.1099/vir.0.82094-0.
102. van Aalderen MC, Remmerswaal EB, Heutinck KM, ten Brinke A, Pircher H, van Lier RA, ten Berge IJ. 2013. Phenotypic and functional characterization of circulating polyomavirus BK VP1-specific CD8+ T cells in healthy adults. J Virol 87:10263–10272. https://doi.org/10.1128/JVI.01540-13.
103. Provenzano M, Bracci L, Wyler S, Hudolin T, Sais G, Gosert R, Zajac P, Palu G, Heberer M, Hirsch HH, Spagnoli GC. 2006. Characterization of highly frequent epitope-specific CD45RA+/CCR7+/- T lymphocyte responses against p53-binding domains of the human polyomavirus BK large tumor antigen in HLA-A*0201+ BKV-seropositive donors. J Transl Med 4:47. https://doi.org/10.1186/1479-5876-4-47.
104. Ramaswami B, Popescu I, Macedo C, Metes D, Bueno M, Zeevi A, Shapiro R, Viscidi R, Randhawa PS. 2009. HLA-A01-,-A03-, and-A024- binding nanomeric epitopes in polyomavirus BK large T antigen. Hum Immunol 70:722–728. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.humimm.2009.05.003.
105. Cioni M, Leboeuf C, Comoli P, Ginevri F, Hirsch HH. 2016. Characterization of immunodominant BK polyomavirus 9mer epitope T cell responses. Am J Transplant 16:1193–1206. https://doi.org/10.1111/ajt.13598.
106. Sahoo MK, Tan SK, Chen SF, Kapusinszky B, Concepcion KR, Kjelson L, Mallempati K, Farina HM, Fernandez-Vina M, Tyan D, Grimm PC, Anderson MW, Concepcion W, Pinsky BA. 2015. Limited variation in BK virus T-cell epitopes revealed by next-generation sequencing. J Clin Microbiol 53:3226-3233. https://doi.org/10.1128/JCM.01385-15.
107. Akazawa Y, Terada Y, Yamane T, Tanaka S, Aimoto M, Koh H, Nakane T, Koh KR, Nakamae H, Ohsawa M, Wakasa K, Hino M. 2012. Fatal BK virus pneumonia following stem cell transplantation. Transpl Infect Dis 14: E142–E146. https://doi.org/10.1111/tid.12011.
108. Vidal JE, Fink MC, Cedeno-Laurent F, Delbue S, Ferrante P, Dauar RF, Filho FB, Nogueira RS, Calore EE, Pannuti CS, Trujillo JR, de Oliveira AC. 2007. BK virus associated meningoencephalitis in an AIDS patient treated with HAART. AIDS Res Ther 4:13. https://doi.org/10.1186/1742-6405-4-13.
109. Behre G, Becker M, Christopeit M. 2008. BK virus encephalitis in an allogeneic hematopoietic stem cell recipient. Bone Marrow Transplant 42:499. https://doi.org/10.1038/bmt.2008.198.
110. Lopes da Silva R, Ferreira I, Teixeira G, Cordeiro D, Mafra M, Costa I, Bravo Marques JM, Abecasis M. 2011. BK virus encephalitis with thrombotic microangiopathy in an allogeneic hematopoietic stem cell transplant recipient. Transpl Infect Dis 13:161–167. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1399-3062.2010.00581.x.
111. Daveson KL, Ong CW, Bowden S, Koina ME, Hallam LA. 2013. BK virus-associated progressive multifocal leukoencephalopathy. Med J Aust 198:216-218. https://doi.org/10.5694/mja12.10072.
112. Bakri FG, Bahou YG, Al-Sammarrai FA, Hadidy A, Gharaibeh A, Zaid GK, Mahafzah A, Samara OA, Ababneh NA, Zak I. 2013. Fatal encephalitis due to BK virus in a patient with common variable immunodeficiency: a case report. J Clin Virol 57:363–369. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jcv.2013.04.016.
113. Lee SY, Lee SR, Kim DS, Choi CW, Kim BS, Park Y. 2013. BK virus encephalitis without concurrent hemorrhagic cystitis in an allogeneic hematopoietic stem cell transplant recipient. Blood Res 48:226-228. https://doi.org/10.5045/br.2013.48.3.226.
114. Chittick P, Williamson JC, Ohl CA. 2013. BK virus encephalitis: case report, review of the literature, and description of a novel treatment modality. Ann Pharmacother 47:1229-1233. https://doi.org/10.1177/1060028013500646.
115. Jun JB, Choi Y, Kim H, Lee SH, Jeong J, Jung J. 2016. BK polyomavirus encephalitis in a patient with thrombotic microangiopathy after an allogeneic hematopoietic stem cell transplant. Transpl Infect Dis 18: 950–953. https://doi.org/10.1111/tid.12620.
116. Galan A, Rauch CA, Otis CN. 2005. Fatal BK polyoma viral pneumonia associated with immunosuppression. Hum Pathol 36:1031–1034. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.humpath.2005.07.001.
117. Pavsic J, Devonshire AS, Parkes H, Schimmel H, Foy CA, Karczmarczyk M, Gutierrez-Aguirre I, Honeyborne I, Huggett JF, McHugh TD, Milavec M, Zeichhardt H, Zel J. 2015. Standardization of nucleic acid tests for clinical measurements of bacteria and viruses. J Clin Microbiol 53: 2008–2014. https://doi.org/10.1128/JCM.02136-14.
118. Nickeleit V, Klimkait T, Binet IF, Dalquen P, Del Zenero V, Thiel G, Mihatsch MJ, Hirsch HH. 2000. Testing for polyomavirus type BK DNA in plasma to identify renal-allograft recipients with viral nephropathy. N Engl J Med 342:1309–1315. https://doi.org/10.1056/NEJM200005043421802.
119. Randhawa P, Ho A, Shapiro R, Vats A, Swalsky P, Finkelstein S, Uhrmacher J, Weck K. 2004. Correlates of quantitative measurement of BK polyomavirus (BKV) DNA with clinical course of BKV infection in renal transplant patients. J Clin Microbiol 42:1176-1180. https://doi.org/10.1128/JCM.42.3.1176-1180.2004.
120. Viscount HB, Eid AJ, Espy MJ, Griffin MD, Thomsen KM, Harmsen WS, Razonable RR, Smith TF. 2007. Polyomavirus polymerase chain reaction as a surrogate marker of polyomavirus-associated nephropathy. Transplantation 84:340-345. https://doi.org/10.1097/01.tp.0000275205.41078.51.
121. Hirsch HH, Knowles W, Dickenmann M, Passweg J, Klimkait T, Mihatsch MJ, Steiger J. 2002. Prospective study of polyomavirus type BK replication and nephropathy in renal-transplant recipients. N Engl J Med 347:488–496. https://doi.org/10.1056/NEJMoa020439.
122. Govind S, Hockley J, Morris C, Collaborative Study Group. 2015. Collaborative study to establish the 1st WHO international standard for BKV DNA for nucleic acid amplification technique (NAT)-based assays. WHO/BS/2015.2270. WHO, Geneva, Switzerland.
123. Ding R, Medeiros M, Dadhania D, Muthukumar T, Kracker D, Kong JM, Epstein SR, Sharma VK, Seshan SV, Li B, Suthanthiran M. 2002. Noninvasive diagnosis of BK virus nephritis by measurement of messenger RNA for BK virus VP1 in urine. Transplantation 74:987–994. https://doi.org/10.1097/00007890-200210150-00016.
124. Dadhania D, Snopkowski C, Ding R, Muthukumar T, Lee J, Bang H, Sharma VK, Seshan S, August P, Kapur S, Suthanthiran M. 2010. Validation of noninvasive diagnosis of BK virus nephropathy and identification of prognostic biomarkers. Transplantation 90:189-197. https://doi.org/10.1097/TP.0b013e3181e2a932.
125. Singh HK, Reisner H, Derebail VK, Kozlowski T, Nickeleit V. 2015. Polyomavirus nephropathy: quantitative urinary polyomavirus-Haufen testing accurately predicts the degree of intrarenal viral disease. Transplantation 99:609–615. https://doi.org/10.1097/TP.0000000000000367.
126. Singh HK, Andreoni KA, Madden V, True K, Detwiler R, Weck K, Nickeleit V. 2009. Presence of urinary Haufen accurately predicts polyomavirus nephropathy. J Am Soc Nephrol 20:416–427. https://doi.org/10.1681/ASN.2008010117.
127. Viswesh V, Yost SE, Kaplan B. 2015. The prevalence and implications of BK virus replication in non-renal solid organ transplant recipients: a systematic review. Transplant Rev (Orlando) 29:175–180. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.trre.2015.02.004.
128. Kuppachi S, Kaur D, Holanda DG, Thomas CP. 2016. BK polyoma virus infection and renal disease in non-renal solid organ transplantation. Clin Kidney J 9:310-318. https://doi.org/10.1093/ckj/sfv143.
129. Brennan DC, Agha I, Bohl DL, Schnitzler MA, Hardinger KL, Lockwood M, Torrence S, Schuessler R, Roby T, Gaudreault-Keener M, Storch GA. 2005. Incidence of BK with tacrolimus versus cyclosporine and impact of preemptive immunosuppression reduction. Am J Transplant 5:582–594. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1600-6143.2005.00742.x.
130. Kuypers DR. 2012. Management of polyomavirus-associated nephropathy in renal transplant recipients. Nat Rev Nephrol 8:390–402. https://doi.org/10.1038/nrneph.2012.64.
131. Wiseman AC. 2009. Polyomavirus nephropathy: a current perspective and clinical considerations. Am J Kidney Dis 54:131–142. https://doi.org/10.1053/j.ajkd.2009.01.271.
132. Timpone JG, Jr, Kumar PN. 2013. Infectious Disease Clinics of North America. Infectious disease challenges in solid organ transplant recipients. Preface. Infect Dis Clin North Am 27:xi–xiii. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.idc.2013.03.001.
133. Hodowanec AC, Simon DM. 2015. BK virus screening and management practices among US renal transplant programs: a survey. Transpl Int 28:1339-1341. https://doi.org/10.1111/tri.12602.
134. Chakera A, Dyar OJ, Hughes E, Bennett S, Hughes D, Roberts IS. 2011. Detection of polyomavirus BK reactivation after renal transplantation using an intensive decoy cell surveillance program is costeffective. Transplantation 92:1018-1023. https://doi.org/10.1097/TP.0b013e318230c09b.
135. Bennett WM, Meyer L, Ridenour J, Batiuk TD. 2010. Surveillance and modification of immunosuppression minimizes BK virus nephropathy. Am J Nephrol 32:10-12. https://doi.org/10.1159/000313888.
136. Drachenberg CB, Hirsch HH, Ramos E, Papadimitriou JC. 2005. Polyomavirus disease in renal transplantation: review of pathological findings and diagnostic methods. Hum Pathol 36:1245–1255. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.humpath.2005.08.009.
137. Menter T, Mayr M, Schaub S, Mihatsch MJ, Hirsch HH, Hopfer H. 2013. Pathology of resolving polyomavirus-associated nephropathy. Am J Transplant 13:1474-1483. https://doi.org/10.1111/ajt.12218.
138. Drachenberg CB, Papadimitriou JC, Hirsch HH, Wali R, Crowder C, Nogueira J, Cangro CB, Mendley S, Mian A, Ramos E. 2004. Histological patterns of polyomavirus nephropathy: correlation with graft outcome and viral load. Am J Transplant 4:2082–2092. https://doi.org/10.1046/j.1600-6143.2004.00603.x.
139. Nickeleit V, Hirsch HH, Binet IF, Gudat F, Prince O, Dalquen P, Thiel G, Mihatsch MJ. 1999. Polyomavirus infection of renal allograft recipients: from latent infection to manifest disease. J Am Soc Nephrol 10:1080-1089.
140. Sawinski D, Goral S. 2015. BK virus infection: an update on diagnosis and treatment. Nephrol Dial Transplant 30:209-217. https://doi.org/10.1093/ndt/gfu023.
141. Sood P, Senanayake S, Sujeet K, Medipalli R, Van-Why SK, Cronin DC, Johnson CP, Hariharan S. 2013. Donor and recipient BKV-specific IgG antibody and posttransplantation BKV infection: a prospective single center study. Transplantation 95:896-902. https://doi.org/10.1097/TP.0b013e318282ba83.
142. Wunderink HF, van der Meijden E, van der Blij-de Brouwer CS, Mallat MJ, Haasnoot GW, van Zwet EW, Claas EC, de Fijter JW, Kroes AC, Arnold F, Touze A, Claas FH, Rotmans JI, Feltkamp MC. 2017. Pretransplantation donor-recipient pair seroreactivity against BK polyomavirus predicts viremia and nephropathy after kidney transplantation. Am J Transplant 17:161–172. https://doi.org/10.1111/ajt.13880.
143. Ali AM, Gibson IW, Birk P, Blydt-Hansen TD. 2011. Pretransplant serologic testing to identify the risk of polyoma BK viremia in pediatric kidney transplant recipients. Pediatr Transplant 15:827-834. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1399-3046.2011.01583.x.
144. Bohl DL, Brennan DC, Ryschkewitsch C, Gaudreault-Keener M, Major EO, Storch GA. 2008. BK virus antibody titers and intensity of infections after renal transplantation. J Clin Virol 43:184-189. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jcv.2008.06.009.
145. Verghese PS, Schmeling DO, Knight JA, Matas AJ, Balfour HH. 2015. The impact of donor viral replication at transplant on recipient infections posttransplant: a prospective study. Transplantation 99:602-608. https://doi.org/10.1097/TP.0000000000000354.
146. Ghanta M, Dreier J, Jacob R, Lee I. 2013. Overview of immunosuppression in renal transplantation. In Rath T (ed), Current issues and future direction in kidney transplantation. InTech, Rijeka, Croatia. https://doi.org/10.5772/54865.
147. Borni-Duval C, Caillard S, Olagne J, Perrin P, Braun-Parvez L, Heibel F, Moulin B. 2013. Risk factors for BK virus infection in the era of therapeutic drug monitoring. Transplantation 95:1498-1505. https://doi.org/10.1097/TP.0b013e3182921995.
148. Dharnidharka VR, Cherikh WS, Abbott KC. 2009. An OPTN analysis of national registry data on treatment of BK virus allograft nephropathy in the United States. Transplantation 87:1019-1026. https://doi.org/10.1097/TP.0b013e31819cc383.
149. Weiss AS, Gralla J, Chan L, Klem P, Wiseman AC. 2008. Aggressive immunosuppression minimization reduces graft loss following diagnosis of BK virus-associated nephropathy: a comparison of two reduction strategies. Clin J Am Soc Nephrol 3:1812–1819. https://doi.org/10.2215/CJN.05691207.
150. Brennan DC, Daller JA, Lake KD, Cibrik D, Del Castillo D, Thymoglobulin Induction Study Group. 2006. Rabbit antithymocyte globulin versus basiliximab in renal transplantation. N Engl J Med 355:1967–1977. https://doi.org/10.1056/NEJMoa060068.
151. 3C Study Collaborative Group, Haynes R, Harden P, Judge P, Blackwell L, Emberson J, Landray MJ, Baigent C, Friend PJ. 2014. Alemtuzumab-based induction treatment versus basiliximab-based induction treatment in kidney transplantation (the 3C Study): a randomised trial. Lancet 384:1684-1690. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0140-6736(14)61095-3.
152. Theodoropoulos NWE, Penugonda S, Ladner DP, Stosor V, Leventhal J, Friedewald J, Angarone MP, Ison MG. 2013. BK virus replication and nephropathy after alemtuzumab-induced kidney transplantation. Am J Transplant 13:197–206. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1600-6143.2012.04314.x.
153. Drachenberg CB, Hirsch HH, Papadimitriou JC, Gosert R, Wali RK, Munivenkatappa R, Nogueira J, Cangro CB, Haririan A, Mendley S, Ramos E. 2007. Polyomavirus BK versus JC replication and nephropathy in renal transplant recipients: a prospective evaluation. Transplantation 84:323–330. https://doi.org/10.1097/01.tp.0000269706.59977.a5.
154. Mengel M, Marwedel M, Radermacher J, Eden G, Schwarz A, Haller H, Kreipe H. 2003. Incidence of polyomavirus-nephropathy in renal allografts: influence of modern immunosuppressive drugs. Nephrol Dial Transplant 18:1190-1196. https://doi.org/10.1093/ndt/gfg072.
155. Basse GMC, Kamar N, Guitard J, Ribes D, Esposito L, Rostaing L. 2007. Prospective evaluation of BK virus DNAemia in renal transplant patients and their transplant outcome. Transplant Proc 39:84-87. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.transproceed.2006.11.001.
156. Benavides CA, Pollard VB, Mauiyyedi S, Podder H, Knight R, Kahan BD. 2007. BK virus-associated nephropathy in sirolimus-treated renal transplant patients: incidence, course, and clinical outcomes. Transplantation 84:83-88. https://doi.org/10.1097/01.tp.0000268524.27506.39.
157. Moscarelli LCL, Antognoli G, Zanazzi M, Di Maria L, Carta P, Minetti E. 2013. Everolimus leads to a lower risk of BKV viremia than mycophenolic acid in de novo renal transplantation patients: a single-center experience. Clin Transplant 27:546-554. https://doi.org/10.1111/ctr.12151.
158. Johnston O, Jaswal D, Gill JS, Doucette S, Fergusson DA, Knoll GA. 2010. Treatment of polyomavirus infection in kidney transplant recipients: a systematic review. Transplantation 89:1057–1070. https://doi.org/10.1097/TP.0b013e3181d0e15e.
159. Almeras C, Vetromile F, Garrigue V, Szwarc I, Foulongne V, Mourad G. 2011. Monthly screening for BK viremia is an effective strategy to prevent BK virus nephropathy in renal transplant recipients. Transpl Infect Dis 13:101–108. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1399-3062.2011.00619.x.
160. Alméras C, Foulongne V, Garrigue V, Szwarc I, Vetromile F, Segondy M, Mourad G. 2008. Does reduction in immunosuppression in viremic patients prevent BK virus nephropathy in de novo renal transplant recipients? A prospective study. Transplantation 85:1099-1104. https://doi.org/10.1097/TP.0b013e31816a33d4.
161. Hardinger KL, Koch MJ, Bohl DJ, Storch GA, Brennan DC. 2010. BK-virus and the impact of pre-emptive immunosuppression reduction: 5-year results. Am J Transplant 10:407-415. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1600-6143.2009.02952.x.
162. Schaub S, Hirsch HH, Dickenmann M, Steiger J, Mihatsch MJ, Hopfer H, Mayr M. 2010. Reducing immunosuppression preserves allograft function in presumptive and definitive polyomavirus-associated nephropathy. Am J Transplant 10:2615–2623. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1600-6143.2010.03310.x.
163. Kuypers DR, Vandooren AK, Lerut E, Evenepoel P, Claes K, Snoeck R, Naesens L, Vanrenterghem Y. 2005. Adjuvant low-dose cidofovir therapy for BK polyomavirus interstitial nephritis in renal transplant recipients. Am J Transplant 5:1997–2004. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1600-6143.2005.00980.x.
164. Kwon HJ, Kang JH, Lee JW, Chung NG, Kim HK, Cho B. 2013. Treatment of BK virus-associated hemorrhagic cystitis in pediatric hematopoietic stem cell transplant recipients with cidofovir: a single-center experience. Transpl Infect Dis 15:569-574. https://doi.org/10.1111/tid.12136.
165. Muller WJ, Levin MJ, Shin YK, Robinson C, Quinones R, Malcolm J, Hild E, Gao D, Giller R. 2005. Clinical and in vitro evaluation of cidofovir for treatment of adenovirus infection in pediatric hematopoietic stem cell transplant recipients. Clin Infect Dis 41:1812–1816. https://doi.org/10.1086/498151.
166. Savona MR, Newton D, Frame D, Levine JE, Mineishi S, Kaul DR. 2007. Low-dose cidofovir treatment of BK virus-associated hemorrhagic cystitis in recipients of hematopoietic stem cell transplant. Bone Marrow Transplant 39:783–787. https://doi.org/10.1038/sj.bmt.1705678.
167. Marty FM, Winston DJ, Rowley SD, Vance E, Papanicolaou GA, Mullane KM, Brundage TM, Robertson AT, Godkin S, Mommeja-Marin H, Boeckh M, CMX001-201 Clinical Study Group. 2013. CMX001 to prevent cytomegalovirus disease in hematopoietic-cell transplantation. N Engl J Med 369:1227–1236. https://doi.org/10.1056/NEJMoa1303688.
168. Reisman L, Habib S, McClure GB, Latiolais LS, Vanchiere JA. 2014. Treatment of BK virus-associated nephropathy with CMX001 after kidney transplantation in a young child. Pediatr Transplant 18:E227–E231. https://doi.org/10.1111/petr.12340.
169. Papanicolaou GA, Lee YJ, Young JW, Seshan SV, Boruchov AM, Chittick G, Mommeja-Marin H, Glezerman IG. 2015. Brincidofovir for polyomavirus-associated nephropathy after allogeneic hematopoietic stem cell transplantation. Am J Kidney Dis 65:780-784. https://doi.org/10.1053/j.ajkd.2014.11.020.
170. Liacini A, Seamone ME, Muruve DA, Tibbles LA. 2010. Anti-BK virus mechanisms of sirolimus and leflunomide alone and in combination: toward a new therapy for BK virus infection. Transplantation 90: 1450–1457. https://doi.org/10.1097/TP.0b013e3182007be2.
171. Williams JW, Javaid B, Kadambi PV, Gillen D, Harland R, Thistlewaite JR, Garfinkel M, Foster P, Atwood W, Millis JM, Meehan SM, Josephson MA. 2005. Leflunomide for polyomavirus type BK nephropathy. N Engl J Med 352:1157–1158. https://doi.org/10.1056/NEJM200503173521125.
172. Teschner S, Gerke P, Geyer M, Wilpert J, Krumme B, Benzing T, Walz G. 2009. Leflunomide therapy for polyomavirus-induced allograft nephropathy: efficient BK virus elimination without increased risk of rejection. Transplant Proc 41:2533–2538. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.transproceed.2009.06.099.
173. Wu JK, Harris MT. 2008. Use of leflunomide in the treatment of polyomavirus BK-associated nephropathy. Ann Pharmacother 42:1679-1685. https://doi.org/10.1345/aph.1L180.
174. Faguer SHH, Kamar N, Guilbeau-Frugier C, Ribes D, Guitard J, Esposito L, Cointault O, Modesto A, Lavit M, Mengelle C, Rostaing L. 2007. Leflunomide treatment for polyomavirus BK-associated nephropathy after kidney transplantation. Transplant Int 20:962–969. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1432-2277.2007.00523.x.
175. Josephson MA, Gillen D, Javaid B, Kadambi P, Meehan S, Foster P, Harland R, Thistlethwaite RJ, Garfinkel M, Atwood W, Jordan J, Sadhu M, Millis MJ, Williams J. 2006. Treatment of renal allograft polyoma BK virus infection with leflunomide. Transplantation 81:704-710. https://doi.org/10.1097/01.tp.0000181149.76113.50.
176. Krisl JC, Taber DJ, Pilch N, Chavin K, Bratton C, Thomas B, McGillicuddy J, Baliga P. 2012. Leflunomide efficacy and pharmacodynamics for the treatment of BK viral infection. Clin J Am Soc Nephrol 7:1003–1009. https://doi.org/10.2215/CJN.12531211.
177. Cuellar-Rodriguez J, Stephany B, Poggio E, Mossad SB, Goldfarb D, Lard M, Askar M, Fatica R, Srinivas T, Braun W, Shoskes D, Flechner S, Schmitt SK, Shrestha R, Avery RK. 2013. Contrasting patterns of viral load response in transplant recipients with BK polyomavirus DNAemia on leflunomide therapy. Clin Transplant 27:E230-E236. https://doi.org/10.1111/ctr.12110.
178. Randhawa P, Pastrana DV, Zeng G, Huang Y, Shapiro R, Sood P, Puttarajappa C, Berger M, Hariharan S, Buck CB. 2015. Commercially available immunoglobulins contain virus neutralizing antibodies against all major genotypes of polyomavirus BK. Am J Transplant 15:1014-1020. https://doi.org/10.1111/ajt.13083.
179. Randhawa PS, Schonder K, Shapiro R, Farasati N, Huang Y. 2010. Polyomavirus BK neutralizing activity in human immunoglobulin preparations. Transplantation 89:1462–1465. https://doi.org/10.1097/TP.0b013e3181daaaf1.
180. Sener A, House AA, Jevnikar AM, Boudville N, McAlister VC, Muirhead N, Rehman F, Luke PPW. 2006. Intravenous immunoglobulin as a treatment for BK virus associated nephropathy: one-year follow-up of renal allograft recipients. Transplantation 81:117–120. https://doi.org/10.1097/01.tp.0000181096.14257.c2.
181. Sharma AP, Moussa M, Casier S, Rehman F, Filler G, Grimmer J. 2009. Intravenous immunoglobulin as rescue therapy for BK virus nephropathy. Pediatr Transplant 13:123–129. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1399-3046.2008.00958.x.
182. Smith JM, Jordan SC. 2009. Intravenous immunoglobulin as treatment for BK virus: nephropathy. Pediatr Transplant 13:11–13. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1399-3046.2008.01105.x.
183. Anyaegbu EI, Almond PS, Milligan T, Allen WR, Gharaybeh S, Al-Akash SI. 2012. Intravenous immunoglobulin therapy in the treatment of BK viremia and nephropathy in pediatric renal transplant recipients. Pediatr Transplant 16:E19-E24. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1399-3046.2010.01384.x.
184. Shah T, Vu D, Naraghi R, Campbell A, Min D. 2014. Efficacy of intravenous immunoglobulin in the treatment of persistent BK viremia and BK virus nephropathy in renal transplant recipients. Clin Transpl 2014: 109–116.
185. Vu D, Shah T, Ansari J, Naraghi R, Min D. 2015. Efficacy of intravenous immunoglobulin in the treatment of persistent BK viremia and BK virus nephropathy in renal transplant recipients. Transplant Proc 47: 394–398. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.transproceed.2015.01.012.
186. Gelfand EW. 2012. Intravenous immune globulin in autoimmune and inflammatory diseases. N Engl J Med 367:2015–2025. https://doi.org/10.1056/NEJMra1009433.
187. Sharma BN, Li R, Bernhoff E, Gutteberg TJ, Rinaldo CH. 2011. Fluoroquinolones inhibit human polyomavirus BK (BKV) replication in primary human kidney cells. Antiviral Res 92:115–123. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.antiviral.2011.07.012.
188. Ali SH, Chandraker A, DeCaprio JA. 2007. Inhibition of simian virus 40 large T antigen helicase activity by fluoroquinolones. Antivir Ther 12:1-6.
189. Portolani M, Pietrosemoli P, Cermelli C, Mannini-Palenzona A, Grossi MP, Paolini L, Barbanti-Brodano G. 1988. Suppression of BK virus replication and cytopathic effect by inhibitors of prokaryotic DNA gyrase. Antiviral Res 9:205–218. https://doi.org/10.1016/0166-3542(88)90004-6.
190. Wojciechowski D, Chanda R, Chandran S, Lee B, Webber A, Macaraig M, Tomlanovich S, Vincenti F. 2012. Ciprofloxacin prophylaxis in kidney transplant recipients reduces BK virus infection at 3 months but not at 1 year. Transplantation 94:1117–1123. https://doi.org/10.1097/TP.0b013e31826ec74e.
191. Gabardi S, Waikar SS, Martin S, Roberts K, Chen J, Borgi L, Sheashaa H, Dyer C, Malek SK, Tullius SG, Vadivel N, Grafals M, Abdi R, Najafian N, Milford E, Chandraker A. 2010. Evaluation of fluoroquinolones for the prevention of BK viremia after renal transplantation. Clin J Am Soc Nephrol 5:1298-1304. https://doi.org/10.2215/CJN.08261109.
192. Zaman RA, Ettenger RB, Cheam H, Malekzadeh MH, Tsai EW. 2014. A novel treatment regimen for BK viremia. Transplantation 97: 1166–1171. https://doi.org/10.1097/01.TP.0000441825.72639.4f.
193. Lee BT, Gabardi S, Grafals M, Hofmann RM, Akalin E, Aljanabi A, Mandelbrot DA, Adey DB, Heher E, Fan PY, Conte S, Dyer-Ward C, Chandraker A. 2014. Efficacy of levofloxacin in the treatment of BK viremia: a multicenter, double-blinded, randomized, placebocontrolled trial. Clin J Am Soc Nephrol 9:583–589. https://doi.org/10.2215/CJN.04230413.
194. Knoll GA, Humar A, Fergusson D, Johnston O, House AA, Kim SJ, Ramsay T, Chasse M, Pang X, Zaltzman J, Cockfield S, Cantarovich M, Karpinski M, Lebel L, Gill JS. 2014. Levofloxacin for BK virus prophylaxis following kidney transplantation: a randomized clinical trial. JAMA 312:2106-2114. https://doi.org/10.1001/jama.2014.14721.
195. Schold JD, Rehman S, Kayler LK, Magliocca J, Srinivas TR, Meier-Kriesche H-U. 2009. Treatment for BK virus: incidence, risk factors and outcomes for kidney transplant recipients in the United States. Transplant Int 22:626–634. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1432-2277.2009.00842.x.
196. Wright AJ, Gill JS. 2016. Strategies to prevent BK virus infection in kidney transplant recipients. Curr Opin Infect Dis 29:353–358. https://doi.org/10.1097/QCO.0000000000000278.
197. Riddell SR, Watanabe KS, Goodrich JM, Li CR, Agha ME, Greenberg PD. 1992. Restoration of viral immunity in immunodeficient humans by the adoptive transfer of T cell clones. Science 257:238-241. https://doi.org/10.1126/science.1352912.
198. Icheva V, Kayser S, Wolff D, Tuve S, Kyzirakos C, Bethge W, Greil J, Albert MH, Schwinger W, Nathrath M, Schumm M, Stevanovic S, Handgretinger R, Lang P, Feuchtinger T. 2013. Adoptive transfer of Epstein-Barr virus (EBV) nuclear antigen 1-specific T cells as treatment for EBV reactivation and lymphoproliferative disorders after allogeneic stemcell transplantation. J Clin Oncol 31:39–48. https://doi.org/10.1200/JCO.2011.39.8495.
199. Cobbold M, Khan N, Pourgheysari B, Tauro S, McDonald D, Osman H, Assenmacher M, Billingham L, Steward C, Crawley C, Olavarria E, Goldman J, Chakraverty R, Mahendra P, Craddock C, Moss PA. 2005. Adoptive transfer of cytomegalovirus-specific CTL to stem cell transplant patients after selection by HLA-peptide tetramers. J Exp Med 202: 379–386. https://doi.org/10.1084/jem.20040613.
200. Balduzzi A, Lucchini G, Hirsch HH, Basso S, Cioni M, Rovelli A, Zincone A, Grimaldi M, Corti P, Bonanomi S, Biondi A, Locatelli F, Biagi E, Comoli P. 2011. Polyomavirus JC-targeted T-cell therapy for progressive multiple leukoencephalopathy in a hematopoietic cell transplantation recipient. Bone Marrow Transplant 46:987–992. https://doi.org/10.1038/bmt.2010.221.
201. Khanna R, Bell S, Sherritt M, Galbraith A, Burrows SR, Rafter L, Clarke B, Slaughter R, Falk MC, Douglass J, Williams T, Elliott SL, Moss DJ. 1999. Activation and adoptive transfer of Epstein-Barr virus-specific cytotoxic T cells in solid organ transplant patients with posttransplant lymphoproliferative disease. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A 96:10391–10396. https://doi.org/10.1073/pnas.96.18.10391.
202. Crough T, Beagley L, Smith C, Jones L, Walker DG, Khanna R. 2012. Ex vivo functional analysis, expansion and adoptive transfer of cytomegalovirus-specific T-cells in patients with glioblastoma multiforme. Immunol Cell Biol 90:872-880. https://doi.org/10.1038/icb.2012.19.
203. Khanna R, Smith C. 2013. Cellular immune therapy for viral infections in transplant patients. Indian J Med Res 138:796–807.
204. Moosmann A, Bigalke I, Tischer J, Schirrmann L, Kasten J, Tippmer S, Leeping M, Prevalsek D, Jaeger G, Ledderose G, Mautner J, Hammerschmidt W, Schendel DJ, Kolb HJ. 2010. Effective and long-term control of EBV PTLD after transfer of peptide-selected T cells. Blood 115: 2960–2970. https://doi.org/10.1182/blood-2009-08-236356.
205. Schmitt A, Tonn T, Busch DH, Grigoleit GU, Einsele H, Odendahl M, Germeroth L, Ringhoffer M, Ringhoffer S, Wiesneth M, Greiner J, Michel D, Mertens T, Rojewski M, Marx M, von Harsdorf S, Dohner H, Seifried E, Bunjes D, Schmitt M. 2011. Adoptive transfer and selective reconstitution of streptamer-selected cytomegalovirus-specific CD8+ T cells leads to virus clearance in patients after allogeneic peripheral blood stem cell transplantation. Transfusion 51:591–599. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1537-2995.2010.02940.x.
206. Feuchtinger T, Opherk K, Bethge WA, Topp MS, Schuster FR, Weissinger EM, Mohty M, Or R, Maschan M, Schumm M, Hamprecht K, Handgret- inger R, Lang P, Einsele H. 2010. Adoptive transfer of pp65-specific T cells for the treatment of chemorefractory cytomegalovirus disease or reactivation after haploidentical and matched unrelated stem cell transplantation. Blood 116:4360–4367. https://doi.org/10.1182/blood-2010-01-262089.
207. Papadopoulou A, Gerdemann U, Katari UL, Tzannou I, Liu H, Martinez C, Leung K, Carrum G, Gee AP, Vera JF, Krance RA, Brenner MK, Rooney CM, Heslop HE, Leen AM. 2014. Activity of broad-spectrum T cells as treatment for AdV, EBV, CMV, BKV, and HHV6 infections after HSCT. Sci Transl Med 6:242ra283. https://doi.org/10.1126/scitranslmed.3008825.
208. Dasari V, Schuessler A, Smith C, Wong Y, Miles JJ, Smyth MJ, Ambalathingal G, Francis R, Campbell S, Chambers D, Khanna R. 2016. Prophylactic and therapeutic adenoviral vector-based multivirus-specific T-cell immunotherapy for transplant patients. Mol Ther Methods Clin Dev 3:16058. https://doi.org/10.1038/mtm.2016.58.
209. O’Reilly RJ, Lee FK, Grossbard E, Kapoor N, Kirkpatrick D, Dinsmore R, Stutzer C, Shah KV, Nahmias AJ. 1981. Papovavirus excretion following marrow transplantation: incidence and association with hepatic dysfunction. Transplant Proc 13:262–266.
210. Arthur RR, Shah KV, Baust SJ, Santos GW, Saral R. 1986. Association of BK viruria with hemorrhagic cystitis in recipients of bone marrow transplants. N Engl J Med 315:230-234. https://doi.org/10.1056/NEJM198607243150405.
211. Dropulic LK, Jones RJ. 2008. Polyomavirus BK infection in blood and marrow transplant recipients. Bone Marrow Transplant 41:11–18. https://doi.org/10.1038/sj.bmt.1705886.
212. Erard V, Kim HW, Corey L, Limaye A, Huang ML, Myerson D, Davis C, Boeckh M. 2005. BK DNA viral load in plasma: evidence for an association with hemorrhagic cystitis in allogeneic hematopoietic cell transplant recipients. Blood 106:1130-1132. https://doi.org/10.1182/blood-2004-12-4988.
213. Pavlakis M, Haririan A, Klassen DK. 2006. BK virus infection after nonrenal transplantation. Adv Exp Med Biol 577:185–189. https://doi.org/10.1007/0-387-32957-9_13.
214. Bogdanovic G, Priftakis P, Giraud G, Kuzniar M, Ferraldeschi R, Kokhaei P, Mellstedt H, Remberger M, Ljungman P, Winiarski J, Dalianis T. 2004. Association between a high BK virus load in urine samples of patients with graft-versus-host disease and development of hemorrhagic cystitis after hematopoietic stem cell transplantation. J Clin Microbiol 42: 5394–5396. https://doi.org/10.1128/JCM.42.11.5394-5396.2004.
215. Wong AS, Chan KH, Cheng VC, Yuen KY, Kwong YL, Leung AY. 2007. Relationship of pretransplantation polyoma BK virus serologic findings and BK viral reactivation after hematopoietic stem cell transplantation. Clin Infect Dis 44:830–837. https://doi.org/10.1086/511863.
216. Randhawa PS. 2005. Anti-BK virus activity of ciprofloxacin and related antibiotics. Clin Infect Dis 41:1366-1367. https://doi.org/10.1086/497080.
217. Leung AY, Chan MT, Yuen KY, Cheng VC, Chan KH, Wong CL, Liang R, Lie AK, Kwong YL. 2005. Ciprofloxacin decreased polyoma BK virus load in patients who underwent allogeneic hematopoietic stem cell transplantation. Clin Infect Dis 40:528-537. https://doi.org/10.1086/427291.
218. Weinreb DB, Desman GT, Amolat-Apiado MJ, Burstein DE, Godbold JH, Jr, Johnson EM. 2006. Polyoma virus infection is a prominent risk factor for bladder carcinoma in immunocompetent individuals. Diagn Cytopathol 34:201–203. https://doi.org/10.1002/dc.20429.
219. Newton R, Ribeiro T, Alvarez E, Ziegler J, Casabonne D, Carpenter L, Beral V, Mbidde E, Parkin DM, Wabinga H, Mbulaiteye S, Jaffe H, Touze A, Coursaget P, Uganda Kaposi’s and Sarcoma Study Group. 2006. BK virus and cancer in Uganda. Eur J Cancer Prev 15:285–289. https://doi.org/10.1097/00008469-200608000-00002.
220. Toptan T, Yousem SA, Ho J, Matsushima Y, Stabile LP, Fernández- Figueras M-T, Bhargava R, Ryo A, Moore PS, Chang Y. 2016. Survey for human polyomaviruses in cancer. JCI Insight 1:e85562.
221. Bocchetta M, Eliasz S, De Marco MA, Rudzinski J, Zhang L, Carbone M. 2008. The SV40 large T antigen-p53 complexes bind and activate the insulin-like growth factor-I promoter stimulating cell growth. Cancer Res 68:1022–1029. https://doi.org/10.1158/0008-5472.CAN-07-5203.
222. Topalis D, Andrei G, Snoeck R. 2013. The large tumor antigen: a “Swiss Army knife” protein possessing the functions required for the polyomavirus life cycle. Antiviral Res 97:122–136. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.antiviral.2012.11.007.
223. Fioriti D, Pietropaolo V, Dal Forno S, Laurenti C, Chiarini F, Degener AM. 2003. Urothelial bladder carcinoma and viral infections: different association with human polyomaviruses and papillomaviruses. Int J Immunopathol Pharmacol 16:283–288. https://doi.org/10.1177/039463200301600315.
224. Das D, Wojno K, Imperiale MJ. 2008. BK virus as a cofactor in the etiology of prostate cancer in its early stages. J Virol 82:2705–2714. https://doi.org/10.1128/JVI.02461-07.
225. Das D, Shah RB, Imperiale MJ. 2004. Detection and expression of human BK virus sequences in neoplastic prostate tissues. Oncogene 23:7031–7046. https://doi.org/10.1038/sj.onc.1207920.
226. Sontag E, Fedorov S, Kamibayashi C, Robbins D, Cobb M, Mumby M. 1993. The interaction of SV40 small tumor antigen with protein phosphatase 2A stimulates the MAP kinase pathway and induces cell proliferation. Cell 75:887-897. https://doi.org/10.1016/0092-8674(93)90533-V.
227. Trabanelli C, Corallini A, Gruppioni R, Sensi A, Bonfatti A, Campioni D, Merlin M, Calza N, Possati L, Barbanti-Brodano G. 1998. Chromosomal aberrations induced by BK virus T antigen in human fibroblasts. Virology 243:492-496. https://doi.org/10.1006/viro.1998.9080.
228. Corallini A, Altavilla G, Cecchetti MG, Fabris G, Grossi MP, Balboni PG, Lanza G, Barbanti-Brodano G. 1978. Ependymomas, malignant tumors of pancreatic islets, and osteosarcomas induced in hamsters by BK virus, a human papovavirus. J Natl Cancer Inst 61:875-883.
229. Kenan DJ, Mieczkowski PA, Burger-Calderon R, Singh HK, Nickeleit V. 2015. The oncogenic potential of BK-polyomavirus is linked to viral integration into the human genome. J Pathol 237:379-389. https://doi.org/10.1002/path.4584.
230. Lau SK, Lacey SF, Chen YY, Chen WG, Weiss LM. 2007. Low frequency of BK virus in prostatic adenocarcinomas. APMIS 115:743–749. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1600-0463.2007.apm_601.x.
231. Sfanos KS, Sauvageot J, Fedor HL, Dick JD, De Marzo AM, Isaacs WB. 2008. A molecular analysis of prokaryotic and viral DNA sequences in prostate tissue from patients with prostate cancer indicates the presence of multiple and diverse microorganisms. Prostate 68:306-320. https://doi.org/10.1002/pros.20680.
232. Sundsfjord A, Spein AR, Lucht E, Flaegstad T, Seternes OM, Traavik T. 1994. Detection of BK virus DNA in nasopharyngeal aspirates from children with respiratory infections but not in saliva from immunodeficient and immunocompetent adult patients. J Clin Microbiol 32: 1390–1394.
233. Bofill-Mas S, Pina S, Girones R. 2000. Documenting the epidemiologic patterns of polyomaviruses in human populations by studying their presence in urban sewage. Appl Environ Microbiol 66:238-245. https://doi.org/10.1128/AEM.66.1.238-245.2000.
234. Taguchi F, Nagaki D, Saito M, Haruyama C, Iwasaki K. 1975. Transplacental transmission of BK virus in human. Jpn J Microbiol 19:395–398. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1348-0421.1975.tb00897.x.
235. Taguchi F, Kajioka J, Shimada N. 1985. Presence of interferon and antibodies to BK virus in amniotic fluid of normal pregnant women. Acta Virol 29:299-304.
236. Boldorini R, Allegrini S, Miglio U, Nestasio I, Paganotti A, Veggiani C, Monga G, Pietropaolo V. 2010. BK virus sequences in specimens from aborted fetuses. J Med Virol 82:2127–2132. https://doi.org/10.1002/jmv.21923.
237. Dadhania D, Snopkowski C, Ding R, Muthukumar T, Chang C, Aull M, Lee J, Sharma VK, Kapur S, Suthanthiran M. 2008. Epidemiology of BK virus in renal allograft recipients: independent risk factors for BK virus replication. Transplantation 86:521–528. https://doi.org/10.1097/TP.0b013e31817c6447.
238. Sood P, Senanayake S, Sujeet K, Medipalli R, Zhu YR, Johnson CP, Hariharan S. 2012. Management and outcome of BK viremia in renal transplant recipients: a prospective single-center study. Transplantation 94:814–821. https://doi.org/10.1097/TP.0b013e31826690c6.
239. Barbosa D, Kahwaji J, Puliyanda D, Mirocha J, Reinsmoen N, Lai CH, Villicana R, Peng A, Jordan SC, Vo A, Toyoda M. 2014. Polyomavirus BK viremia in kidney transplant recipients after desensitization with IVIG and rituximab. Transplantation 97:755–761. https://doi.org/10.1097/01.TP.0000437671.78716.f3.
240. Schwarz A, Linnenweber-Held S, Heim A, Framke T, Haller H, Schmitt C. 2016. Viral origin, clinical course, and renal outcomes in patients with BK virus infection after living-donor renal transplantation. Transplantation 100:844–853. https://doi.org/10.1097/TP.0000000000001066.
241. Sawinski D, Forde KA, Trofe-Clark J, Patel P, Olivera B, Goral S, Bloom RD. 2015. Persistent BK viremia does not increase intermediate-term graft loss but is associated with de novo donor-specific antibodies. J Am Soc Nephrol 26:966-975. https://doi.org/10.1681/ASN.2014010119.
242. Thamboo TP, Jeffery KJM, Friend PJ, Turner GDH, Roberts ISD. 2007. Urine cytology screening for polyoma virus infection following renal transplantation: the Oxford experience. J Clin Pathol 60:927–930.
243. Ma MK, Leung AY, Lo KY, Lio WI, Chan HW, Wong I, Hau AK, Tam CH, Wong AK, Kuok UI, Chau KF, Fung SK, Kwan TH, Wong SS, Tang SC. 2015. Screening algorithm for BK virus-associated nephropathy using sequential testing of urinary cytology: a probabilistic model analysis. Am J Nephrol 42:410–417. https://doi.org/10.1159/000443514.
244. Ranzi AD, Prolla JC, Keitel E, Brackmann R, Kist R, dos Santos G, Bica CG. 2012. The role of urine cytology for ‘decoy cells’ as a screening tool in renal transplant recipients. Acta Cytol 56:543–547. https://doi.org/10.1159/000341425.
245. Costa C, Bergallo M, Astegiano S, Terlizzi ME, Sidoti F, Segoloni GP, Cavallo R. 2008. Monitoring of BK virus replication in the first year following renal transplantation. Nephrol Dial Transplant 23:3333–3336. https://doi.org/10.1093/ndt/gfn289.
246. Marinic K, Sinchi J, Gómez M, Díaz R, Grillo S, Habegger-de Sorrentino A. 2014. Monitoring of BK virus in transplant patients of the renal unit of the Perrando Hospital, Chaco, Argentina. Nefrologia 34:799–800. https://doi.org/10.3265/Nefrologia.pre2014.Jul.12657.
247. Huang G, Wang C-X, Zhang L, Fei J-G, Deng S-X, Qiu J, Li J, Chen G-D, Fu Q, Chen L-Z. 2015. Monitoring of polyomavirus BK replication and impact of preemptive immunosuppression reduction in renal-transplant recipients in China: a 5-year single-center analysis. Diagn Microbiol Infect Dis 81:21–26. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.diagmicrobio.2014.09.024.
248. Kuten SA, Patel SJ, Knight RJ, Gaber LW, DeVos JM, Gaber AO. 2014. Observations on the use of cidofovir for BK virus infection in renal transplantation. Transplant Infect Dis 16:975–983. https://doi.org/10.1111/tid.12313.
249. Tylden GD, Hirsch HH, Rinaldo CH. 2015. Brincidofovir (CMX001) inhibits BK polyomavirus replication in primary human urothelial cells. Antimicrob Agents Chemother 59:3306-3316. https://doi.org/10.1128/AAC.00238-15.
250. Nesselhauf N, Strutt J, Bastani B. 2016. Evaluation of leflunomide for the treatment of BK viremia and biopsy proven BK nephropathy; a single center experience. J Nephropathol 5:34-37. https://doi.org/10.15171/jnp.2016.06.
251. Lebreton M, Esposito L, Mengelle C, Del Bello A, Delarche A, Dorr G, Milongo D, Marion O, Izopet J, Kamar N. 2016. A 3-month course of ciprofloxacin does not prevent BK virus replication in heavily immunosuppressed kidney-transplant patients. J Clin Virol 79:61-67. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jcv.2016.04.004.
252. Tzannou I, Papadopoulou A, Watanabe A, Kuvalekar M, Gee AP, Naik S, Martinez C, Leung KS, Sasa GS, Krance RA, Carrum G, Ramos CA, Grilley B, Brenner MK, Rooney CM, Heslop HE, Leen AM, Omer B. 2016. Administration of most closely HLA-matched multivirus-specific T cells for the treatment of EBV, CMV, AdV, HHV6, and BKV post allogeneic hematopoietic stem cell transplant, abstr S45. Abstr 58th Am Soc Hematol Annu Meet, San Diego, CA.