Role of gastrointestinal hormones in feeding behavior and obesity treatment

Journal of Gastroenterology

Volumn 51, Issue 2, 2016, Pages 93-103

  Kairupan, Timothy Sean ^a,b   Amitani, Haruka ^a   Cheng, Kai Chun ^a   Runtuwene, Joshua ^a,b   Asakawa, Akihiro ^a   Inui, Akio ^a  

^a KAGOSHIMA UNIVERSITY   (Japan)

^b SAM RATULANGI UNIVERSITY   (Indonesia)

Author keywords

Clinical application; Feeding behavior; Gastrointestinal hormone; Obesity

Indexed keywords

AMYLIN; CHOLECYSTOKININ; GASTROINTESTINAL HORMONE; GHRELIN; GLUCAGON LIKE PEPTIDE 1; OXYNTOMODULIN; PANCREAS POLYPEPTIDE; PEPTIDE YY;

BODY WEIGHT; CALORIC INTAKE; CLINICAL TRIAL (TOPIC); ENERGY EXPENDITURE; ENTEROENDOCRINE CELL; FEEDBACK SYSTEM; FEEDING BEHAVIOR; FOOD INTAKE; GASTROINTESTINAL TRACT; HUMAN; NEGATIVE FEEDBACK; NEUROENDOCRINE SYSTEM; NONHUMAN; OBESITY; PRIORITY JOURNAL; REGULATORY MECHANISM; REVIEW; REWARD; VAGUS NERVE; HOMEOSTASIS; MOLECULARLY TARGETED THERAPY; PATHOPHYSIOLOGY; PHYSIOLOGY; PROCEDURES; PSYCHOLOGY;

APPETITE REGULATION; FEEDING BEHAVIOR; GASTROINTESTINAL HORMONES; HOMEOSTASIS; HUMANS; MOLECULAR TARGETED THERAPY; OBESITY;

EID: 84957437042     PISSN: 09441174     EISSN: 14355922     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1007/s00535-015-1118-4     Document Type: Review

References (146)

1. Mokdad AH, Ford ES, Bowman BA, et al. Diabetes trends in the US: 1990–1998. Diabetes Care. 2000;23:1278–83.
2. Sam AH, Troke RC, Tan TM, Bewick GA. The role of the gut/brain axis in modulating food intake. Neuropharmacology. 2012;63:46–56.
3. Ahlman H, Nilsson O. The gut as the largest endocrine organ in the body. Ann Oncol. 2001;12(Suppl 2):S63–8.
4. Peruzzo B, Pastor FE, Blázquez JL, et al. A second look at the barriers of the medial basal hypothalamus. Exp Brain Res. 2000;132:10–26.
5. Schaeffer M, Hodson DJ, Mollard P. The blood-brain barrier as a regulator of the gut-brain axis. Front Horm Res. 2014;42:29–49.
6. Porte D, Baskin DG, Schwartz MW. Leptin and insulin action in the central nervous system. Nutr Rev. 2002;60:S20–9.
7. Simpson KA, Martin NM, Bloom SR. Hypothalamic regulation of food intake and clinical therapeutic applications. Arq Bras Endocrinol Metabol. 2009;53:120–8.
8. Sainsbury A, Zhang L. Role of the arcuate nucleus of the hypothalamus in regulation of body weight during energy deficit. Mol Cell Endocrinol. 2010;316:109–19.
9. Bewick GA, Dhillo WS, Darch SJ, et al. Hypothalamic cocaine- and amphetamine-regulated transcript (CART) and agouti-related protein (AgRP) neurons coexpress the NOP1 receptor and nociceptin alters CART and AgRP release. Endocrinology. 2005;146:3526–34.
10. Broberger C, Johansen J, Johansson C, et al. The neuropeptide Y/agouti gene-related protein (AGRP) brain circuitry in normal, anorectic, and monosodium glutamate-treated mice. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA. 1998;95:15043–8.
11. Hahn TM, Breininger JF, Baskin DG, Schwartz MW. Coexpression of Agrp and NPY in fasting-activated hypothalamic neurons. Nat Neurosci. 1998;1:271–2.
12. Elias CF, Lee C, Kelly J, et al. Leptin activates hypothalamic CART neurons projecting to the spinal cord. Neuron. 1998;21:1375–85.
13. Schwartz MW, Woods SC, Jr DP, et al. Central nervous system control of food intake. Nature 2000;404SChwa:661–671.
14. Jobst EE, Enriori PJ, Cowley MA. The electrophysiology of feeding circuits. Trends Endocrinol Metab. 2004;15:488–99.
15. Valassi E, Scacchi M, Cavagnini F. Neuroendocrine control of food intake. Nutr Metab Cardiovasc Dis. 2008;18:158–68.
16. Kojima M, Hosoda H, Date Y, et al. Ghrelin is a growth-hormone-releasing acylated peptide from stomach. Nature. 1999;402:656–60.
17. Hosoda H, Kojima M, Mizushima T, et al. Structural divergence of human ghrelin: identification of multiple ghrelin-derived molecules produced by post-translational processing. J Biol Chem. 2003;278:64–70.
18. Date Y, Kojima M, Hosoda H, et al. Ghrelin, a novel growth hormone-releasing acylated peptide, is synthesized in a distinct endocrine cell type in the gastrointestinal tracts of rats and humans. Endocrinology. 2000;141:4255–61.
19. Guan X, Yu H, Palyha O, et al. Distribution of mRNA encoding the growth hormone secretagogue receptor in brain and peripheral tissues. Mol Brain Res. 1997;48:23–9.
20. Willesen MG, Kristensen P, Rømer J. Co-localization of growth hormone secretagogue receptor and NPY mRNA in the arcuate nucleus of the rat. Neuroendocrinology. 1999;70:306–16.
21. Kamegai J, Tamura H, Shimizu T, et al. Chronic central infusion of ghrelin increases hypothalamic neuropeptide Y and agouti-related protein mRNA Levels and body weight in rats. Diabetes. 2001;50:2438–43.
22. Nakazato M, Murakami N, Date Y, et al. A role for ghrelin in the central regulation of feeding. Nature. 2001;409:194–8.
23. Tschöp M, Smiley DL, Heiman ML. Ghrelin induces adiposity in rodents. Nature. 2000;407:908–13.
24. Wren AM, Small CJ, Abbott CR, et al. Ghrelin causes hyperphagia and obesity in rats. Diabetes. 2001;50:2540–7.
25. Cummings DE, Weigle DS, Frayo RS, et al. Plasma ghrelin levels after diet-induced weight loss or gastric bypass surgery. N Engl J Med. 2002;346:1623–30.
26. Cummings DE, Frayo RS, Marmonier C, et al. Plasma ghrelin levels and hunger scores in humans initiating meals voluntarily without time- and food-related cues. Am J Physiol Endocrinol Metab. 2004;287:E297–304.
27. Pusztai P, Sarman B, Ruzicska E, et al. Ghrelin: a new peptide regulating the neurohormonal system, energy homeostasis and glucose metabolism. Diabetes Metab Res Rev. 2008;24:343–52.
28. Cummings DE. Ghrelin and the short- and long-term regulation of appetite and body weight. Physiol Behav. 2006;89:71–84.
29. Cheng K-C, Li Y-L, Asakawa A, Inui A. The role of ghrelin in energy homeostasis and its potential clinical relevance (review). Int J Mol Med. 2010;26:771–8.
30. Date Y, Murakami N, Toshinai K, et al. The role of the gastric afferent vagal nerve in Ghrelin-induced feeding and growth hormone secretion in rats. Gastroenterology. 2002;123:1120–8.
31. Williams DL, Grill HJ, Cummings DE, Kaplan JM. Vagotomy dissociates short- and long-term controls of circulating ghrelin. Endocrinology. 2003;144:5184–7.
32. Le Roux CW, Neary NM, Halsey TJ, et al. Ghrelin does not stimulate food intake in patients with surgical procedures involving vagotomy. J Clin Endocrinol Metab. 2005;90:4521–4.
33. Roth KA, Kim S, Gordon JI. Immunocytochemical studies suggest two pathways for enteroendocrine cell differentiation in the colon. Am J Physiol Gastrointest Liver Physiol. 1992;263:G174–80.
34. Lieverse RJ, Jansen JB, Masclee AA, et al. Effect of a low dose of intraduodenal fat on satiety in humans: studies using the type A cholecystokinin receptor antagonist loxiglumide. Gut. 1994;35:501–5.
35. Liddle RA, Goldfine ID, Rosen MS, et al. Cholecystokinin bioactivity in human plasma. Molecular forms, responses to feeding, and relationship to gallbladder contraction. J Clin Invest. 1985;75:1144–52.
36. Crespo CS, Cachero AP, Jiménez LP, et al. Peptides and food intake. Front Endocrinol (Lausanne). 2014;5:1–13.
37. Gibbs J, Young RC, Smith GP. Cholecystokinin elicits satiety in rats with open gastric fistulas. Nature. 1973;245:323–5.
38. Antin J, Gibbs J, Holt J, et al. Cholecystokinin elicits the complete behavioral sequence of satiety in rats. J Comp Physiol Psychol. 1975;89:784–90.
39. Kissileff HR, Pi-Sunyer X, Thornton J, Smith GP. C-terminal decreases octapeptide food intake of cholecystokinin. Am J Clin Nutr 1981;154–160.
40. Lieverse RJ, Jansen JB, Masclee AM, Lamers CB. Satiety effects of cholecystokinin in humans. Gastroenterology. 1994;106:1451–4.
41. Cummings DE, Purnell JQ, Frayo RS, et al. A preprandial rise in plasma ghrelin levels suggests a role in meal initiation in humans. Diabetes. 2001;50:1714–9.
42. Cantor P, Rehfeld JF. Cholecystokinin in pig plasma: release of components devoid of a bioactive COOH-terminus. Am J Physiol Gastrointest Liver Physiol. 1989;256:G53–61.
43. Luo J, Hu Y, Kong W, Yang M. Evaluation and structure-activity relationship analysis of a new series of arylnaphthalene lignans as potential anti-tumor agents. PLoS One. 2014;9:e93516.
44. Ji Z, Hadac EM, Henne RM, et al. Direct identification of a distinct site of interaction between the carboxyl-terminal residue of cholecystokinin and the type A cholecystokinin receptor using photoaffinity labeling. J Biol Chem. 1997;272:24393–401.
45. Overduin J, Gibbs J, Cummings DE, Reeve JR. CCK-58 elicits both satiety and satiation in rats while CCK-8 elicits only satiation. Peptides. 2014;54:71–80.
46. Sayegh AI, Washington MC, Raboin SJ, et al. CCK-58 prolongs the intermeal interval, whereas CCK-8 reduces this interval: not all forms of cholecystokinin have equal bioactivity. Peptides. 2014;55:120–5.
47. Moran TH, Robinson PH, Goldrich MS, McHugh PR. Two brain cholecystokinin receptors:implications for behavioral actions. Brain Res. 1986;362:175–9.
48. Beglinger C, Degen L, Matzinger D, et al. Loxiglumide, a CCK-A receptor antagonist, stimulates calorie intake and hunger feelings in humans. Am J Physiol Regul Integr Comp Physiol. 2001;280:R1149–54.
49. Zittel TT, Glatzle J, Kreis ME, et al. C-fos protein expression in the nucleus of the solitary tract correlates with cholecystokinin dose injected and food intake in rats. Brain Res. 1999;846:1–11.
50. Moran TH, Kinzig KP. Gastrointestinal satiety signals II. Cholecystokinin. Am J Physiol Gastrointest Liver Physiol. 2004;286:G183–8.
51. Little TJ, McKie S, Jones RB, et al. Mapping glucose-mediated gut-to-brain signalling pathways in humans. Neuroimage. 2014;96:1–11.
52. Smith GP, Jerome C, Cushin BJ, et al. Abdominal vagotomy blocks the satiety effect of cholecystokinin in the rat. Science. 1981;213:1036–7.
53. Joyner K, Smith GP, Gibbs J. Abdominal vagotomy decreases the satiating potency of CCK-8 in sham and real feeding. Am J Physiol. 1993;264:R912–6.
54. Moran TH, Baldessarini AR, Salorio CF, et al. Vagal afferent and efferent contributions to the inhibition of food intake by cholecystokinin. Am J Physiol. 1997;272:R1245–51.
55. Blevins JE, Stanley BG, Reidelberger RD. Brain regions where cholecystokinin suppresses feeding in rats. Brain Res. 2000;860:1–10.
56. Edwards GL, Ladenheim EE, Ritter RC. Dorsomedial hindbrain participation in cholecystokinin-induced satiety. Am J Physiol. 1986;251:R971–7.
57. Tatemoto K, Mutt V. Isolation of two novel candidate hormones using a chemical method for finding naturally occurring polypeptides. Nature. 1980;285:417–8.
58. McGowan BMC, Bloom SR. Peptide YY and appetite control. Curr Opin Pharmacol. 2004;4:583–8.
59. Adrian TE, Ferri GL, Bacarese-Hamilton AJ, et al. Human distribution and release of a putative new gut hormone, peptide YY. Gastroenterology. 1985;89:1070–7.
60. Adrian TE, Savage AP, Sagor GR, et al. Effect of peptide YY on gastric, pancreatic, and biliary function in humans. Gastroenterology. 1985;89:494–9.
61. Batterham RL, Heffron H, Kapoor S, et al. Critical role for peptide YY in protein-mediated satiation and body-weight regulation. Cell Metab. 2006;4:223–33.
62. Eberlein GA, Eysselein VE, Schaeffer M, et al. A new molecular form of PYY: structural characterization of human PYY(3-36) and PYY(1-36). Peptides. 1989;10:797–803.
63. Grandt D, Schimiczek M, Beglinger C, et al. Two molecular forms of peptide YY (PYY) are abundant in human blood: characterization of a radioimmunoassay recognizing PYY 1-36 and PYY 3-36. Regul Pept. 1994;51:151–9.
64. Grandt D, Teyssen S, Schimiczek M, et al. Novel generation of hormone receptor specificity by amino terminal processing of peptide YY. Biochem Biophys Res Commun. 1992;186:1299–306.
65. Dumont Y, Fournier A, St-Pierre S, Quirion R. Characterization of neuropeptide Y binding sites in rat brain membrane preparations using [125I][Leu31, Pro34]peptide YY and [125I]peptide YY3-36 as selective Y1 and Y2 radioligands. J Pharmacol Exp Ther. 1995;272:673–80.
66. Batterham RL, Cowley MA, Small CJ, et al. Gut hormone PYY(3-36) physiologically inhibits food intake. Nature. 2002;418:650–4.
67. Challis BG, Pinnock SB, Coll AP, et al. Acute effects of PYY3-36 on food intake and hypothalamic neuropeptide expression in the mouse. Biochem Biophys Res Commun. 2003;311:915–9.
68. Halatchev IG, Ellacott KLJ, Fan W, Cone RD. Peptide YY3-36 inhibits food intake in mice through a melanocortin-4 receptor-independent mechanism. Endocrinology. 2004;145:2585–90.
69. Sileno AP, Brandt GC, Spann BM, Quay SC. Lower mean weight after 14 days intravenous administration peptide YY3-36 (PYY3-36) in rabbits. Int J Obes (Lond). 2006;30:68–72.
70. Koegler FH, Enriori PJ, Billes SK, et al. Peptide YY(3-36) inhibits morning, but not evening, food intake and decreases body weight in rhesus macaques. Diabetes. 2005;54:3198–204.
71. Batterham RL, Cohen MA, Ellis SM, et al. Inhibition of food intake in obese subjects by peptide YY3-36. N Engl J Med. 2003;349:941–8.
72. Talsania T, Anini Y, Siu S, et al. Peripheral exendin-4 and peptide YY 3–36 synergistically reduce food intake through different mechanisms in mice. Endocrinology. 2005;146:3748–56.
73. Scott V, Kimura N, Stark JA, Luckman SM. Intravenous peptide YY3-36 and Y2 receptor antagonism in the rat: effects on feeding behaviour. J Neuroendocrinol. 2005;17:452–7.
74. Kanatani A, Mashiko S, Murai N, et al. Role of the Y1 receptor in the regulation of neuropeptide Y-mediated feeding: comparison of wild-type, Y1 receptor-deficient, and Y5 receptor-deficient mice. Endocrinology. 2000;141:1011–6.
75. Hagan MM. Peptide YY: a key mediator of orexigenic behavior. Peptides. 2002;23:377–82.
76. Abbott CR, Monteiro M, Small CJ, et al. The inhibitory effects of peripheral administration of peptide YY 3-36 and glucagon-like peptide-1 on food intake are attenuated by ablation of the vagal-brainstem-hypothalamic pathway. Brain Res. 2005;1044:127–31.
77. Koda S, Date Y, Murakami N, et al. The role of the vagal nerve in peripheral PYY3-36-induced feeding reduction in rats. Endocrinology. 2005;146:2369–75.
78. Brubaker PL, Anini Y. Direct and indirect mechanisms regulating secretion of glucagon-like peptide-1 and glucagon-like peptide-2. Can J Physiol Pharmacol. 2003;81:1005–12.
79. Van Der Klaauw AA, Keogh JM, Henning E, et al. High protein intake stimulates postprandial GLP1 and PYY release. Obesity. 2013;21:1602–7.
80. Herrmann C, Göke R, Richter G, et al. Glucagon-like peptide-1 and glucose-dependent insulin-releasing polypeptide plasma levels in response to nutrients. Digestion. 1995;56:117–26.
81. Orskov C, Wettergren A, Holst JJ. Biological effects and metabolic rates of glucagonlike peptide-1 7-36 amide and glucagonlike peptide-1 7-37 in healthy subjects are indistinguishable. Diabetes. 1993;42:658–61.
82. Turton MD, O’Shea D, Gunn I, et al. A role for glucagon-like peptide-1 in the central regulation of feeding. Nature. 1996;379:69–72.
83. Donahey JC, van Dijk G, Woods SC, Seeley RJ. Intraventricular GLP-1 reduces short- but not long-term food intake or body weight in lean and obese rats. Brain Res. 1998;779:75–83.
84. Tang-Christensen M, Vrang N, Larsen PJ. Glucagon-like peptide containing pathways in the regulation of feeding behaviour. Int J Obes Relat Metab Disord. 2001;25(Suppl 5):S42–7.
85. Meeran K, Shea DO, Edwards CMB, et al. Repeated Intracerebroventricular administration of glucagon-like peptide-1-(7–36) amide or exendin-(9–39) alters body weight in the rat. Endocrinology. 1999;140:244–50.
86. Näslund E, Barkeling B, King N, et al. Energy intake and appetite are suppressed by glucagon-like peptide-1 (GLP-1) in obese men. Int J Obes Relat Metab Disord. 1999;23:304–11.
87. Gutzwiller JP, Göke B, Drewe J, et al. Glucagon-like peptide-1: a potent regulator of food intake in humans. Gut. 1999;44:81–6.
88. Zander M, Madsbad S, Madsen JL, Holst JJ. Effect of 6-week course of glucagon-like peptide 1 on glycaemic control, insulin sensitivity, and beta-cell function in type 2 diabetes: a parallel-group study. Lancet. 2002;359:824–30.
89. Toft-Nielsen MB, Madsbad S, Holst JJ. Continuous subcutaneous infusion of glucagon-like peptide 1 lowers plasma glucose and reduces appetite in type 2 diabetic patients. Diabetes Care. 1999;22:1137–43.
90. Nauck MA, Niedereichholz U, Ettler R, et al. Glucagon-like peptide 1 inhibition of gastric emptying outweighs its insulinotropic effects in healthy humans. Am J Physiol. 1997;273:E981–8.
91. Drucker DJ. The biology of incretin hormones. Cell Metab. 2006;3:153–65.
92. Imeryüz N, Yeğen BC, Bozkurt A, et al. Glucagon-like peptide-1 inhibits gastric emptying via vagal afferent-mediated central mechanisms. Am J Physiol. 1997;273:G920–7.
93. Parkinson JRC, Chaudhri OB, Kuo Y-T, et al. Differential patterns of neuronal activation in the brainstem and hypothalamus following peripheral injection of GLP-1, oxyntomodulin and lithium chloride in mice detected by manganese-enhanced magnetic resonance imaging (MEMRI). Neuroimage. 2009;44:1022–31.
94. Pocai A. Action and therapeutic potential of oxyntomodulin. Mol Metab. 2014;3:241–51.
95. Dakin CL, Gunn I, Small CJ, et al. Oxyntomodulin inhibits food intake in the rat. Endocrinology. 2001;142:4244–50.
96. Dakin CL, Small CJ, Batterham RL, et al. Peripheral oxyntomodulin reduces food intake and body weight gain in rats. Endocrinology. 2004;145:2687–95.
97. Dakin CL, Small CJ, Park AJ, et al. Repeated ICV administration of oxyntomodulin causes a greater reduction in body weight gain than in pair-fed rats. Am J Physiol Endocrinol Metab. 2002;283:E1173–7.
98. Cohen MA, Ellis SM, Le Roux CW, et al. Oxyntomodulin suppresses appetite and reduces food intake in humans. J Clin Endocrinol Metab. 2003;88:4696–701.
99. Wynne K, Park AJ, Small CJ, et al. Subcutaneous oxyntomodulin reduces body weight in overweight and obese subjects: a double-blind, randomized. Controlled Trial. Diabetes. 2005;54:2390–5.
100. Wynne K, Park AJ, Small CJ, et al. Oxyntomodulin increases energy expenditure in addition to decreasing energy intake in overweight and obese humans: a randomised controlled trial. Int J Obes (Lond). 2006;30:1729–36.
101. Baggio LL, Huang Q, Brown TJ, Drucker DJ. Oxyntomodulin and glucagon-like peptide-1 differentially regulate murine food intake and energy expenditure. Gastroenterology. 2004;127:546–58.
102. Kosinski JR, Hubert J, Carrington PE, et al. The glucagon receptor is involved in mediating the body weight-lowering effects of oxyntomodulin. Obesity. 2012;20:1566–71.
103. Chaudhri OB, Parkinson JRC, Kuo Y-T, et al. Differential hypothalamic neuronal activation following peripheral injection of GLP-1 and oxyntomodulin in mice detected by manganese-enhanced magnetic resonance imaging. Biochem Biophys Res Commun. 2006;350:298–306.
104. Katsuura G, Asakawa A, Inui A. Roles of pancreatic polypeptide in regulation of food intake. Peptides. 2002;23:323–9.
105. Batterham RL, Le Roux CW, Cohen MA, et al. Pancreatic polypeptide reduces appetite and food intake in humans. J Clin Endocrinol Metab. 2003;88:3989–92.
106. Hwa JJ, Witten MB, Williams P, et al. Activation of the NPY Y5 receptor regulates both feeding and energy expenditure. Am J Physiol. 1999;277:R1428–34.
107. Asakawa A, Inui A, Yuzuriha H, et al. Characterization of the effects of pancreatic polypeptide in the regulation of energy balance. Gastroenterology. 2003;124:1325–36.
108. Michel MC, Beck-Sickinger A, Cox H, et al. XVI. International Union of Pharmacology recommendations for the nomenclature of neuropeptide Y, peptide YY, and pancreatic polypeptide receptors. Pharmacol Rev. 1998;50:143–150.
109. Balasubramaniam A, Mullins DE, Lin S, et al. Neuropeptide Y (NPY) Y4 receptor selective agonists based on NPY(32-36): development of an anorectic Y4 receptor selective agonist with picomolar affinity. J Med Chem. 2006;49:2661–5.
110. Westermark GT, Westermark P. Islet amyloid polypeptide and diabetes. Curr Protein Pept Sci. 2013;14:330–7.
111. Cummings DE, Overduin J. Review series gastrointestinal regulation of food intake. Health Care (Don Mills). 2007;117:13–23.
112. Rushing PA, Hagan MM, Seeley RJ, et al. Amylin: a novel action in the brain to reduce body weight. Endocrinology. 2000;141:850–3.
113. Lutz TA, Geary N, Szabady MM, et al. Amylin decreases meal size in rats. Physiol Behav. 1995;58:1197–202.
114. Chapman I, Parker B, Doran S, et al. Effect of pramlintide on satiety and food intake in obese subjects and subjects with type 2 diabetes. Diabetologia. 2005;48:838–48.
115. Lutz TA, Althaus J, Rossi R, Scharrer E. Anorectic effect of amylin is not transmitted by capsaicin-sensitive nerve fibers. Am J Physiol. 1998;274:R1777–82.
116. Lutz TA. Pancreatic amylin as a centrally acting satiating hormone. Curr Drug Targets. 2005;6:181–9.
117. Burke LE, Wang J. Treatment strategies for overweight and obesity. J Nurs Scholarsh. 2011;43:368–75.
118. Kushner RF. Weight loss strategies for treatment of obesity. Prog Cardiovasc Dis. 2014;56:465–72.
119. Samaranayake NR, Ong KL, Leung RYH, Cheung BMY. Management of Obesity in the National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey (NHANES), 2007–2008. Ann Epidemiol. 2012;22:349–53.
120. Kakkar AK, Dahiya N. Drug treatment of obesity: current status and future prospects. Eur J Intern Med. 2015;26:89–94.
121. Karra E, Yousseif A, Batterham RL. Mechanisms facilitating weight loss and resolution of type 2 diabetes following bariatric surgery. Trends Endocrinol Metab. 2010;21:337–44.
122. Tack J, Deloose E. Complications of bariatric surgery: dumping syndrome, reflux and vitamin deficiencies. Best Pract Res Clin Gastroenterol. 2014;28:741–9.
123. Akkary E. Bariatric surgery evolution from the malabsorptive to the hormonal era. Obes Surg. 2012;22:827–31.
124. Michalakis K, Le Roux C. Gut hormones and leptin: impact on energy control and changes after bariatric surgerywhat the future holds. Obes Surg. 2012;22:1648–57.
125. Tsoli M, Chronaiou A, Kehagias I, et al. Hormone changes and diabetes resolution after biliopancreatic diversion and laparoscopic sleeve gastrectomy: a comparative prospective study. Surg Obes Relat Dis. 2013;9:667–77.
126. Dimitriadis E, Daskalakis M, Kampa M, et al. Alterations in gut hormones after laparoscopic sleeve gastrectomy: a prospective clinical and laboratory investigational study. Ann Surg. 2013;257:647–54.
127. Yousseif A, Emmanuel J, Karra E, et al. Differential effects of laparoscopic sleeve gastrectomy and laparoscopic gastric bypass on appetite, circulating acyl-ghrelin, peptide YY3-36 and active GLP-1 levels in non-diabetic humans. Obes Surg. 2014;24:241–52.
128. Sweeney TE, Morton JM. Metabolic surgery: action via hormonal milieu changes, changes in bile acids or gut microbiota? A summary of the literature. Bailliere’s Best Pract Res Clin Gastroenterol. 2014;28:727–40.
129. Stoeckli R, Chanda R, Langer I, Keller U. Changes of body weight and plasma ghrelin levels after gastric banding and gastric bypass. Obes Res. 2004;12:346–50.
130. Dixon AFR, Dixon JB, O’Brien PE. Laparoscopic adjustable gastric banding induces prolonged satiety: a randomized blind crossover study. J Clin Endocrinol Metab. 2005;90:813–9.
131. Rodieux F, Giusti V, D’Alessio DA, et al. Effects of gastric bypass and gastric banding on glucose kinetics and gut hormone release. Obesity (Silver Spring). 2008;16:298–305.
132. Korner J, Inabnet W, Febres G, et al. Prospective study of gut hormone and metabolic changes after adjustable gastric banding and Roux-en-Y gastric bypass. Int J Obes. 2009;33:786–95.
133. Krieger AC, Youn H, Modersitzki F, et al. Effects of laparoscopic adjustable gastric banding on sleep and metabolism: a 12-month follow-up study. Int J Gen Med. 2012;5:975–81.
134. Borg CM, Le Roux CW, Ghatei MA, et al. Progressive rise in gut hormone levels after Roux-en-Y gastric bypass suggests gut adaptation and explains altered satiety. Br J Surg. 2006;93:210–5.
135. Le Roux CW, Aylwin SJB, Batterham RL, et al. Gut hormone profiles following bariatric surgery favor an anorectic state, facilitate weight loss, and improve metabolic parameters. Ann Surg. 2006;243:108–14.
136. Pournaras DJ, Osborne A, Hawkins SC, et al. The gut hormone response following roux-en-Y gastric bypass: cross-sectional and prospective study. Obes Surg. 2010;20:56–60.
137. Ockander L, Hedenbro JL, Rehfeld JF, Sjölund K. Jejunoileal bypass changes the duodenal cholecystokinin and somatostatin cell density. Obes Surg. 2003;13:584–90.
138. Buchan AM, Pederson RA, Koop I, et al. Morphological and functional alterations to a sub-group of regulatory peptides in human pancreas and intestine after jejuno-ileal bypass. Int J Obes Relat Metab Disord. 1993;17:109–13.
139. Näslund E, Grybäck P, Hellström PM, et al. Gastrointestinal hormones and gastric emptying 20 years after jejunoileal bypass for massive obesity. Int J Obes Relat Metab Disord. 1997;21:387–92.
140. Neary NM, Small CJ, Druce MR, et al. Peptide YY3-36 and glucagon-like peptide-17-36 inhibit food intake additively. Endocrinology. 2005;146:5120–7. doi:10.1210/en.2005-0237.
141. Buse JB, Henry RR, Han J, et al. Effects of exenatide (exendin-4) on glycemic control over 30 weeks in sulfonylurea-treated patients with type 2 diabetes. Diabetes Care. 2004;27:2628–35.
142. DeFronzo RA, Ratner RE, Han J, et al. Effects of exenatide(Exendin-4) on glycemic control and weight over 30 Weeks in metformin-treated patients with Type 2 diabetes. Diabetes Care. 2005;28:1092–100.
143. Kendall DM, Riddle MC, Rosenstock J, et al. Effects of exenatide (exendin-4) on glycemic control over 30 weeks in patients with type 2 diabetes treated with metformin and a sulfonylurea. Diabetes Care. 2005;28:1083–91.
144. Steinert R, Poller B, Castelli M. Orally administered glucagon-like peptide-1 affects glucose homeostasis following an oral glucose tolerance test in healthy male subjects. Clin Pharmacol. 2009;86:644–50.
145. Jang H-J, Kokrashvili Z, Theodorakis MJ, et al. Gut-expressed gustducin and taste receptors regulate secretion of glucagon-like peptide-1. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA. 2007;104:15069–74.
146. Steinert RE, Gerspach AC, Gutmann H, et al. The functional involvement of gut-expressed sweet taste receptors in glucose-stimulated secretion of glucagon-like peptide-1 (GLP-1) and peptide YY (PYY). Clin Nutr. 2011;30:524–32.