Canadian Contraception Consensus (Part 3 of 4): Chapter 7 - Intrauterine Contraception

Journal of Obstetrics and Gynaecology Canada

Volumn 38, Issue 2, 2016, Pages 182-222

  Black, Amanda ^a   Guilbert, Edith ^a   Costescu, Dustin ^a   Dunn, Sheila ^a   Fisher, William ^a   Kives, Sari ^a   Mirosh, Melissa ^a   Norman, Wendy ^a   Pymar, Helen ^a   Reid, Robert ^a   Roy, Geneviève ^a   Varto, Hannah ^a   Waddington, Ashley ^a   Wagner, Marie Soleil ^a   Whelan, Anne Marie ^a   Mansouri, Shireen ^b  

^a NONE   (Canada)

^b NONE   (Canada)

Author keywords

Abstinence; Barrier methods of contraception; Canada; Cervical cap; Contraception; Contraceptive diaphragm; Contraceptive sponge; Emergency contraception; Female condoms; Fertility awareness; Hormonal contraception; Intrauterine devices; Sexual health; Sexuality; Spermicide; Statistics; Sterilization; Tubal ligation; Vasectomy

Indexed keywords

ORAL CONTRACEPTIVE AGENT;

ARTICLE; CANADA; CLINICAL EFFECTIVENESS; CONSENSUS; EMERGENCY CONTRACEPTION; EVIDENCE BASED MEDICINE; FAMILY PLANNING; HEALTH CARE AVAILABILITY; HEALTH CARE COST; HEALTH CARE PERSONNEL; HEALTH PROMOTION; HORMONAL CONTRACEPTION; HUMAN; INTRAUTERINE CONTRACEPTIVE DEVICE; MEDICAL SPECIALIST; MEDICAL TECHNOLOGY; OBSERVATIONAL STUDY; OUTCOME ASSESSMENT; PATIENT SAFETY; PRACTICE GUIDELINE; PREGNANCY RATE; RANDOMIZED CONTROLLED TRIAL (TOPIC); SEXUAL HEALTH; SEXUALITY; SYSTEMATIC REVIEW; WELLBEING; FEMALE; FEMALE CONDOM; PREGNANCY; REPRODUCTIVE HEALTH;

CANADA; CONDOMS, FEMALE; CONSENSUS; CONTRACEPTIVES, ORAL, HORMONAL; FEMALE; HUMANS; INTRAUTERINE DEVICES; PREGNANCY; REPRODUCTIVE HEALTH;

EID: 84971378839     PISSN: 17012163     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1016/j.jogc.2015.12.002     Document Type: Article

References (193)

1. United Nations Department of Economic and Social Affairs, Population Division World Contraception Use 2015 2015, UN DoEaSA, New York, Available at:, Accessed on June 29, 2015. http://www.un.org/en/development/desa/population/publications/dataset/contraception/wcu2015.shtml.
2. Intrauterine devices and intrauterine systems. Hum Reprod Update 2008, 14:197-208. The Eshre Capri Working Group.
3. Black A., Yang Q., Wen S.W., Lalonde A., Guilbert E., Fisher W. Contraceptive use by Canadian women of reproductive age: results of a national survey. J Obstet Gynaecol Can 2009, 31:627-640.
4. Mosher W.D., Jones J. Use of contraception in the United States: 1982-2008. Vital Health Stat 2010, 23(29):1-44.
5. Branum A.M., Jones J. Trends in long-acting reversible contraception use among U.S. women aged 15-44. NCHS Data Brief 2015, (188):1-8.
6. Mirena Product Monograph October 9, 2014. Bayer Inc. Mississauga, ON. Available at: . Accessed on July 23, 2015. http://www.bayer.ca/files/MIRENA-PM-ENG-15JUL2013-164011.pdf?
7. Jaydess Product Monograph November 21, 2014. Bayer Inc. Mississauga, ON. Available at: . Accessed on July 23, 2015. http://www.bayer.ca/files/JAYDESS-PM-EN-174672-21NOV2014.pdf?
8. Trussell J. Contraceptive failure in the United States. Contraception 2011, 83:397-404.
9. Winner B., Peipert J.F., Zhao Q., Buckel C., Madden T., Allsworth J.E., et al. Effectiveness of long-acting reversible contraception. N Engl J Med 2012, 366:1998-2007.
10. Andersson K., Odlind V., Rybo G. Levonorgestrel-releasing and copper-releasing (Nova-T) IUDs during five years of use: a randomized comparative trial. Contraception 1994, 49:56-72.
11. Heinemann K., Reed S., Moehner S., Do Minh T. Comparative contraceptive effectiveness of levonorgestrel-releasing and copper intrauterine devices: the European Active Surveillance Study for Intrauterine Devices. Contraception 2015, 91:280-283.
12. Thonneau P., Almont T., de La Rochebrochard E., Maria B. Risk factors for IUD failure: results of a large multicentre case-control study. Hum Reprod 2006, 21:2612-2616.
13. Grimes D.A., Lopez L.M., Manion C., Schulz K.F. Cochrane systematic reviews of IUD trials: lessons learned. Contraception 2007, 75(6 Suppl):S55-S59.
14. Kulier R., O'Brien P.A., Helmerhorst F.M., Usher-Patel M., D'Arcangues C. Copper containing, framed intra-uterine devices for contraception. Cochrane Database Syst Rev 2007, (17):CD005347.
15. O'Brien P.A., Kulier R., Helmerhorst F.M., Usher-Patel M., d'Arcangues C. Copper-containing, framed intrauterine devices for contraception: a systematic review of randomized controlled trials. Contraception 2008, 77:318-327.
16. Nelson A., Apter D., Hauck B., Schmelter T., Rybowski S., Rosen K., et al. Two low-dose levonorgestrel intrauterine contraceptive systems: a randomized controlled trial. Obstet Gynecol 2013, 122:1205-1213.
17. Videlo-Rivero L., Etchepareborda J.J., Kesseru E. Early chorionic activity in women bearing inert IUD, copper IUD, and levonorgestrel releasing IUD. Contraception 1987, 36:217-226.
18. Stanford J., Mikolajczyk R. Mechanisms of action of intrauterine devices: update and estimation of postfertilization effects. Am J Obstet Gynecol 2002, 187:1699-1708.
19. Ortiz M.E., Croxatto H.B. Copper-T intrauterine device and levonorgestrel intrauterine system: biological bases of their mechanism of action. Contraception 2007, 75(6 Suppl):S16-S30.
20. Sivin I. IUDs are contraceptives, not abortifacients: a comment on research and belief. Stud Fam Plann 1989, 20:355-359.
21. Wilcox A.J., Weinberg C.R., Armstrong E.G., Canfield R.E. Urinary human chorionic gonadotropin among intrauterine device users: detection with a highly specific and sensitive assay. Fertil Steril 1987, 47:265-269.
22. Alvarez F., Brache V., Fernandez E., Guerrero B., Guiloff E., Hess R., et al. New insights on the mode of action of intrauterine contraceptive devices in women. Fertil Steril 1988, 49:768-773.
23. Critchley H.O., Wang H., Jones R.L., Kelly R.W., Drudy T.A., Gebbie A.E., et al. Morphological and functional features of endometrial decidualization following long-term intrauterine levonorgestrel delivery. Hum Reprod 1998, 13:1218-1224.
24. Jonsson B., Landgren B., Eneroth P. Effects of various IUDs on the composition of cervical mucus. Contraception 1991, 43:447-458.
25. Ratsula K., Toivonen J., Lahteenmaki P., Luukkainen T. Plasma levonorgestrel levels and ovarian function during the use of a levonorgestrel-releasing intracervical contraceptive device. Contraception 1989, 39:195-204.
26. Nilsson C.G., Lahteenmaki P.L., Luukkainen T. Ovarian function in amenorrheic and menstruating users of a levonorgestrel-releasing intrauterine device. Fertil Steril 1984, 41:52-55.
27. Barbosa I., Bakos O., Olsson S.E., Odlind V., Johansson E.D. Ovarian function during use of a levonorgestrel-releasing IUD. Contraception 1990, 42:51-66.
28. Zhu P., Liu X., Luo H., Gu Z., Cheng J., Xu R., et al. The effect of a levonorgestrel-releasing intrauterine device on human endometrial oestrogen and progesterone receptors after one year of use. Hum Reprod 1999, 14:970-975.
29. Cleland K., Zhu H., Goldstuck N., Cheng L., Trussell J. The efficacy of intrauterine devices for emergency contraception: a systematic review of 35 years of experience. Hum Reprod 2012, 27:1994-2000.
30. Cleland K., Raymond E.G., Westley E., Trussell J. Emergency contraception review: evidence-based recommendations for clinicians. Clin Obstet Gynecol 2014, 57:741-750.
31. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention U.S. Medical Eligibility Criteria for Contraceptive Use. MMWR 2010, 59:73. Appendix I.
32. The World Health Organization Improving access to quality care in family planning: medical eligibility criteria for contraceptive use 2010, Geneva. 4th ed.
33. Andersson J.K., Rybo G. Levonorgestrel-releasing intrauterine device in the treatment of menorrhagia. Br J Obstet Gynaecol 1990, 97:690-694.
34. Barrington J.W., Bowens-Simpkins P. The levonorgestrel intrauterine system in the management of menorrhagia. Br J Obstet Gynaecol 1997, 104:614-616.
35. Irvine G.A., Campbell-Brown M.B., Lumsden M.A., Heikkilä A., Walker J.J., Cameron I.T. Randomised comparative trial of the levonorgestrel intrauterine system and norethisterone for treatment of idiopathic menorrhagia. Br J Obstet Gynaecol 1998, 105:592-598.
36. Lethaby A., Hussain M., Rishworth J.R., Rees M.C. Progesterone or progestogen-releasing intrauterine systems for heavy menstrual bleeding. Cochrane Database Syst Rev 2015, (4):CD002126.
37. Kaunitz A.M., Meredith S., Inki P., Kubba A., Sanchez-Ramos L. Levonorgestrel-releasing intrauterine system and endometrial ablation in heavy menstrual bleeding: a systematic review and meta-analysis. Obstet Gynecol 2009, 113:1104-1116.
38. Gupta J., Kai J., Middleton L., Pattison H., Gray R., Daniels J. Levonorgestrel intrauterine system versus medical therapy for menorrhagia. N Engl J Med 2013, 368:128-137.
39. Kaunitz A.M., Bissonnette F., Monteiro I., Lukkari-Lax E., Muysers C., Jensen J.T. Levonorgestrel-releasing intrauterine system or medroxyprogesterone for heavy menstrual bleeding: a randomized controlled trial. Obstet Gynecol 2010, 116:625-632.
40. Ronnerdag M., Odlind V. Health effects of long-term use of the intrauterine levonorgestrel-releasing system. A follow-up study over 12 years of continuous use. Acta Obstet Gynecol Scand 1999, 78:716-721.
41. Kaunitz A.M., Bissonnette F., Monteiro I., Lukkari-Lax E., DeSanctis Y., Jensen J. Levonorgestrel-releasing intrauterine system for heavy menstrual bleeding improves hemoglobin and ferritin levels. Contraception 2012, 86:452-457.
42. Magalhaes J., Aldrighi J.M., de Lima G.R. Uterine volume and menstrual patterns in users of the levonorgestrel-releasing intrauterine system with idiopathic menorrhagia or menorrhagia due to leiomyomas. Contraception 2007, 75:193-198.
43. Xu L., Lee B.S., Asif S., Kraemer P., Inki P. Satisfaction and health-related quality of life in women with heavy menstrual bleeding; results from a non-interventional trial of the levonorgestrel-releasing intrauterine system or conventional medical therapy. Int J Womens Health 2014, 6:547-554.
44. Lähteenmäki P., Haukkamaa M., Puolakka J., Riikonen U., Sainio S., Suvisaari J., et al. Open randomised study of use of levonorgestrel releasing intrauterine system as alternative to hysterectomy. BMJ 1998, 316:1122-1126.
45. Hurskainen R., Teperi J., Rissanen P., Aalto A.M., Grenman S., Kivelä A., et al. Quality of life and cost-effectiveness of levonorgestrel-releasing intrauterine system versus hysterectomy for treatment of menorrhagia: a randomised trial. Lancet 2001, 357:273-277.
46. Kaunitz A.M. Progestin-releasing intrauterine systems and leiomyoma. Contraception 2007, 75(6 Suppl):S130-3.
47. Soysal S., Soysal M.E. The efficacy of levonorgestrel-releasing intrauterine device in selected cases of myoma-related menorrhagia: a prospective controlled trial. Gynecol Obstet Invest 2005, 59:29-35.
48. Grigorieva V., Chen-Mok M., Tarasova M., Mikhailov A. Use of a levonorgestrel-releasing intrauterine system to treat bleeding related to uterine leiomyomas. Fertil Steril 2003, 79:1194-1198.
49. Mercorio F., De Simone R., Di Spiezio Sardo A., Cerrota G., Bifulco G., Vanacore F., et al. The effect of a levonorgestrel-releasing intrauterine device in the treatment of myoma-related menorrhagia. Contraception 2003, 67:277-280.
50. Pakarinen P., Toivonen J., Luukkainen T. Therapeutic use of the LNG IUS, and counseling. Semin Reprod Med 2001, 19:365-372.
51. Lindh I., Milsom I. The influence of intrauterine contraception on the prevalence and severity of dysmenorrhea: a longitudinal population study. Hum Reprod 2013, 28:1953-1960.
52. Lan S., Ling L., Jianhong Z., Xijing J., Lihui W. Analysis of the levonorgestrel-releasing intrauterine system in women with endometriosis. J Int Med Res 2013, 41:548-558.
53. Abou-Setta A.M., Houston B., Al-Inany H.G., Farquhar C. Levonorgestrel-releasing intrauterine device (LNG-IUD) for symptomatic endometriosis following surgery. Cochrane Database Syst Rev 2013, (1):CD005072.
54. Wong A.Y., Tang L.C., Chin R.K. Levonorgestrel-releasing intrauterine system (Mirena) and Depot medroxyprogesterone acetate (Depoprovera) as long-term maintenance therapy for patients with moderate and severe endometriosis: a randomised controlled trial. Aust N Z J Obstet Gynaecol 2010, 50:273-279.
55. Bahamondes L., Petta C.A., Fernandes A., Monteiro I. Use of the levonorgestrel-releasing intrauterine system in women with endometriosis, chronic pelvic pain and dysmenorrhea. Contraception 2007, 75(6 Suppl):S134-S139.
56. Petta C.A., Ferriani R.A., Abrao M.S., Hassan D., Rosa E Silva J.C., Podgaec S., et al. Randomized clinical trial of a levonorgestrel-releasing intrauterine system and a depot GnRH analogue for the treatment of chronic pelvic pain in women with endometriosis. Hum Reprod 2005, 20:1993-1998.
57. Vercellini P., Aimi G., Panazza S., De Giorgi O., Pesole A., Crosignani P.G. A levonorgestrel-releasing intrauterine system for the treatment of dysmenorrhea associated with endometriosis: a pilot study. Fertil Steril 1999, 72:505-508.
58. Cho S., Nam A., Kim H., Chay D., Park K., Cho D.J., et al. Clinical effects of the levonorgestrel-releasing intrauterine device in patients with adenomyosis. Am J Obstet Gynecol 2008, 198:373.e1-373.e7.
59. Bragheto A.M., Caserta N., Bahamondes L., Petta C.A. Effectiveness of the levonorgestrel-releasing intrauterine system in the treatment of adenomyosis diagnosed and monitored by magnetic resonance imaging. Contraception 2007, 76:195-199.
60. Kelekci S., Kelekci K.H., Yilmaz B. Effects of levonorgestrel-releasing intrauterine system and T380A intrauterine copper device on dysmenorrhea and days of bleeding in women with and without adenomyosis. Contraception 2012, 86:458-463.
61. Ekin M., Cengiz H., Ayag M.E., Kaya C., Yasar L., Savan K. Effects of the levonorgestrel-releasing intrauterine system on urinary symptoms in patients with adenomyosis. Eur J Obstet Gynecol Reprod Biol 2013, 170:517-520.
62. Beining R.M., Dennis L.K., Smith E.M., Dokras A. Meta-analysis of intrauterine device use and risk of endometrial cancer. Ann Epidemiol 2008, 18:492-499.
63. Felix A.S., Gaudet M.M., La Vecchia C., Nagle C.M., Shu X.O., Weiderpass E., et al. Intrauterine devices and endometrial cancer risk: a pooled analysis of the Epidemiology of Endometrial Cancer Consortium. Int J Cancer 2015, 136:E410-E422.
64. Curtis K.M., Marchbanks P.A., Peterson H.B. Neoplasia with use of intrauterine devices. Contraception 2007, 75(6 Suppl):S60-S69.
65. Wernli K.J., Ray R.M., Gao D.L., De Roos A.J., Checkoway H., Thomas D.B. Menstrual and reproductive factors in relation to risk of endometrial cancer in Chinese women. Cancer Causes Control 2006, 17:949-955.
66. Soini T., Hurskainen R., Grenman S., Maenpaa J., Paavonen J., Pukkala E. Cancer risk in women using the levonorgestrel-releasing intrauterine system in Finland. Obstet Gynecol 2014, 124(2 Pt 1):292-299.
67. Guleria K., Agarwal N., Mishra K., Gulati R., Mehendiratta A. Evaluation of endometrial steroid receptors and cell mitotic activity in women using copper intrauterine device: can Cu-T prevent endometrial cancer?. J Obstet Gynaecol Res 2004, 30:181-187.
68. Guttinger A., Critchley H.O. Endometrial effects of intrauterine levonorgestrel. Contraception 2007, 75(6 Suppl):S93-S98.
69. Bahamondes L., Valeria Bahamondes M., Shulman L.P. Non-contraceptive benefits of hormonal and intrauterine reversible contraceptive methods. Hum Reprod Update 2015, 21:640-651.
70. Gardner F.J., Konje J.C., Abrams K.R., Brown L.J., Khanna S., Al-Azzawi F., et al. Endometrial protection from tamoxifen-stimulated changes by a levonorgestrel-releasing intrauterine system: a randomised controlled trial. Lancet 2000, 356:1698-1699.
71. Wong A.W., Chan S.S., Yeo W., Yu M.Y., Tam W.H. Prophylactic use of levonorgestrel-releasing intrauterine system in women with breast cancer treated with tamoxifen: a randomized controlled trial. Obstet Gynecol 2013, 121:943-950.
72. Shi Q., Li J., Li M., Wu J., Yao Q., Xing A. The role of levonorgestrel-releasing intrauterine system for endometrial protection in women with breast cancer taking tamoxifen. Eur J Gynaecol Oncol 2014, 35:492-498.
73. Gizzo S., Di Gangi S., Bertocco A., Noventa M., Fagherazzi S., Ancona E., et al. Levonorgestrel intrauterine system in adjuvant tamoxifen treatment: balance of breast risks and endometrial benefits-systematic review of literature. Reprod Sci 2014, 21:423-431.
74. Arnes M., Hvingel B., Orbo A. Levonorgestrel-impregnated Intrauterine device reduces occurrence of hyperplastic polyps: a population-based follow-up cohort study. Anticancer Res 2014, 34:2319-2324.
75. Fu Y., Zhuang Z. Long-term effects of levonorgestrel-releasing intrauterine system on tamoxifen-treated breast cancer patients: a meta-analysis. Int J Clin Exp Pathol 2014, 7:6419-6429.
76. Lyytinen H.K., Dyba T., Ylikorkala O., Pukkala E.I. A case-control study on hormone therapy as a risk factor for breast cancer in Finland: intrauterine system carries a risk as well. Int J Cancer 2010, 126:483-489.
77. Dinger J., Bardenheuer K., Minh T.D. Levonorgestrel-releasing and copper intrauterine devices and the risk of breast cancer. Contraception 2011, 83:211-217.
78. Backman T., Rauramo I., Jaakkola K., Inki P., Vaahtera K., Launonen A., et al. Use of the levonorgestrel-releasing intrauterine system and breast cancer. Obstet Gynecol 2005, 106:813-817.
79. Castellsague X., Diaz M., Vaccarella S., de Sanjose S., Munoz N., Herrero R., et al. Intrauterine device use, cervical infection with human papillomavirus, and risk of cervical cancer: a pooled analysis of 26 epidemiological studies. Lancet Oncol 2011, 12:1023-1031.
80. Milsom I., Andersson K., Jonasson K., Lindstedt G., Rybo G. The influence of the Gyne-T 380S IUD on menstrual blood loss and iron status. Contraception 1995, 52:175-179.
81. Larsson G., Milsom I., Jonasson K., Lindstedt G., Rybo G. The long-term effects of copper surface area on menstrual blood loss and iron status in women fitted with an IUD. Contraception 1993, 48:471-480.
82. Godfrey E.M., Folger S.G., Jeng G., Jamieson D.J., Curtis K.M. Treatment of bleeding irregularities in women with copper-containing IUDs: a systematic review. Contraception 2013, 87:549-566.
83. Gemzell-Danielsson K., Schellschmidt I., Apter D. A randomized, phase II study describing the efficacy, bleeding profile, and safety of two low-dose levonorgestrel-releasing intrauterine contraceptive systems and Mirena. Fertil Steril 2012, 97:616-622.e1-3.
84. Jensen J., Mansour D., Lukkari-Lax E., Inki P., Burock K., Fraser I.S. Bleeding patterns with the levonorgestrel-releasing intrauterine system when used for heavy menstrual bleeding in women without structural pelvic pathology: a pooled analysis of randomized controlled studies. Contraception 2013, 87:107-112.
85. Heikinheimo O., Inki P., Schmelter T., Gemzell-Danielsson K. Bleeding pattern and user satisfaction in second consecutive levonorgestrel-releasing intrauterine system users: results of a prospective 5-year study. Hum Reprod 2014, 29:1182-1188.
86. Hidalgo M., Bahamondes L., Perrotti M., Diaz J., Dantas-Monteiro C., Petta C. Bleeding patterns and clinical performance of the levonorgestrel-releasing intrauterine system (Mirena) up to two years. Contraception 2002, 65:129-132.
87. de Jonge E.T., Yigit R., Molenberghs G., Straetmans D., Ombelet W. Predictors of oligoamenorrhea at 1-year follow-up in premenopausal women using a levonorgestrel-releasing intrauterine system. Contraception 2007, 76:91-95.
88. Gemzell-Danielsson K., Inki P., Boubli L., O'Flynn M., Kunz M., Heikinheimo O. Bleeding pattern and safety of consecutive use of the levonorgestrel-releasing intrauterine system (LNG-IUS)-a multicentre prospective study. Hum Reprod 2010, 25:354-359.
89. Meirik O., Rowe P.J., Peregoudov A., Piaggio G., Petzold M. The frameless copper IUD (GyneFix) and the TCu380A IUD: results of an 8-year multicenter randomized comparative trial. Contraception 2009, 80:133-141.
90. Santos A.R., Bahamondes M.V., Hidalgo M.M., Atti A., Bahamondes L., Monteiro I. Pain at insertion of the levonorgestrel-releasing intrauterine system in nulligravida and parous women with and without cesarean section. Contraception 2013, 88:164-168.
91. Hubacher D., Reyes V., Lillo S., Pierre-Louis B., Zepeda A., Chen P.L., et al. Preventing copper intrauterine device removals due to side effects among first-time users: randomized trial to study the effect of prophylactic ibuprofen. Hum Reprod 2006, 21:1467-1472.
92. Jarvela I., Tekay A., Jouppila P. The effect of a levonorgestrel-releasing intrauterine system on uterine artery blood flow, hormone concentrations and ovarian cyst formation in fertile women. Hum Reprod 1998, 13:3379-3383.
93. Nahum G.G., Kaunitz A.M., Rosen K., Schmelter T., Lynen R. Ovarian cysts: presence and persistence with use of a 13.5mg levonorgestrel-releasing intrauterine system. Contraception 2015, 91:412-417.
94. Kaislasuo J., Suhonen S., Gissler M., Lahteenmaki P., Heikinheimo O. Intrauterine contraception: incidence and factors associated with uterine perforation-a population-based study. Hum Reprod 2012, 27:2658-2663.
95. Harrison-Woolrych M., Ashton J., Coulter D. Uterine perforation on intrauterine device insertion: is the incidence higher than previously reported?. Contraception 2003, 67:53-56.
96. Van Houdenhoven K., van Kaam K.J., van Grootheest A.C., Salemans T.H., Dunselman G.A. Uterine perforation in women using a levonorgestrel-releasing intrauterine system. Contraception 2006, 73:257-260.
97. Heinemann K., Reed S., Moehner S., Minh T.D. Risk of uterine perforation with levonorgestrel-releasing and copper intrauterine devices in the European Active Surveillance Study on Intrauterine Devices. Contraception 2015, 91:274-279.
98. de Kroon C.D., van Houwelingen J.C., Trimbos J.B., Jansen F.W. The value of transvaginal ultrasound to monitor the position of an intrauterine device after insertion. A technology assessment study. Hum Reprod 2003, 18:2323-2327.
99. Johnson N., Bromham D.R. Effect of cervical traction with a tenaculum on the uterocervical angle. Br J Obstet Gynaecol 1991, 98:309-312.
100. Grimes D.A. Intrauterine device and upper-genital-tract infection. Lancet 2000, 356:1013-1019.
101. Hubacher D., Grimes D.A., Gemzell-Danielsson K. Pitfalls of research linking the intrauterine device to pelvic inflammatory disease. Obstet Gynecol 2013, 121:1091-1098.
102. Sufrin C.B., Postlethwaite D., Armstrong M.A., Merchant M., Wendt J.M., Steinauer J.E. Neisseria gonorrhea and Chlamydia trachomatis screening at intrauterine device insertion and pelvic inflammatory disease. Obstet Gynecol 2012, 120:1314-1321.
103. Lee N.C., Rubin G.L., Ory H.W., Burkman R.T. Type of intrauterine device and the risk of pelvic inflammatory disease. Obstet Gynecol 1983, 62:1-6.
104. Sivin I., Stern J., Coutinho E., Mattos C.E., el Mahgoub S., Diaz S., et al. Prolonged intrauterine contraception: a seven-year randomized study of the levonorgestrel 20 mcg/day (LNg 20) and the Copper T380 Ag IUDS. Contraception 1991, 44:473-480.
105. Farley T.M., Rosenberg M.J., Rowe P.J., Chen J.H., Meirik O. Intrauterine devices and pelvic inflammatory disease: an international perspective. Lancet 1992, 339:785-788.
106. Mohllajee A.P., Curtis K.M., Peterson H.B. Does insertion and use of an intrauterine device increase the risk of pelvic inflammatory disease among women with sexually transmitted infection? A systematic review. Contraception 2006, 73:145-153.
107. Madden T., McNicholas C., Zhao Q., Secura G.M., Eisenberg D.L., Peipert J.F. Association of age and parity with intrauterine device expulsion. Obstet Gynecol 2014, 124:718-726.
108. Zhang J., Feldblum P.J., Chi I.C., Farr M.G. Risk factors for copper T IUD expulsion: an epidemiologic analysis. Contraception 1992, 46:427-433.
109. Youm J., Lee H.J., Kim S.K., Kim H., Jee B.C. Factors affecting the spontaneous expulsion of the levonorgestrel-releasing intrauterine system. Int J Gynaecol Obstet 2014, 126:165-169.
110. Merki-Feld G.S., Schwarz D., Imthurn B., Keller P.J. Partial and complete expulsion of the Multiload 375 IUD and the levonorgestrel-releasing IUD after correct insertion. Eur J Obstet Gynecol Reprod Biol 2008, 137:92-96.
111. Shimoni N., Davis A., Westhoff C. Can ultrasound predict IUD expulsion after medical abortion?. Contraception 2014, 89:434-439.
112. Lyus R., Lohr P., Prager S. Use of the Mirena LNG-IUS and Paragard CuT380A intrauterine devices in nulliparous women. Contraception 2010, 81:367-371.
113. Canteiro R., Bahamondes M.V., dos Santos Fernandes A., Espejo-Arce X., Marchi N.M., Bahamondes L. Length of the endometrial cavity as measured by uterine sounding and ultrasonography in women of different parities. Contraception 2010, 81:515-519.
114. Wiebe E.R., Trouton K.J. Does using tampons or menstrual cups increase early IUD expulsion rates?. Contraception 2012, 86:119-121.
115. Backman T., Rauramo I., Huhtala S., Koskenvuo M. Pregnancy during the use of levonorgestrel intrauterine system. Am J Obstet Gynecol 2004, 190:50-54.
116. Sivin I. Dose- and age-dependent ectopic pregnancy risks with intrauterine contraception. Obstet Gynecol 1991, 78:291-298.
117. Ozgu-Erdinc A.S., Tasdemir U.G., Uygur D., Aktulay A., Tasdemir N., Gulerman H.C. Outcome of intrauterine pregnancies with intrauterine device in place and effects of device location on prognosis. Contraception 2014, 89:426-430.
118. Brahmi D., Steenland M.W., Renner R.M., Gaffield M.E., Curtis K.M. Pregnancy outcomes with an IUD in situ: a systematic review. Contraception 2012, 85:131-139.
119. American College of Obstetricians and Gynecologists ACOG Practice Bulletin No. 121: Long-acting reversible contraception: implants and intrauterine devices. Obstet Gynecol 2011, 118:184-196.
120. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention U.S. Selected Practice Recommendations for Contraceptive Use, 2013. MMWR 2013, 62:1-60.
121. World Health Organization A multinational case-control study of ectopic pregnancy. The World Health Organization's Special Programme of Research, Development and Research Training in Human Reproduction: Task Force on Intrauterine Devices for Fertility Regulation. Clin Reprod Fertil 1985, 3:131-143.
122. Hubacher D., Lara-Ricalde R., Taylor D.J., Guerra-Infante F., Guzman-Rodriguez R. Use of copper intrauterine devices and the risk of tubal infertility among nulligravid women. N Engl J Med 2001, 345:561-567.
123. Hov G.G., Skjeldestad F.E., Hilstad T. Use of IUD and subsequent fertility-follow-up after participation in a randomized clinical trial. Contraception 2007, 75:88-92.
124. Grimes D.A. Intrauterine devices and infertility: sifting through the evidence. Lancet 2001, 358:6-7.
125. Stoddard A.M., Xu H., Madden T., Allsworth J.E., Peipert J.F. Fertility after intrauterine device removal: a pilot study. Eur J Contracept Reprod Health Care 2015, 20:223-230.
126. Jovanovic R., Barone C.M., Van Natta F.C., Congema E. Preventing infection related to insertion of an intrauterine device. J Reprod Med 1988, 33:347-352.
127. Public Health Agency of Canada. Canadian Guidelines on Sexually Transmitted Infections 2015. Ottawa: Public Health Agency of Canada; 2015. Updated on February 2, 2015. Available at: . Accessed on June 25, 2015. http://www.phac-aspc.gc.ca/std-mts/sti-its/index-eng.php.
128. Tepper N.K., Steenland M.W., Gaffield M.E., Marchbanks P.A., Curtis K.M. Retention of intrauterine devices in women who acquire pelvic inflammatory disease: a systematic review. Contraception 2013, 87:655-660.
129. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. Sexually transmitted diseases treatment guidelines, 2015. MMWR Recomm Rep 2015, 64:1-137.
130. Caddy S., Yudin M.H., Hakim J., Money D.M. Best practices to minimize risk of infection with intrauterine device insertion. J Obstet Gynaecol Can 2014, 36:266-276.
131. The World Health Organization Selected practice recommendations for contraceptive use 2004, The World Health Organization, Geneva. 2nd ed.
132. Whiteman M.K., Tyler C.P., Folger S.G., Gaffield M.E., Curtis K.M. When can a woman have an intrauterine device inserted? A systematic review. Contraception 2013, 87:666-673.
133. White M.K., Ory H.W., Rooks J.B., Rochat R.W. Intrauterine device termination rates and the menstrual cycle day of insertion. Obstet Gynecol 1980, 55:220-224.
134. Levi E., Cantillo E., Ades V., Banks E., Murthy A. Immediate postplacental IUD insertion at cesarean delivery: a prospective cohort study. Contraception 2012, 86:102-105.
135. Jatlaoui T.C., Marcus M., Jamieson D.J., Goedken P., Cwiak C. Postplacental intrauterine device insertion at a teaching hospital. Contraception 2014, 89:528-533.
136. Whitaker A.K., Endres L.K., Mistretta S.Q., Gilliam M.L. Postplacental insertion of the levonorgestrel intrauterine device after cesarean delivery vs. delayed insertion: a randomized controlled trial. Contraception 2014, 89:534-539.
137. Sonalkar S., Kapp N. Intrauterine device insertion in the postpartum period: a systematic review. Eur J Contracept Reprod Health Care 2015, 20:4-18.
138. Lopez L.M., Bernholc A., Hubacher D., Stuart G., Van Vliet H.A. Immediate postpartum insertion of intrauterine device for contraception. Cochrane Database Syst Rev 2015, (6):CD003036.
139. Bednarek P.H., Creinin M.D., Reeves M.F., Cwiak C., Espey E., Jensen J.T. Immediate versus delayed IUD insertion after uterine aspiration. N Engl J Med 2011, 364:2208-2217.
140. Hohmann H.L., Reeves M.F., Chen B.A., Perriera L.K., Hayes J.L., Creinin M.D. Immediate versus delayed insertion of the levonorgestrel-releasing intrauterine device following dilation and evacuation: a randomized controlled trial. Contraception 2012, 85:240-245.
141. Okusanya B.O., Oduwole O., Effa E.E. Immediate postabortal insertion of intrauterine devices. Cochrane Database Syst Rev 2014, (7):CD001777.
142. Steenland M.W., Tepper N.K., Curtis K.M., Kapp N. Intrauterine contraceptive insertion postabortion: a systematic review. Contraception 2011, 84:447-464.
143. Goodman S., Hendlish S.K., Reeves M.F., Foster-Rosales A. Impact of immediate postabortal insertion of intrauterine contraception on repeat abortion. Contraception 2008, 78:143-148.
144. Cremer M., Bullard K.A., Mosley R.M., Weiselberg C., Molaei M., Lerner V., et al. Immediate vs. delayed post-abortal copper T 380A IUD insertion in cases over 12 weeks of gestation. Contraception 2011, 83:522-527.
145. Ames C.M., Norman W.V. Preventing repeat abortion in Canada: is the immediate insertion of intrauterine devices postabortion a cost-effective option associated with fewer repeat abortions?. Contraception 2012, 85:51-55.
146. Shimoni N., Davis A., Ramos M.E., Rosario L., Westhoff C. Timing of copper intrauterine device insertion after medical abortion: a randomized controlled trial. Obstet Gynecol 2011, 118:623-628.
147. Fox M.C., Oat-Judge J., Severson K., Jamshidi R.M., Singh R.H., McDonald-Mosley R., et al. Immediate placement of intrauterine devices after first and second trimester pregnancy termination. Contraception 2011, 83:34-40.
148. Faculty of Sexual and Reproductive Health Clinical Effectiveness Unit FSRH guidance: intrauterine contraception 2007, Royal College of Obstetricians and Gynaecologists, London.
149. Pham A.T., Kives S., Merovitz L., Nitsch R., Tessler K., Yudin M.H. Screening for bacterial vaginosis at the time of intrauterine contraceptive device insertion: is there a role?. J Obstet Gynaecol Can 2012, 34:179-185.
150. Grimes D.A., Schulz K.F. Antibiotic prophylaxis for intrauterine contraceptive device insertion. Cochrane Database Syst Rev 2001, (1):CD001327.
151. Akintomide H., Brima N., Sewell R.D., Stephenson J.M. Patients' experiences and providers' observations on pain during intrauterine device insertion. Eur J Contracept Reprod Health Care 2015, 20:319-326.
152. Allen R.H., Bartz D., Grimes D.A., Hubacher D., O'Brien P. Interventions for pain with intrauterine device insertion. Cochrane Database Syst Rev 2009, (3):CD007373.
153. Bednarek P.H., Creinin M.D., Reeves M.F., Cwiak C., Espey E., Jensen J.T. Prophylactic ibuprofen does not improve pain with IUD insertion: a randomized trial. Contraception 2015, 91:193-197.
154. Chor J., Bregand-White J., Golobof A., Harwood B., Cowett A. Ibuprofen prophylaxis for levonorgestrel-releasing intrauterine system insertion: a randomized controlled trial. Contraception 2012, 85:558-562.
155. Pergialiotis V., Vlachos D.G., Protopappas A., Vlachos G.D. Analgesic options for placement of an intrauterine contraceptive: a meta-analysis. Eur J Contracept Reprod Health Care 2014, 19:149-160.
156. Goldthwaite L.M., Baldwin M.K., Page J., Micks E.A., Nichols M.D., Edelman A.B., et al. Comparison of interventions for pain control with tenaculum placement: a randomized clinical trial. Contraception 2014, 89:229-233.
157. Castro T.V., Franceschini S.A., Poli-Neto O., Ferriani R.A., Silva de Sa M.F., Vieira C.S. Effect of intracervical anesthesia on pain associated with the insertion of the levonorgestrel-releasing intrauterine system in women without previous vaginal delivery: a RCT. Hum Reprod 2014, 29:2439-2445.
158. Mody S.K., Kiley J., Rademaker A., Gawron L., Stika C., Hammond C. Pain control for intrauterine device insertion: a randomized trial of 1% lidocaine paracervical block. Contraception 2012, 86:704-709.
159. Edelman A.B., Schaefer E., Olson A., Van Houten L., Bednarek P., Leclair C., et al. Effects of prophylactic misoprostol administration prior to intrauterine device insertion in nulliparous women. Contraception 2011, 84:234-239.
160. Waddington A., Reid R. More harm than good: the lack of evidence for administering misoprostol prior to IUD insertion. J Obstet Gynaecol Can 2012, 34:1177-1179.
161. Marchi N.M., Castro S., Hidalgo M.M., Hidalgo C., Monteiro-Dantas C., Villarroeal M., et al. Management of missing strings in users of intrauterine contraceptives. Contraception 2012, 86:354-358.
162. Doris N., Shabib G., Corbett S., Leader A., Black A. Does an intraabdominally placed LNG-IUS have an adverse effect on fertility? A case report. Contraception 2014, 89:63-66.
163. National Institute for Health and Care Excellence Long-acting reversible contraception 2005, NICE, London, Updated on September 3, 2014. Available at:, Accessed on July 25, 2015. https://www.nice.org.uk/guidance/cg30/resources/guidance-longacting-reversible-contraception-update-pdf.
164. Kho K.A., Chamsy D.J. Perforated intraperitoneal intrauterine contraceptive devices: diagnosis, management, and clinical outcomes. J Minim Invasive Gynecol 2014, 21:596-601.
165. Golightly E., Gebbie A.E. Low-lying or malpositioned intrauterine devices and systems. J Fam Plann Reprod Health Care 2014, 40:108-112.
166. Braaten K.P., Benson C.B., Maurer R., Goldberg A.B. Malpositioned intrauterine contraceptive devices: risk factors, outcomes, and future pregnancies. Obstet Gynecol 2011, 118:1014-1020.
167. Faundes D., Perdigao A., Faundes A., Bahamondes L., Petta C.A. T-shaped IUDs accommodate in their position during the first 3 months after insertion. Contraception 2000, 62:165-168.
168. Morales-Rosello J. Spontaneous upward movement of lowly placed T-shaped IUDs. Contraception 2005, 72:430-431.
169. Luukkainen T., Allonen H., Haukkamaa M., Holma P., Pyorala T., Terho J., et al. Effective contraception with the levonorgestrel-releasing intrauterine device: 12-month report of a European multicenter study. Contraception 1987, 36:169-179.
170. Faculty of Family Planning and Reproductive Health Care Clinical Effectiveness Unit. FFPRHC Guidance (January 2005) contraception for women aged over 40 years. J Fam Plann Reprod Health Care 2005, 31:51-63. quiz 63-4.
171. Lippes J. Pelvic actinomycosis: a review and preliminary look at prevalence. Am J Obstet Gynecol 1999, 180(2 Pt 1):265-269.
172. Merki-Feld G.S., Lebeda E., Hogg B., Keller P.J. The incidence of actinomyces-like organisms in Papanicolaou-stained smears of copper- and levonorgestrel-releasing intrauterine devices. Contraception 2000, 61:365-368.
173. Westhoff C. IUDs and colonization or infection with Actinomyces. Contraception 2007, 75(6 Suppl):S48-S50.
174. Matteson K.A., Rahn D.D., Wheeler T.L., Casiano E., Siddiqui N.Y., Harvie H.S., et al. Nonsurgical management of heavy menstrual bleeding: a systematic review. Obstet Gynecol 2013, 121:632-643.
175. Machado R.B., de Souza I.M., Beltrame A., Bernardes C.R., Morimoto M.S., Santana N. The levonorgestrel-releasing intrauterine system: its effect on the number of hysterectomies performed in perimenopausal women with uterine fibroids. Gynecol Endocrinol 2013, 29:492-495.
176. Sitruk-Ware R. The levonorgestrel intrauterine system for use in peri- and postmenopausal women. Contraception 2007, 75(6 Suppl):S155-S160.
177. Somboonporn W., Panna S., Temtanakitpaisan T., Kaewrudee S., Soontrapa S. Effects of the levonorgestrel-releasing intrauterine system plus estrogen therapy in perimenopausal and postmenopausal women: systematic review and meta-analysis. Menopause 2011, 18:1060-1066.
178. Reid R., Abramson B.L., Blake J., Desindes S., Dodin S., Johnston S., et al. Managing menopause. J Obstet Gynaecol Can 2014, 36:830-838.
179. Depypere H.T., Hillard T., Erkkola R., Lukkari-Lax E., Kunz M., Rautiainen P., et al. A 60-month non-comparative study on bleeding profiles with the levonorgestrel intrauterine system from the late transition period to estrogen supplemented menopause. Eur J Obstet Gynecol Reprod Biol 2010, 153:176-180.
180. Aniuliene R., Aniulis P. Lippes Loop intrauterine device left in the uterus for 50 years: case report. BMC Womens Health 2014, 14:97.
181. Sujatha V.V. Forgotten intrauterine devices presenting with pre- and postmenopausal bleeding: a case series. Trop Doct 2012, 42:56-57.
182. Wagner C.A., Gimpelson R.J. Postmenopausal bleeding due to a Cu-7 intrauterine device retained for thirty years. JSLS 2012, 16:329-332.
183. Ingvarsson R.F., Jonasson L., Saemundsson H., Gottfredsson M. [Actinomycosis in a 70 year old woman with a forgotten intrauterine contraceptive device]. Laeknabladid 2007, 93:479-485. [in Icelandic].
184. Ducharne G., Girard J., Pasquier G., Migaud H., Senneville E. Hip prosthesis infection related to an unchecke intrauterine contraceptive device: a case report. Orthop Traumatol Surg Res 2013, 99:111-114.
185. Wu J.P., Pickle S. Extended use of the intrauterine device: a literature review and recommendations for clinical practice. Contraception 2014, 89:495-503.
186. Bahamondes L., Faundes A., Sobreira-Lima B., Lui-Filho J.F., Pecci P., Matera S. TCu 380A IUD: a reversible permanent contraceptive method in women over 35 years of age. Contraception 2005, 72:337-341.
187. Hidalgo M.M., Hidalgo-Regina C., Bahamondes M.V., Monteiro I., Petta C.A., Bahamondes L. Serum levonorgestrel levels and endometrial thickness during extended use of the levonorgestrel-releasing intrauterine system. Contraception 2009, 80:84-89.
188. Creinin M.D. Extended use of the intrauterine device: a literature review and recommendations for clinical practice. Contraception 2014, 90:104.
189. Wu J., Pickle S. Response to Mitchell D. Creinin's letter regarding "Extended use of the intrauterine device: a literature review and recommendations for clinical practice". Contraception 2014, 90:621-622.
190. Flexi-T(+) 300 and 380 [package inserts]. Arnhem, The Netherlands: Prosan Female Health Care; 2006. Available at: . Accessed on July 25, 2015. http://www.trimedic-inc.com/pdf/InsertionInstruction.pdf.
191. Mona Lisa Products [package inserts]. Bangkok, Thailand: Besins Healthcare. Available at: . Accessed on July 25, 2015. http://www.besinshealthcare.ca/mona-lisa.html.
192. Liberte IUDs [package inserts]. British Columbia: Medisafe Distribution Inc. Available at: . Accessed on July 25, 2015. http://medisafecanada.com/products/liberte-iuds/.
193. Intrauterine Device Nova-T Model Cu 200 Ag 2015 [package insert]. Missassauga: Bayer Inc. Updated Feb 17, 2015. Available from: . Accessed on July 25, 2015. http://www.bayer.ca/files/Nova-%20T%20PI-EN-17FEB2015.pdf?