The basic science of musculoskeletal infections

Musculoskeletal Infections

Volumn , Issue , 2003, Pages 1-62

  Shirtliff, Mark E ^a   Leid, Jeff G ^a   William Costerton, J ^a  

^a MONTANA STATE UNIVERSITY   (United States)

Author keywords

[No Author keywords available]

Indexed keywords

EID: 85011266576     PISSN: None     EISSN: None     Source Type: Book    
DOI: None     Document Type: Chapter

References (268)

1. ME Shirtliff, MW Cripps, JT Mader. Retrospective review of 728 patients with long bone osteomyelitis. American Society for Microbiology, 99th Annual Meeting. Chicago, 1999.
2. RS Holzman, F Bishko. Osteomyelitis in heroin addicts. Ann Intern Med 75:693-696, 1971.
3. FA Waldvogel, G Medoff, MN Swartz. Osteomyelitis: a review of clinical features, therapeutic considerations and unusual aspects. 3. Osteomyelitis associated with vascular insufficiency. N Engl J Med 282:316-322, 1970.
4. FA Waldvogel, G Medoff, MN Swartz. Osteomyelitis: a review of clinical features, therapeutic considerations and unusual aspects (second of three parts). N Engl J Med 282:260-266, 1970.
5. FAWaldvogel, G Medoff, MN Swartz. Osteomyelitis: a review of clinical features, therapeutic considerations and unusual aspects. N Engl J Med 282:198-206, 1970.
6. JH Calhoun, J Cantrell, J Cobos, J Lacy, RR Valdez, J Hokanson, JT Mader. Treatment of diabetic foot infections: Wagner classification, therapy, and outcome. Foot Ankle 9:101-106, 1988.
7. DL Goldenberg, PL Chisholm, PA Rice. Experimental models of bacterial arthritis:a microbiologic and histopathologic characterization of the arthritis after the intraarticular injections of Neisseria gonorrhoeae, Staphylococcus aureus, group A streptococci, and Escherichia coli. J Rheumatol 10:5-11, 1983.
8. LL Barton, LM Dunkle, FH Habib. Septic arthritis in childhood: a 13-year review. Am J Dis Child 141:898-900, 1987.
9. AS Dickie. Current concepts in the management of infections in bones and joints. Drugs 32:458-475, 1986.
10. U Deesomchok, T Tumrasvin. Clinical study of culture-proven cases of nongonococcal arthritis. J Med Assoc Thai 73:615-623, 1990.
11. L Le Dantec, F Maury, RM Flipo, S Laskri, B Cortet, B Duquesnoy, B Delcambre. Peripheral pyogenic arthritis. A study of one hundred seventy-nine cases. Rev Rheum Engl Ed 63:103-110, 1996.
12. MJ Ryan, R Kavanagh, PG Wall, BL Hazleman. Bacterial joint infections in England and Wales: analysis of bacterial isolates over a four year period. Br J Rheumatol 36:370-373, 1997.
13. DS Morgan, D Fisher, A Merianos, BJ Currie. An 18 year clinical review of septic arthritis from tropical Australia. Epidemiol Infect 117:423-428, 1996.
14. A Schattner, KL Vosti. Bacterial arthritis due to beta-hemolytic streptococci of serogroups A, B, C, F, and G. Analysis of 23 cases and a review of the literature. Medicine (Baltimore) 77:122-139, 1998.
15. DL Goldenberg, AS Cohen. Acute infectious arthritis: a review of patients with nongonococcal joint infections (with emphasis on therapy and prognosis). Am J Med 60:369-377, 1976.
16. JJ Vyskocil, MA McIlroy, TA Brennan, FM Wilson. Pyogenic infection of the sacroiliac joint: case reports and review of the literature. Medicine (Baltimore) 70:188-197, 1991.
17. M De Jonghe, G Glaesener. Type B Haemophilus influenzae infections: experience at the Pediatric Hospital of Luxembourg (in French). Bull Soc Sci Med Grand Duche Luxemb 132:17-20, 1995.
18. SG Bowerman, NE Green, GA Mencio. Decline of bone and joint infections attributable to Haemophilus influenzae type b. Clin Orthop 341:128-133, 1997.
19. JD Luhmann, SJ Luhmann. Etiology of septic arthritis in children: an update for the 1990s. Pediatr Emerg Care 15:40-42, 1999.
20. DW Lundy, DK Kehl. Increasing prevalence of Kingella kingae in osteoarticular infections in young children. J Pediatr Orthop 18:262-267, 1998.
21. P Yagupsky, Y Bar-Ziv, CB Howard, R Dagan. Epidemiology, etiology, and clinical features of septic arthritis in children younger than 24 months. Arch Pediatr Adolesc Med 149:537-540, 1995.
22. P Yagupsky, R Dagan, CW Howard, M Einhorn, I Kassis, A Simu. High prevalence of Kingella kingae in joint fluid from children with septic arthritis revealed by the BACTEC blood culture system. J Clin Microbiol 30:1278-1281, 1992.
23. P Yagupsky, R Dagan, CB Howard, M Einhorn, I Kassis, A Simu. Clinical features and epidemiology of invasive Kingella kingae infections in southern Israel. Pediatrics 92:800-804, 1993.
24. R Dagan. Management of acute hematogenous osteomyelitis and septic arthritis in the pediatric patient. Pediatr Infect Dis J 12:88-92, 1993.
25. CW Fink, JD Nelson. Septic arthritis and osteomyelitis in children. Clin Rheum Dis 12:423-435, 1986.
26. CJ Welkon, SS Long, MC Fisher, PD Alburger. Pyogenic arthritis in infants and children: a review of 95 cases. Pediatr Infect Dis 5:669-676, 1986.
27. A Fryden, A Bengtsson, U Foberg, B Svenungsson, B Castor, A Karnell, R Schvarcz, B Lindblom, E Kihlstrom. Early antibiotic treatment of reactive arthritis associated with enteric infections: clinical and serological study. Br Med J 301:1299-1302, 1990.
28. A Keat. Sexually transmitted arthritis syndromes. Med Clin North Am 74:1617-1631, 1990.
29. D Vassilopoulos, P Chalasani, RL Jurado, K Workowski, CA Agudelo. Musculoskeletal infections in patients with human immunodeficiency virus infection. Medicine (Baltimore) 76:284-294, 1997.
30. A Saraux, H Taelman, P Blanche, J Batungwanayo, J Clerinx, A Kagame, L Kabagabo, J Ladner, P Van de Perre, P Le Goff, J Bogaerts. HIV infection as a risk factor for septic arthritis. Br J Rheumatol 36:333-337, 1997.
31. JPO Brien, DL Goldenberg, PA Rice. Disseminated gonococcal infection: a prospective analysis of 49 patients and a review of pathophysiology and immune mechanisms. Medicine (Baltimore) 62:395-406, 1983.
32. Centers for Disease Control. Sexually Transmitted Disease Surveillance 1999. US Department of Health and Human Services, Public Health Service 15-24, 2000.
33. PJ McNamara, KC Milligan-Monroe, S Khalili, RA Proctor. Identification, cloning, and initial characterization of rot, a locus encoding a regulator of virulence factor expression in Staphylococcus aureus. J Bacteriol 182:3197-3203, 2000.
34. N Balaban, RP Novick. Autocrine regulation of toxin synthesis by Staphylococcus aureus. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 92:1619-1623, 1995.
35. E Morfeldt, K Tegmark, S Arvidson. Transcriptional control of the agr-dependent virulence gene regulator, RNAIII, in Staphylococcus aureus. Mol Microbiol 21:1227-1237, 1996.
36. E Morfeldt, D Taylor, A von Gabain, S Arvidson. Activation of alpha-toxin translation in Staphylococcus aureus by the trans-encoded antisense RNA, RNAIII. EMBO J 14:4569-4577, 1995.
37. C Wolz, P Pohlmann-Dietze, A Steinhuber, YT Chien, A Manna, W van Wamel, A Cheung. Agr-independent regulation of fibronectin-binding protein(s) by the regulatory locus sar in Staphylococcus aureus. Mol Microbiol 36:230-243, 2000.
38. AL Cheung, YT Chien, AS Bayer. Hyperproduction of alpha-hemolysin in a sigB mutant is associated with elevated SarA expression in Staphylococcus aureus. Infect Immun 67:1331-1337, 1999.
39. AF Gillaspy, CY Lee, S Sau, AL Cheung, MS Smeltzer. Factors affecting the collagen binding capacity of Staphylococcus aureus. Infect Immun 66:3170-3178, 1998.
40. L Rao, RK Karls, MJ Betley. In vitro transcription of pathogenesis-related genes by purified RNA polymerase from Staphylococcus aureus. J Bacteriol 177:2609-2614, 1995.
41. N Balaban, T Goldkorn, RT Nhan, LB Dang, S Scott, RM Ridgley, SC Wright, JW Larrick, R Rasooly, JR Carlson. Autoinducer of virulence as a target for vaccine and therapy against Staphylococcus aureus. Science 280:438-440, 1998.
42. RP Novick, SJ Projan, J Kornblum, HF Ross, G Ji, B Kreiswirth, F Vandenesch, S Moghazeh. The agr P2 operon: an autocatalytic sensory transduction system in Staphylococcus aureus. Mol Gen Genet 248:446-458, 1995.
43. G Ji, R Beavis, RP Novick. Bacterial interference caused by autoinducing peptide variants. Science 276:2027-2030, 1997.
44. P Mayville, G Ji, R Beavis, H Yang, M Goger, RP Novick, TW Muir. Structureactivity analysis of synthetic autoinducing thiolactone peptides from Staphylococcus aureus responsible for virulence. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 9:1218-1223, 1999.
45. AL Cheung, MG Bayer, JH Heinrichs. sar Genetic determinants necessary for transcription of RNAII and RNAIII in the agr locus of Staphylococcus aureus. J Bacteriol 179:3963-3971, 1997.
46. Y Chien, AC Manna, SJ Projan, AL Cheung. SarA, a global regulator of virulence determinants in Staphylococcus aureus, binds to a conserved motif essential for sardependent gene regulation. J Biol Chem 274:37169-37176, 1999.
47. SK Chakrabarti, TK Misra. SarA represses agr operon expression in a purified in vitro Staphylococcus aureus transcription system. J Bacteriol 182:5893-5897, 2000.
48. PF Chan, SJ Foster. Role of SarA in virulence determinant production and environmental signal transduction in Staphylococcus aureus. J Bacteriol 180:6232-6241, 1998.
49. G Lina, S Jarraud, G Ji, T Greenland, A Pedraza, J Etienne, RP Novick, F Vandenesch. Transmembrane topology and histidine protein kinase activity of AgrC, the agr signal receptor in Staphylococcus aureus. Mol Microbiol 28:655-662, 1998.
50. WJ Van Wamel, G van Rossum, J Verhoef, CM Vandenbroucke-Grauls, AC Fluit. Cloning and characterization of an accessory gene regulator (agr)-like locus from Staphylococcus epidermidis. FEMS Microbiol Lett 163:1-9, 1998.
51. S Li, S Arvidson, R Mollby. Variation in the agr-dependent expression of alphatoxin and protein A among clinical isolates of Staphylococcus aureus from patients with septicaemia. FEMS Microbiol Lett 152:155-161, 1997.
52. AT Giraudo, A Calzolari, AA Cataldi, C Bogni, R Nagel. The sae locus of Staphylococcus aureus encodes a two-component regulatory system. FEMS Microbiol Lett 177:15-22, 1999.
53. AT Giraudo, AL Cheung, R Nagel. The sae locus of Staphylococcus aureus controls exoprotein synthesis at the transcriptional level. Arch Microbiol 168:53-58, 1997.
54. H Rampone, GL Martinez, AT Giraudo, A Calzolari, R Nagel. In vivo expression of exoprotein synthesis with a Sae mutant of Staphylococcus aureus. Can J Vet Res 60:237-240, 1996.
55. LB Regassa, RP Novick, MJ Betley. Glucose and nonmaintained pH decrease expression of the accessory gene regulator (agr) in Staphylococcus aureus. Infect Immun 60:3381-3388, 1992.
56. AH Patel, J Kornblum, B Kreiswirth, R Novick, TJ Foster. Regulation of the protein A-encoding gene in Staphylococcus aureus. Gene 114:25-34, 1992.
57. B Dassy, T Hogan, TJ Foster, JM Fournier. Involvement of the accessory gene regulator (agr) in expression of type 5 capsular polysaccharide by Staphylococcus aureus. J Genet Microbiol 139:1301-1306, 1993.
58. MT Tremaine, DK Brockman, MJ Betley. Staphylococcal enterotoxin A gene (sea) expression is not affected by the accessory gene regulator (agr). Infect Immun 61:356-359, 1993.
59. PF Chan, SJ Foster. The role of environmental factors in the regulation of virulencedeterminant expression in Staphylococcus aureus 8325-4. Microbiology 144:2469-2479, 1998.
60. PK Martin, T Li, D Sun, DP Biek, MB Schmid. Role in cell permeability of an essential two-component system in Staphylococcus aureus. J Bacteriol 181:3666-3673, 1999.
61. AF Chalker, JM Ward, AP Fosberry, JE Hodgson. Analysis and toxic overexpression in Escherichia coli of a staphylococcal gene encoding isoleucyl-tRNA synthetase. Gene 141:103-108, 1994.
62. A Xiong, VK Singh, G Cabrera, RK Jayaswal. Molecular characterization of the ferric-uptake regulator, fur, from Staphylococcus aureus. Microbiology 146:659-668, 2000.
63. E Miyazaki, JM Chen, C Ko, WR Bishai. The Staphylococcus aureus rsbW (orf159) gene encodes an anti-sigma factor of SigB. J Bacteriol 181:2846-2851, 1999.
64. M Herrmann, PE Vaudaux, D Pittet, R Auckenthaler, PD Lew, F Schumacher-Perdreau, G Peters, FA Waldvogel. Fibronectin, fibrinogen, and laminin act as mediators of adherence of clinical staphylococcal isolates to foreign material. J Infect Dis 158:693-701, 1988.
65. C Ryden, HS Tung, V Nikolaev, A Engstrom, A Oldberg. Staphylococcus aureus causing osteomyelitis binds to a nonapeptide sequence in bone sialoprotein. Biochemical J 327:825-829, 1997.
66. A Yacoub, P Lindahl, K Rubin, M Wendel, D Heinegard, C Ryden. Purification of a bone sialoprotein-binding protein from Staphylococcus aureus. Eur J Biochem 222:919-925, 1994.
67. AI Cheung, SJ Projan, RE Edelstein, VA Fischetti. Cloning, expression, and nucleotide sequence of a Staphylococcus aureus gene (fbpA) encoding a fibrinogen-binding protein. Infect Immun 63:1914-1920, 1995.
68. MK Boden, JI Flock. Cloning and characterization of a gene for a 19 kDa fibrinogen-binding protein from Staphylococcus aureus. Mol Microbiol 12:599-606, 1994.
69. D McDevitt, P Francois, P Vaudaux, TJ Foster. Molecular characterization of the clumping factor (fibrinogen receptor) of Staphylococcus aureus. Mol Microbiol 11:237-248, 1994.
70. K Jonsson, C Signas, HP Muller, M Lindberg. Two different genes encode fibronectin binding proteins in Staphylococcus aureus: the complete nucleotide sequence and characterization of the second gene. Eur J Biochem 202:1041-1048, 1991.
71. JM Patti, H Jonsson, B Guss, LM Switalski, K Wiberg, M Lindberg, M Hook. Molecular characterization and expression of a gene encoding a Staphylococcus aureus collagen adhesin. J Biol Chem 267:4766-4772, 1992.
72. PW Park, J Rosenbloom, WR Abrams, RP Mecham. Molecular cloning and expression of the gene for elastin-binding protein (ebpS) in Staphylococcus aureus. J Biol Chem 271:15803-15809, 1996.
73. MH McGavin, D Krajewska-Pietrasik, C Ryden, M Hook. Identification of a Staphylococcus aureus extracellular matrix-binding protein with broad specificity. Infect Immun 61:2479-2485, 1993.
74. JD Lopes, GF Da-Mota, CR Carneiro, L Gomes, F Costa-e-Silva-Filho, RR Brentani. Evolutionary conservation of laminin-binding proteins. Braz J Med Biol Res 21:1269-1273, 1988.
75. AS Naidu, M Andersson, A Forsgren. Identification of a human lactoferrin-binding protein in Staphylococcus aureus. J Med Microbiol 36:177-183, 1992.
76. B Modun, D Kendall, P Williams. Staphylococci express a receptor for human transferrin: identification of a 42-kilodalton cell wall transferrin-binding protein. Infect Immun 62:3850-3858, 1994.
77. JD Lopes, M dos Reis, RR Brentani. Presence of laminin receptors in Staphylococcus aureus. Science 229:275-277, 1985.
78. T Nguyen, B Ghebrehiwet, EI Peerschke. Staphylococcus aureus protein A recognizes platelet gC1qR=p33: a novel mechanism for staphylococcal interactions with platelets. Infect Immun 68:2061-2068, 2000.
79. WW Navarre, S Daefler, O Schneewind. Cell wall sorting of lipoproteins in Staphylococcus aureus. J Bacteriol 178:441-446, 1996.
80. T Bremell, A Tarkowski. Preferential induction of septic arthritis and mortality by superantigen-producing staphylococci. Infect Immun 63:4185-4187, 1995.
81. LM Switalski, JM Patti, W Butcher, AG Gristina, P Speziale, M Hook. A collagen receptor on Staphylococcus aureus strains isolated from patients with septic arthritis mediates adhesion to cartilage. Mol Microbiol 7:99-107, 1993.
82. IM Nilsson, JM Patti, T Bremell, M Hook, A Tarkowski. Vaccination with a recombinant fragment of collagen adhesin provides protection against Staphylococcus aureus-mediated septic death. J Clin Invest 101:2640-2649, 1998.
83. MG Thomas, S Peacock, S Daenke, AR Berendt. Adhesion of Staphylococcus aureus to collagen is not a major virulence determinant for septic arthritis, osteomyclitis, or endocarditis. J Infect Dis 179:291-293, 1999.
84. SJ Peacock, NP Day, MG Thomas, AR Berendt, TJ Foster. Clinical isolates of Staphylococcus aureus exhibit diversity in fnb genes and adhesion to human fibronectin. J Infect 41:23-31, 2000.
85. JM Kuypers, RA Proctor. Reduced adherence to traumatized rat heart valves by a low-fibronectin-binding mutant of Staphylococcus aureus. Infect Immun 57:2306-2312, 1989.
86. B Fischer, P Vaudaux, M Magnin, Yel Mestikawy, RA Proctor, DP Lew, H Vasey. Novel animal model for studying the molecular mechanisms of bacterial adhesion to bone-implanted metallic devices: role of fibronectin in Staphylococcus aureus adhesion. J Orthop Res 14:914-920, 1996.
87. AH Patel, P Nowlan, ED Weavers, I Foster. Virulence of protein A-deficient and alpha-toxin-deficient mutants of Staphylococcus aureus isolated by allele replacement. Infect Immun 55:3103-3110, 1987.
88. GM Deng, A Tarkowski. The features of arthritis induced by CpG motifs in bacterial DNA. Arthritis Rheum 43:356-364, 2000.
89. GM Deng, IM Nilsson, M Verdrengh, LV Collins, A Tarkowski. Intra-articularly localized bacterial DNA containing CpG motifs induces arthritis. Nat Med 5:702-705, 1999.
90. PM Schlievert. Role of superantigens in human disease. J Infect Dis 167:997-1002, 1993.
91. AJ Littlewood-Evans, MR Hattenberger, C Luscher, A Pataki, O Zak, T O’Reilly. Local expression of tumor necrosis factor alpha in an experimental model of acute osteomyelitis in rats. Infect Immun 65:3438-3443, 1997.
92. T Renno, M Hahne, HR MacDonald. Proliferation is a prerequisite for bacterial superantigen-induced T cell apoptosis in vivo. J Exp Med 181:2283-2287, 1995.
93. IM Nilsson, M Verdrengh, RG Ulrich, S Bavari, A Tarkowski. Protection against Staphylococcus aureus sepsis by vaccination with recombinant staphylococcal enterotoxin A devoid of superantigenicity. J Infect Dis 180:1370-1373, 1999.
94. JM Yarwood, PM Schlievert. Oxygen and carbon dioxide regulation of toxic shock syndrome toxin 1 production by Staphylococcus aureus MN8. J Clin Microbiol 38:1797-1803, 2000.
95. H Tokunaga, T Nakae. Calcium ion-mediated regulation of the alpha-toxin pore of Staphylococcus aureus. Biochim Biophys Acta 1105:125-130, 1992.
96. CG Gemmell, SC Goutcher, R Reid, RD Sturrock. Role of certain virulence factors in a murine model of Staphylococcus aureus arthritis. J Med Microbiol 46:208-213, 1997.
97. A Hildebrand, M Pohl, S Bhakdi. Staphylococcus aureus alpha-toxin: dual mechanism of binding to target cells. J Biol Chem 266:17195-17200, 1991.
98. GG Khachapuridze, SG Nergadze, NN Lapiashvili, IN Panieva, LS Barenfel’d, NM Pleskach, MS Imedadze. The effect of staphylococcal alpha-toxin on DNA replication in human cells (in Russian). Tsitologiia 33:82-89, 1991.
99. AS Bayer, PM Sullam, M Ramos, C Li, AL Cheng, MR Yeaman. Staphylococcus aureus induces platelet aggregation via a fibrinogen-dependent mechanism which is independent of principal platelet glycoprotein IIb=IIIa fibrinogen-binding domains. Infect Immun 63:3634-3641, 1995.
100. M Arvand, S Bhakdi, B Dahlback, KT Preissner. Staphylococcus aureus alphatoxin attack on human platelets promotes assembly of the prothrombinase complex. J Biol Chem 265:14377-14381, 1990.
101. E Gouaux, M Hobaugh, L Song. a-Hemolysin, g-hemolysin, and leukocidin from Staphylococcus aureus: distant in sequence but similar in structure. Protein Sci 6:2631-2635, 1997.
102. T Tomita, Y Kamio. Molecular biology of the pore-forming cytolysins from Staphylococcus aureus, alpha-and gamma-hemolysins and leukocidin. Biosci Biotechnol Biochem 61:565-572, 1997.
103. F Grimminger, F Rose, U Sibelius, M Meinhardt, B Potzsch, R Spriestersbach, S Bhakdi, N Suttorp, W Seeger. Human endothelial cell activation and mediator release in response to the bacterial exotoxins Escherichia coli hemolysin and staphylococcal alpha-toxin. J Immunol 159:1909-1916, 1997.
104. IM Nilsson, O Hartford, T Foster, A Tarkowski. Alpha-toxin and gamma-toxin jointly promote Staphylococcus aureus virulence in murine septic arthritis. Infect Immun 67:1045-1049, 1999.
105. I Walev, U Weller, S Strauch, T Foster, S Bhakdi. Selective killing of human monocytes and cytokine release provoked by sphingomyelinase (beta-toxin) of Staphylococcus aureus. Infect Immun 64:2974-2979, 1996.
106. FJ Schmitz, KE Veldkamp, KP Van Kessel, J Verhoef, JA Van Strijp. Delta-toxin from Staphylococcus aureus as a costimulator of human neutrophil oxidative burst. J Infect Dis 176:1531-1537, 1997.
107. M Ferreras, F Hoper, SM Dalia, DA Cohn, G Prevost, G Menestrina. The interaction of Staphylococcus aureus bi-component gamma-hemolysins and leucocidins with cells and lipid membranes. Biochim Biophys Acta 1414:108-126, 1998.
108. B Konig, G Prevost, W Konig. Composition of staphylococcal bi-component toxins determines pathophysiological reactions. J Med Microbiol 46:479-485, 1997.
109. G Prevost, B Cribier, P Couppie, P Petiau, G Supersac, V Finck-Barbancon, H Monteil, Y Piemont. Panton-Valentine leucocidin and gamma-hemolysin from Staphylococcus aureus ATCC 49775 are encoded by distinct genetic loci and have different biological activities. Infect Immun 63:4121-4129, 1995.
110. LR Plano, DM Gutman, M Woischnik, CM Collins. Recombinant Staphylococcus aureus exfoliative toxins are not bacterial superantigens. Infect Immun 68:3048-3052, 2000.
111. RJ Williams, JM Ward, B Henderson, S Poole, BP O’Hara, M Wilson, SP Nair. Identification of a novel gene cluster encoding staphylococcal exotoxin-like proteins: characterization of the prototypic gene and its protein product, SET1. Infect Immun 68:4407-4415, 2000.
112. A Albus, RD Arbeit, JC Lee. Virulence of Staphylococcus aureus mutants altered in type 5 capsule production. Infect Immun 59:1008-1014, 1991.
113. T Essawi, T Na’was, A Hawwari, S Wadi, A Doudin, AI Fattom. Molecular, antibiogram and serological typing of Staphylococcus aureus isolates recovered from Al-Makased Hospital in East Jerusalem. Trop Med Int Health 3:576-583, 1998.
114. T Na’was, A Hawwari, E Hendrix, J Hebden, R Edelman, M Martin, W Campbell, R Naso, R Schwalbe, AI Fattom. Phenotypic and genotypic characterization of nosocomial Staphylococcus aureus isolates from trauma patients. J Clin Microbiol 36:414-420, 1998.
115. D Martin, LG Mathieu, J Lecomte, J deRepentigny. Adherence of gram-positive and gram-negative bacterial strains to human lung fibroblasts in vitro. Exp Biol 45:323-334, 1986.
116. TB Buxton, JP Rissing, JA Homer, KM Plowman, DF Scott, TJ Sprinkle, GK Best. Binding of a Staphylococcus aureus bone pathogen to type I collagen. Microb Pathog 8:441-448, 1990.
117. JC Lee, S Takeda, PJ Livolsi, LC Paoletti. Effects of in vitro and in vivo growth conditions on expression of type 8 capsular polysaccharide by Staphylococcus aureus. Infect Immun 61:1853-1858, 1993.
118. F Vandenesch, SJ Projan, B Kreiswirth, J Etienne, RP Novick. Agr-related sequences in Staphylococcus lugdunensis. FEMS Microbiol Lett 111:115-122, 1993.
119. TM Nilsson, JC Lee, T Bremell, C Ryden, A Tarkowski. The role of staphylococcal polysaccharide microcapsule expression in septicemia and septic arthritis. Infect Immun 65:4216-4221, 1997.
120. B Vastag. New vaccine decreases rate of nosocomial infections. JAMA 285:1565-1566, 2001.
121. J Wimpenny. An overview of biofilms as functional communities, in: DG Allison, P Gilbert, HM Lappin-Scott, M Wilson, eds. Community Structure and Co-operation in Biofilms. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2000:1-24.
122. JW Costerton, Z Lewandowski, DE Caldwell, DR Korber, HM Lappin-Scott. Microbial biofilms. Annu Rev Microbiol 49:711-745, 1995.
123. MD Parkins, H Ceri, DG Storey. Differential virulence factor expression in Pseudomonas aeruginosa biofilms. Big Sky, MT: American Society for Microbiology Biofilms 2000 (B2K), Abstract #27, 24. 7-16-2000.
124. PK Singh, AL Schaefer, MR Parsek, TO Moninger, MJ Welsh, EP Greenberg. Quorum-sensing signals indicate that cystic fibrosis lungs are infected with bacterial biofilms. Nature 407:762-764, 2000.
125. RJ McLean, M Whiteley, DJ Stickler, WC Fuqua. Evidence of autoinducer activity in naturally occurring biofilms. FEMS Microbiol Lett 154:259-263, 1997.
126. DJ Stickler, NS Morris, RJ McLean, C Fuqua. Biofilms on indwelling urethral catheters produce quorum-sensing signal molecules in situ and in vitro. Appl Environ Microbiol 64:3486-3490, 1998.
127. AG Gristina, M Oga, LX Webb, CD Hobgood. Adherent bacterial colonization in the pathogenesis of osteomyelitis. Science 228:990-993, 1985.
128. H Akiyama, R Torigoe, J Arata. Interaction of Staphylococcus aureus cells and silk threads in vitro and in mouse skin. J Dermatol Sci 6:247-257, 1993.
129. P Francois, P Vaudaux, PD Lew. Role of plasma and extracellular matrix proteins in the physiopathology of foreign body infections. Ann Vasc Surg 12:34-40, 1998.
130. E Gracia, A Fernandez, P Conchello, A Lacleriga, L Paniagua, F Seral, B Amorena. Adherence of Staphylococcus aureus slime-producing strain variants to biomaterials used in orthopaedic surgery. Int Orthop 21:46-51, 1997.
131. S Oie, Y Huang, A Kamiya, H Konishi, T Nakazawa. Efficacy of disinfectants against biofilm cells of methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus. Microbios 85:223-230, 1996.
132. RO Darouiche, A Dhir, AJ Miller, GC Landon, II Raad, DM Musher. Vancomycin penetration into biofilm covering infected prostheses and effect on bacteria. J Infect Dis 170:720-723, 1994.
133. IG Duguid, E Evans, MR Brown, P Gilbert. Effect of biofilm culture upon the susceptibility of Staphylococcus epidermidis to tobramycin. J Antimicrob Chemother 30:803-810, 1992.
134. AG Gristina, CD Hobgood, LX Webb, QN Myrvik. Adhesive colonization of biomaterials and antibiotic resistance. Biomaterials 8:423-426, 1987.
135. C von Eiff, D Bettin, RA Proctor, B Rolauffs, N Lindner, W Winkelmann, G Peters. Recovery of small colony variants of Staphylococcus aureus following gentamicin bead placement for osteomyelitis. Clin Infect Dis 25:1250-1251, 1997.
136. DAJ Ferguson, EM Veringa, WR Mayberry, BP Overbeek, DW Lambe Jr, J Verhoef. Bacteroides and Staphylococcus glycocalyx: chemical analysis, and the effects on chemiluminescence and chemotaxis of human polymorphonuclear leucocytes. Microbios 69:53-65, 1992.
137. AL Shiau, CL Wu. The inhibitory effect of Staphylococcus epidermidis slime on the phagocytosis of murine peritoneal macrophages is interferon-independent. Microbiol Immunol 42:33-40, 1998.
138. MK Dasgupta. Biofilm causes decreased production of interferon-gamma. J Am Soc Nephrol 7:877-882, 1996.
139. M Hussain, MH Wilcox, PJ White. The slime of coagulase-negative staphylococci:biochemistry and relation to adherence. FEMS Microbiol Rev 10:191-207, 1993.
140. H Akiyama, M Ueda, H Kanzaki, J Tada, J Arata. Biofilm formation of Staphylococcus aureus strains isolated from impetigo and furuncle: role of fibrinogen and fibrin. J Environ Pathol Toxicol Oncol 16:2-10, 1997.
141. D McKenney, J Hubner, E Muller, Y Wang, DA Goldmann, GB Pier. The ica locus of Staphylococcus epidermidis encodes production of the capsular polysaccharide= adhesin. Infect Immun 66:4711-4720, 1998.
142. C Heilmann, O Schweitzer, C Gerke, N Vanittanakom, D Mack, F Gotz. Molecular basis of intercellular adhesion in the biofilm-foming Staphylococcus epidermidis. Mol Microbiol 20:1083-1091, 1996.
143. SI Alam, KA Khan, A Ahmad. Glycocalyx positive bacteria isolated from chronic osteomyelitis and septic arthritis. Ceylon Med J 35:21-23, 1990.
144. RP Evans, CL Nelson, WR Bowen, MG Kleve, SG Hickmon. Visualization of bacterial glycocalyx with a scanning electron microscope. Clin Orthop Rel Res 347:243-249, 1998.
145. RD Stout, KP Ferguson, YN Li, DW Lambe Jr. Staphylococcal exopolysaccharides inhibit lymphocyte proliferative responses by activation of monocyte prostaglandin production. Infect Immun 60:922-927, 1992.
146. MC Hudson, WK Ramp, NC Nicholson, AS Williams, MT Nousiainen. Internalization of Staphylococcus aureus by cultured osteoblasts. Microb Pathog 19:409-419, 1995.
147. AM Lowe, DT Beattie, RL Deresiewicz. Identification of novel staphylococcal virulence genes by in vivo expression technology. Mol Microbiol 27:967-976, 1998.
148. A Lammers, PJ Nuijten, HE Smith. The fibronectin binding proteins of Staphylococcus aureus are required for adhesion to and invasion of bovine mammary gland cells. FEMS Microbiol Lett 180:103-109, 1999.
149. BE Menzies, I Kourteva. Internalization of Staphylococcus aureus by endothelial cells induces apoptosis. Infect Immun 66:5994-5998, 1998.
150. BC Kahl, M Goulian, W van Wamel, M Herrmann, SM Simon, G Kaplan, G Peters, AL Cheung. Staphylococcus aureus RN6390 replicates and induces apoptosis in a pulmonary epithelial cell line. Infect Immun 68:5385-5392, 2000.
151. JK Ellington, SS Reilly, WK Ramp, MS Smeltzer, JF Kellam, MC Hudson. Mechanisms of Staphylococcus aureus invasion of cultured osteoblasts. Microb Pathog 26:317-323, 1999.
152. KW Bayles, CA Wesson, LE Liou, LK Fox, GA Bohach, WR Trumble. Intracellular Staphylococcus aureus escapes the endosome and induces apoptosis in epithelial cells. Infect Immun 66:336-342, 1998.
153. CA Wesson, J Deringer, LE Liou, KW Bayles, GA Bohach, WR Trumble. Apoptosis induced by Staphylococcus aureus in epithelial cells utilizes a mechanism involving caspases 8 and 3. Infect Immun 68:2998-3001, 2000.
154. SS Reilly, MC Hudson, JF Kellam, WK Ramp. In vivo internalization of Staphylococcus aureus by embryonic chick osteoblasts. Bone 26:63-70, 2000.
155. HD Gresham, JH Lowrance, TE Caver, BS Wilson, AL Cheung, FP Lindberg. Survival of Staphylococcus aureus inside neutrophils contributes to infection. J Immunol 164:3713-3722, 2000.
156. AT Giraudo, H Rampone, A Calzolari, R Nagel. Phenotypic characterization and virulence of a sae agr mutant of Staphylococcus aureus. Can J Microbiol 42:120-123, 1996.
157. D McDevitt, P Vaudaux, TJ Foster. Genetic evidence that bound coagulase of Staphylococcus aureus is not clumping factor. Infect Immun 60:1514-1523, 1992.
158. JS Blevins, AF Gillaspy, TM Rechtin, BK Hurlburt, MS Smeltzer. The Staphylococcal accessory regulator (sar) represses transcription of the Staphylococcus aureus collagen adhesin gene (cna) in an agr-independent manner. Mol Microbiol 33:317-326, 1999.
159. DS Piriz, FH Kayser, B Berger-Bachi. Impact of sar and agr on methicillin resistance in Staphylococcus aureus. FEMS Microbiol Lett 141:255-260, 1996.
160. P Moreillon, JM Entenza, P Francioli, D McDevitt, TJ Foster, P Francois, P Vaudaux. Role of Staphylococcus aureus coagulase and clumping factor in pathogenesis of experimental endocarditis. Infect Immun 63:4738-4743, 1995.
161. JM van der Vijver, MM van Es-Boon, MF Michel. A study of virulence factors with induced mutants of Staphylococcus aureus. J Med Microbiol 8:279-287, 1975.
162. MN Rhem, EM Lech, JM Patti, D McDevitt, M Hook, DB Jones, KR Wilhelmus. The collagen-binding adhesin is a virulence factor in Staphylococcus aureus keratitis. Infect Immun 68:3776-3779, 2000.
163. QY Zhang, D DeRyckere, P Lauer, M Koomey. Gene conversion in Neisseria gonorrhoeae: evidence for its role in pilus antigenic variation. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 89:5366-5370, 1992.
164. BE Britigan, MS Cohen, PF Sparling. Gonococcal infection: a model of molecular pathogenesis. N Engl J Med 312:1683-1694, 1985.
165. S Ram, FG Mackinnon, S Gulati, DP McQuillen, U Vogel, M Frosch, C Elkins, HK Guttormsen, LM Wetzler, M Oppermann, MK Pangburn, PA Rice. The contrasting mechanisms of serum resistance of Neisseria gonorrhoeae and group B Neisseria meningitidis. Mol Immunol 36:915-928, 1999.
166. M Larribe, MK Taha, A Topilko, C Marchal. Control of Neisseria gonorrhoeae pilin gene expression by environmental factors: involvement of the pilA=pilB regulatory genes. Microbiology 143:1757-1764, 1997.
167. PA Rice, DL Kasper. Characterization of serum resistance of Neisseria gonorrhoeae that disseminate. Roles of blocking antibody and gonococcal outer membrane proteins. J Clin Invest 70:157-167, 1982.
168. CR Gregg, MA Melly, CG Hellerqvist, JG Coniglio, ZA McGee. Toxic activity of purified lipopolysaccharide of Neisseria gonorrhoeae for human fallopian tube mucosa. J Infect Dis 143:432-439, 1981.
169. DL Goldenberg, JI Reed, PA Rice. Arthritis in rabbits induced by killed Neisseria gonorrhoeae and gonococcal lipopolysaccharide. J Rheumatol 11:3-8, 1984.
170. LM Wetzler, K Barry, MS Blake, EC Gotschlich. Gonococcal lipooligosaccharide sialylation prevents complement-dependent killing by immune sera. Infect Immun 60:39-43, 1992.
171. LG Rahme, FM Ausubel, H Cao, E Drenkard, BC Goumnerov, GW Lau, S Mahajan-Miklos, J Plotnikova, MW Tan, J Tsongalis, CL Walendziewicz, RG Tompkins. Plants and animals share functionally common bacterial virulence factors. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 97:8815-8821, 2000.
172. R Ramphal, S Vishwanath. Why is Pseudomonas the colonizer and why does it persist? Infection 15:281-287, 1987.
173. M Hobbs, ES Collie, PD Free, SP Livingston, JS Mattick. PilS and PilR, a twocomponent transcriptional regulatory system controlling expression of type 4 fimbriae in Pseudomonas aeruginosa. Mol Microbiol 7:669-682, 1993.
174. MS Strom, S Lory. Structure-function and biogenesis of the type IV pili. Annu Rev Microbiol 47:565-596, 1993.
175. A Glessner, RS Smith, BH Iglewski, JB Robinson. Roles of Pseudomonas aeruginosa las and rhl quorum-sensing systems in control of twitching motility. J Bacteriol 181:1623-1629, 1999.
176. GA O’Toole, R Kolter. Flagellar and twitching motility are necessary for Pseudomonas aeruginosa biofilm development. Mol Microbiol 30:295-304, 1998.
177. J Davies, A Dewar, A Bush, T Pitt, D Gruenert, DM Geddes, EW Alton. Reduction in the adherence of Pseudomonas aeruginosa to native cystic fibrosis epithelium with anti-asialoGM1 antibody and neuraminidase inhibition. Eur Respir J 13:565-570, 1999.
178. A Singh, L Hazlett, RS Berk. Characterization of pseudomonal adherence to unwounded cornea. Invest Ophthalmol Vis Sci 32:2096-2104, 1991.
179. TR De Kievit, BH Iglewski. Quorum sensing, gene expression, and Pseudomonas biofilms. Methods Enzymol 310:117-128, 1999.
180. DG Davies, MR Parsek, JP Pearson, BH Iglewski, JW Costerton, EP Greenberg. The involvement of cell-to-cell signals in the development of a bacterial biofilm. Science 280:295-298, 1998.
181. A Boyd, AM Chakrabarty. Role of alginate lyase in cell detachment of Pseudomonas aeruginosa. Appl Environ Microbiol 60:2355-2359, 1994.
182. JW Costerton, PS Stewart, EP Greenberg. Bacterial biofilms: a common cause of persistent infections. Science 284:1318-1322, 1999.
183. H Anwar, JL Strap, JW Costerton. Eradication of biofilm cells of Staphylococcus aureus with tobramycin and cephalexin. Can J Microbiol 38:618-625, 1992.
184. H Anwar, JL Strap, JW Costerton. Kinetic interaction of biofilm cells of Staphylococcus aureus with cephalexin and tobramycin in a chemostat system. Antimicrob Agents Chemother 36:890-893, 1992.
185. BD Hoyle, J Alcantara, JW Costerton. Pseudomonas aeruginosa biofilm as a diffusion barrier to piperacillin. Antimicrob Agents Chemother 36:2054-2056, 1992.
186. MJ Wick, AN Hamood, BH Iglewski. Analysis of the structure-function relationship of Pseudomonas aeruginosa exotoxin A. Mol Microbiol 4:527-535, 1990.
187. MJ Wick, DW Frank, DG Storey, BH Iglewski. Structure, function, and regulation of Pseudomonas aeruginosa exotoxin A. Annu Rev Microbiol 44:335-363, 1990.
188. J Coburn. Pseudomonas aeruginosa exoenzyme S. Curr Top Microbiol Immunol 175:133-143, 1992.
189. H Fu, J Coburn, RJ Collier. The eukaryotic host factor that activates exoenzyme S of Pseudomonas aeruginosa is a member of the 14-3-3 protein family. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 90:2320-2324, 1993.
190. JP Pearson, C Van Delden, BH Iglewski. Active efflux and diffusion are involved in transport of Pseudomonas aeruginosa cell-to-cell signals. J Bacteriol 181:1203-1210, 1999.
191. JP Pearson, EC Pesci, BH Iglewski. Roles of Pseudomonas aeruginosa las and rhl quorum-sensing systems in control of elastase and rhamnolipid biosynthesis genes. J Bacteriol 179:5756-5767, 1997.
192. YYAdar, S Ulitzur. GroESL proteins facilitate binding of externally added inducer by LuxR protein-containing E. coli cells. J Biolumin Chemilumin 8:261-266, 1993.
193. AM Albus, EC Pesci, LJ Runyen-Janecky, SE West, BH Iglewski. Vfr controls quorum sensing in Pseudomonas aeruginosa. J Bacteriol 179:3928-3935, 1997.
194. M Whiteley, MR Parsek, EP Greenberg. Regulation of quorum sensing by RpoS in Pseudomonas aeruginosa. J Bacteriol 182:4356-4360, 2000.
195. T de Kievit, PC Seed, J Nezezon, L Passador, BH Iglewski. RsaL, a novel repressor of virulence gene expression in Pseudomonas aeruginosa. J Bacteriol 181:2175-2184, 1999.
196. SL McKnight, BH Iglewski, EC Pesci. The Pseudomonas quinolone signal regulates rhl quorum sensing in Pseudomonas aeruginosa. J Bacteriol 182:2702-2708, 2000.
197. EC Pesci, JB Milbank, JP Pearson, S McKnight, AS Kende, EP Greenberg, BH Iglewski. Quinolone signaling in the cell-to-cell communication system of Pseudomonas aeruginosa. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 96:11229-11234, 1999.
198. O Geisenberger, M Givskov, K Riedel, N Hoiby, B Tummler, L Eberl. Production of N-acyl-L-homoserine lactones by P. aeruginosa isolates from chronic lung infections associated with cystic fibrosis. FEMS Microbiol Lett 184:273-278, 2000.
199. GA O’Toole, KA Gibbs, PW Hager, PV Phibbs, R Kolter. The global carbon metabolism regulator Crc is a component of a signal transduction pathway required for biofilm development by Pseudomonas aeruginosa. J Bacteriol 182:425-431, 2000.
200. MLVasil, UA Ochsner. The response of Pseudomonas aeruginosa to iron: genetics, biochemistry and virulence. Mol Microbiol 34:399-413, 1999.
201. HA Barton, Z Johnson, CD Cox, AI Vasil, ML Vasil. Ferric uptake regulator mutants of Pseudomonas aeruginosa with distinct alterations in the iron-dependent repression of exotoxin A and siderophores in aerobic and microaerobic environments. Mol Microbiol 21:1001-1017, 1996.
202. DJ Hassett, ML Howell, UA Ochsner, ML Vasil, Z Johnson, GE Dean. An operon containing fumC and sodA encoding fumarase C and manganese superoxide dismutase is controlled by the ferric uptake regulator in Pseudomonas aeruginosa:fur mutants produce elevated alginate levels. J Bacteriol 179:1452-1459, 1997.
203. DJ Hassett, PA Sokol, ML Howell, JF Ma, HT Schweizer, U Ochsner, ML Vasil. Ferric uptake regulator (Fur) mutants of Pseudomonas aeruginosa demonstrate defective siderophore-mediated iron uptake, altered aerobic growth, and decreased superoxide dismutase and catalase activities. J Bacteriol 178:3996-4003, 1996.
204. UA Ochsner, ML Vasil. Gene repression by the ferric uptake regulator in Pseudomonas aeruginosa: cycle selection of iron-regulated genes. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 93:4409-4414, 1996.
205. PV Dunlap. Mechanism for iron control of the Vibrio fischeri luminescence system:involvement of cyclic AMP and cyclic AMP receptor protein and modulation of DNA level. J Biolumin Chemilumin 7:203-214, 1992.
206. HV Winteler, D Haas. The homologous regulators ANR of Pseudomonas aeruginosa and FNR of Escherichia coli have overlapping but distinct specificities for anaerobically inducible promoters. Microbiology 142:685-693, 1996.
207. H Arai, T Kodama, Y Igarashi. Cascade regulation of the two CRP=FNR-related transcriptional regulators (ANR and DNR) and the denitrification enzymes in Pseudomonas aeruginosa. Mol Microbiol 25:1141-1148, 1997.
208. R Cassels, B Oliva, D Knowles. Occurrence of the regulatory nucleotides ppGpp and pppGpp following induction of the stringent response in staphylococci. J Bacteriol 177:5161-5165, 1995.
209. WA Haseltine, R Block, W Gilbert, K Weber. MSI and MSII made on ribosome in idling step of protein synthesis. Nature 238:381-384, 1972.
210. F Jorgensen, M Bally, V Chapon-Herve, G Michel, A Lazdunski, P Williams, GS Stewart. RpoS-dependent stress tolerance in Pseudomonas aeruginosa. Microbiology 145:835-844, 1999.
211. PC Loewen, B Hu, J Strutinsky, R Sparling. Regulation in the rpoS regulon of Escherichia coli. Can J Microbiol 44:707-717, 1998.
212. MJ Schurr, V Deretic. Microbial pathogenesis in cystic fibrosis: co-ordinate regulation of heat-shock response and conversion to mucoidy in Pseudomonas aeruginosa. Mol Microbiol 24:411-420, 1997.
213. KT Hughes, K Mathee. The anti-sigma factors. Annu Rev Microbiol 52:231-286, 1998.
214. MJ Schurr, H Yu, JM Martinez-Salazar, JC Boucher, V Deretic. Control of AlgU, a member of the sigma E-like family of stress sigma factors, by the negative regulators MucA and MucB and Pseudomonas aeruginosa conversion to mucoidy in cystic fibrosis. J Bacteriol 178:4997-5004, 1996.
215. JC Boucher, H Yu, MH Mudd, V Deretic. Mucoid Pseudomonas aeruginosa in cystic fibrosis: characterization of muc mutations in clinical isolates and analysis of clearance in a mouse model of respiratory infection. Infect Immun 65:3838-3846, 1997.
216. S Jin, K Ishimoto, S Lory. Nucleotide sequence of the rpoN gene and characterization of two downstream open reading frames in Pseudomonas aeruginosa. J Bacteriol 176:1316-1322, 1994.
217. MN Starnbach, S Lory. The fliA (rpoF) gene of Pseudomonas aeruginosa encodes an alternative sigma factor required for flagellin synthesis. Mol Microbiol 6:459-469, 1992.
218. LG Rahme, EJ Stevens, SF Wolfort, J Shao, RG Tompkins, FM Ausubel. Common virulence factors for bacterial pathogenicity in plants and animals. Science 268:1899-1902, 1995.
219. C Blumer, S Heeb, G Pessi, D Haas. Global GacA-steered control of cyanide and exoprotease production in Pseudomonas fluorescens involves specific ribosome binding sites. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 96:14073-14078, 1999.
220. J Trueta, JD Morgan. The vascular contribution to osteogenesis: studies by the injection method. J Bone Joint Surg 42B:97-109, 1960.
221. T Hobo. Zur pathogenese de akuten haematatogenen Osteomyelitis, mit Beruckishtigun der Vitalfarbungslehre. Acta School Med Univ Imp Kioto 4:1-29, 1922.
222. RT Morrissy, DW Haynes. Acute hematogenous osteomyelitis: a model with trauma as an etiology. J Pediatr Orthop 9:447-456, 1989.
223. GM Caputo, PR Cavanagh, JS Ulbrecht, GW Gibbons, AW Karchmer. Assessment and management of foot disease in patients with diabetes. N Engl J Med 331:854-860, 1994.
224. JA Smith, JJ O’Connor. Nasal carriage of Staphylococcus aureus in diabetes mellitus. Lancet 2:776-777, 1966.
225. LA Lavery, SC Walker, LB Harkless, K Felder-Johnson. Infected puncture wounds in diabetic and nondiabetic adults. Diabetes Care 18:1588-1591, 1995.
226. E Bohm, C Josten. What’s new in exogenous osteomyelitis? Pathol Res Pract 188:254-258, 1992.
227. G Cierny. Chronic osteomyelitis: results of treatment. Instr Course Lect 39:495-508, 1990.
228. EL Pesanti, JA Lorenzo. Osteoclasts and effects of interleukin 4 in development of chronic osteomyelitis. Clin Orthop 355:290-299, 1998.
229. JT Mader, M Ortiz, JH Calhoun. Update on the diagnosis and management of osteomyelitis. Clin Podiatr Med Surg 13:701-724, 1996.
230. JT Mader, GL Brown, JC Guckian, CH Wells, JA Reinarz. A mechanism for the amelioration by hyperbaric oxygen of experimental staphylococcal osteomyelitis in rabbits. J Infect Dis 142:915-922, 1980.
231. Y Kharbanda, RS Dhir. Natural course of hematogenous pyogenic osteomyelitis (a retrospective study of 110 cases). J Postgrad Med 37:69-75, 1991.
232. JM Buckholz. The surgical management of osteomyelitis: with special reference to a surgical classification. J Foot Surg 26:S17-S24, 1987.
233. A Ben-Yehuda, ME Weksler. Host resistance and the immune system. Clin Geriatr Med 8:701-711, 1992.
234. FR Roisman, DT WaIz, AE Finkelstein. Superoxide radical production by human leukocytes exposed to immune complexes: inhibitory action of gold compounds. Inflammation 7:355-362, 1983.
235. JY Wang, BH Wicklund, RB Gustilo, DT Tsukayama. Prosthetic metals impair murine immune response and cytokine release in vivo and in vitro. J Orthop Res 15:688-699, 1997.
236. S Santavirta, YT Konttinen, V Bergroth, M Gronblad. Lack of immune response to methyl methacrylate in lymphocyte cultures. Acta Orthop Scand 62:29-32, 1991.
237. S Santavirta, YT Konttinen, T Saito, M Gronblad, E Partio, P Kemppinen, P Rokkanen. Immune response to polyglycolic acid implants. J Bone Joint Surg 72B:597-600, 1990.
238. BD Brause. Infections associated with prosthetic joints. Clin Rheum Dis 12:523-536, 1986.
239. SG Sourmelis, FD Burke, JP Varian. A review of total elbow arthroplasty and an early assessment of the Liverpool elbow prosthesis. J Hand Surg 11B:407-413, 1986.
240. SH Dougherty, RL Simmons. Endogenous factors contributing to prosthetic device infections. Infect Dis Clin North Am 3:199-209, 1989.
241. MD Kalmeijer, E van Nieuwland-Bollen, D Bogaers-Hofman, GA de Baere. Nasal carriage of Staphylococcus aureus is a major risk factor for surgical-site infections in orthopedic surgery. Infect Control Hosp Epidemiol 21:319-323, 2000.
242. PJ Gill, E Goddard, DW Beatty, EB Hoffman. Chronic granulomatous disease presenting with osteomyelitis: favorable response to treatment with interferongamma. J Pediatr Orthop 12:398-400, 1992.
243. AI Tauber, N Borregaard, E Simons, J Wright. Chronic granulomatous disease: a syndrome of phagocyte oxidase deficiencies. Medicine 62:286-309, 1983.
244. CJ White, JI Gallin. Phagocyte defects. Clin Immun Immunopath 40:50-61, 1986.
245. ML Weber, A Abela, L de Repentigny, L Garel, N Lapointe. Myeloperoxidase deficiency with extensive candidal osteomyelitis of the base of the skull. Pediatrics 80:876-879, 1987.
246. H Donabedian, JI Gallin. The hyperimmunoglobulin E recurrent-infection (Job’s) syndrome: a review of the NIH experience and the literature. Medicine 62:195-208, 1983.
247. KS Yoon, RHJ Fitzgerald, S Sud, Z Song, PH Wooley. Experimental acute hematogenous osteomyelitis in mice. II. Influence of Staphylococcus aureus infection on T-cell immunity. J Orthop Res 17:382-391, 1999.
248. S Sasaki, S Nishikawa, T Miura, M Mizuki, K Yamada, H Madarame, YI Tagawa, Y Iwakura, A Nakane. Interleukin-4 and interleukin-10 are involved in host resistance to Staphylococcus aureus infection through regulation of gamma interferon. Infect Immun 68:2424-2430, 2000.
249. O Hultgren, M Kopf, A Tarkowski. Outcome of Staphylococcus aureus-triggered sepsis and arthritis in IL-4-deficient mice depends on the genetic background of the host. Eur J Immunol 29:2400-2405, 1999.
250. JJ Boelens, T van der Poll, J Dankert, SA Zaat. Interferon-gamma protects against biomaterial-associated Staphylococcus epidermidis infection in mice. J Infect Dis 181:1167-1171, 2000.
251. B Koch, P Lemmermeier, A Gause, H Wilmowsky, J Heisel, M Pfreundschuh. Demonstration of interleukin-1beta and interleukin-6 in cells of synovial fluids by flow cytometry. Eur J Med Res 1:244-248, 1996.
252. M Osiri, K Ruxrungtham, S Nookhai, Y Ohmoto, U Deesomchok. IL-1beta, IL-6 and TNF-alpha in synovial fluid of patients with non-gonococcal septic arthritis. Asia Pac J Allergy Immunol 16:155-160, 1998.
253. M Verdrengh, A Tarkowski. Granulocyte-macrophage colony-stimulating factor in Staphylococcus aureus-induced arthritis. Infect Immun 66:853-855, 1998.
254. E Sakiniene, T Bremell, A Tarkowski. Inhibition of nitric oxide synthase (NOS) aggravates Staphylococcus aureus septicaemia and septic arthritis. Clin Exp Immunol 110:370-377, 1997.
255. A Abdelnour, T Bremell, R Holmdahl, A Tarkowski. Role of T lymphocytes in experimental Staphylococcus aureus arthritis. Scand J Immunol 39:403-408, 1994.
256. M Puliti, C von Hunolstein, F Bistoni, P Mosci, G Orefici, L Tissi. Influence of interferon-gamma administration on the severity of experimental group B streptococcal arthritis. Arthritis Rheum 43:2678-2686, 2000.
257. YX Zhao, IM Nilsson, A Tarkowski. The dual role of interferon-gamma in experimental Staphylococcus aureus septicaemia versus arthritis. Immunology 93:80-85, 1998.
258. S Roy, J Bhawan. Ultrastructure of articular cartilage in pyogenic arthritis. Arch Pathol 99:44-47, 1975.
259. P Riegels-Nielsen, N Frimodt-Moller, M Sorensen, JS Jensen. Antibiotic treatment insufficient for established septic arthritis. Staphylococcus aureus experiments in rabbits. Acta Orthop Scand 60:113-115, 1989.
260. RL Smith, DJ Schurman, G Kajiyama, M Mell, E Gilkerson. The effect of antibiotics on the destruction of cartilage in experimental infectious arthritis. J Bone Joint Surg 69A:1063-1068, 1987.
261. EM Knights. Infectious arthritis. J Foot Surg 21:229-233, 1982.
262. JD Nelson, WC Koontz. Septic arthritis in infants and children: a review of 117 cases. Pediatrics 38:966-971, 1966.
263. M Mitchell, B Howard, J Haller, DJ Sartoris, D Resnick. Septic arthritis. Radiol Clin North Am 26:1295-1313, 1988.
264. J Rosenthal, GG Bole, WD Robinson. Acute nongonococcal infectious arthritis:evaluation of risk factors, therapy, and outcome. Arthritis Rheum 23:889-897, 1980.
265. SA Al-Suleiman, EM Grimes, HS Jonas. Disseminated gonococcal infections. Obstet Gynecol 61:48-51, 1983.
266. FL Sapico. Microbiology and antimicrobial therapy of spinal infections. Orthop Clin North Am 27:9-13, 1996.
267. KK Holmes, GW Counts, HN Beaty. Disseminated gonoccocal infection. Ann Intern Med 74:979-993, 1971.
268. KK Kerle, JR Mascola, TA Miller. Disseminated gonococcal infection. Am Fam Physician 45:209-214, 1992.