Consensus clinical practice guidelines for the diagnosis and treatment of restless legs syndrome/Willis-Ekbom disease during pregnancy and lactation

Sleep Medicine Reviews

Volumn 22, Issue , 2015, Pages 64-77

  Picchietti, Daniel L ^a   Hensley, Jennifer G ^b   Bainbridge, Jacquelyn L ^c   Lee, Kathryn A ^d   Manconi, Mauro ^e   McGregor, James A ^f   Silver, Robert M ^g   Trenkwalder, Claudia ^h,i   Walters, Arthur S ^j  

^a UNIVERSITY OF ILLINOIS   (United States)

^b UNIVERSITY OF COLORADO   (United States)

^c UNIVERSITY OF COLORADO SCHOOL OF MEDICINE   (United States)

^d UNIVERSITY OF CALIFORNIA   (United States)

^e REGIONAL HOSPITAL OF LUGANO   (Switzerland)

^f UNIVERSITY OF SOUTHERN CALIFORNIA   (United States)

^g UNIVERSITY OF UTAH SCHOOL OF MEDICINE   (United States)

^h Paracelsus Elena Hospital   (Germany)

ⁱ UNIVERSITY MEDICAL CENTER GÖTTINGEN   (Germany)

^j VANDERBILT UNIVERSITY SCHOOL OF MEDICINE   (United States)

more..

Author keywords

Consensus; Lactation; Pregnancy; Restless legs syndrome; Sleep disorder; Willis Ekbom disease

Indexed keywords

ALPHA TOCOPHEROL; AMFEBUTAMONE; ASCORBIC ACID; CARBIDOPA PLUS LEVODOPA; CHINESE DRUG; CLONAZEPAM; DIPHENHYDRAMINE; FERRITIN; FOLIC ACID; GABAPENTIN; IRON; MAGNESIUM; OXYCODONE; TRAMADOL; VALERIAN; VITAMIN D;

ALGORITHM; CHINESE HERB; CLINICAL PRACTICE; COMORBIDITY; DEPRESSION; DIAGNOSTIC ACCURACY; DISEASE COURSE; DISEASE SEVERITY; DRUG TOLERABILITY; DRUG TREATMENT FAILURE; EXERCISE; FERRITIN BLOOD LEVEL; GESTATIONAL AGE; HEALTH EDUCATION; HEALTH IMPACT ASSESSMENT; HUMAN; INTERMITTENT PNEUMATIC COMPRESSION DEVICE; IRON STORAGE; LACTATION; LOW DRUG DOSE; MASSAGE; PATIENT COUNSELING; PRACTICE GUIDELINE; PREGNANCY; PREVALENCE; REASSURANCE; RESTLESS LEGS SYNDROME; REVIEW; RISK FACTOR; SLEEP DISORDERED BREATHING; SUICIDE; YOGA; COMPLICATION; CONSENSUS DEVELOPMENT; DIFFERENTIAL DIAGNOSIS; FEMALE; PREGNANCY COMPLICATIONS;

DIAGNOSIS, DIFFERENTIAL; FEMALE; HUMANS; LACTATION; PREGNANCY; PREGNANCY COMPLICATIONS; RESTLESS LEGS SYNDROME;

EID: 84937945069     PISSN: 10870792     EISSN: 15322955     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1016/j.smrv.2014.10.009     Document Type: Review

References (220)

1. Manconi M., Govoni V., De Vito A., Economou N.T., Cesnik E., Casetta I., et al. Restless legs syndrome and pregnancy. Neurology 2004, 63:1065-1069.
2. Hubner A., Krafft A., Gadient S., Werth E., Zimmermann R., Bassetti C.L. Characteristics and determinants of restless legs syndrome in pregnancy: a prospective study. Neurology 2013, 80:738-742.
3. Neau J.P., Porcheron A., Mathis S., Julian A., Meurice J.C., Paquereau J., et al. Restless legs syndrome and pregnancy: a questionnaire study in the Poitiers District, France. Eur Neurol 2010, 64:268-274.
4. Ismailogullari S., Ozturk A., Mazicioglu M.M., Serin S., Gultekin M., Aksu M. Restless legs syndrome and pregnancy in Kayseri, Turkey: a hospital based survey. Sleep Biol Rhythms 2010, 8:137-143.
5. Sikandar R., Khealani B.A., Wasay M. Predictors of restless legs syndrome in pregnancy: a hospital based cross sectional survey from Pakistan. Sleep Med 2009, 10:676-678.
6. Neau J.-P., Marion P., Mathis S., Julian A., Godeneche G., Larrieu D., et al. Restless legs syndrome and pregnancy: follow-up of pregnant women before and after delivery. Eur Neurol 2010, 64:361-366.
7. Trenkwalder C., Hogl B., Winkelmann J. Recent advances in the diagnosis, genetics and treatment of restless legs syndrome. JNeurol 2009, 256:539-553.
8. Berger K., Luedemann J., Trenkwalder C., John U., Kessler C. Sex and the risk of restless legs syndrome in the general population. Arch Intern Med 2004, 164:196-202.
9. Pantaleo N.P., Hening W.A., Allen R.P., Earley C.J. Pregnancy accounts for most of the gender difference in prevalence of familial RLS. Sleep Med 2010, 11:310-313.
10. Alves D.A., Carvalho L.B., Morais J.F., Prado G.F. Restless legs syndrome during pregnancy in Brazilian women. Sleep Med 2010, 11:1049-1054.
11. Vahdat M., Sariri E., Miri S., Rohani M., Kashanian M., Sabet A., et al. Prevalence and associated features of restless legs syndrome in a population of Iranian women during pregnancy. Int J Gynecol Obstetrics 2013, 123:46-49.
12. de Castro C.H., Martinez F.G., Angulo A.M., Alejo M.A. Restless legs syndrome in pregnancy. Aten Primaria 2007, 39:625-626.
13. Chen P.-H., Liou K.-C., Chen C.-P., Cheng S.-J. Risk factors and prevalence rate of restless legs syndrome among pregnant women in Taiwan. Sleep Med 2012, 13:1153-1157.
14. Minar M., Habanova H., Rusnak I., Planck K., Valkovic P. Prevalence and impact of restless legs syndrome in pregnancy. Neuro Endocrinol Lett 2013, 34:366-371.
15. Kizilirmak A., Timur S., Kartal B. Insomnia in pregnancy and factors related to insomnia. Sci World J 2012, 2012:1-8.
16. Okun M.L., Schetter C.D., Glynn L.M. Poor sleep quality is associated with preterm birth. Sleep 2011, 34:1493-1498.
17. Nodine P.M., Matthews E.E. Common sleep disorders: management strategies and pregnancy outcomes. JMidwifery Women's Health 2013, 58:368-377.
18. Chang J.J., Pien G.W., Duntley S.P., Macones G.A. Sleep deprivation during pregnancy and maternal and fetal outcomes: is there a relationship?. Sleep Med Rev 2010, 14:107-114.
19. Ramirez J.O., Cabrera S.A., Hidalgo H., Cabrera S.G., Linnebank M., Bassetti C.L., et al. Is preeclampsia associated with restless legs syndrome?. Sleep Med 2013, 14:894-896.
20. Lee K.A., Zaffke M.E., Baratte-Beebe K. Restless legs syndrome and sleep disturbance during pregnancy: the role of folate and iron. JWomens Health Gend Based Med 2001, 10:335-341.
21. Wesstrom J., Skalkidou A., Manconi M., Fulda S., Sundstrom-Poromaa I. Pre-pregnancy restless legs syndrome (Willis-Ekbom disease) is associated with Perinatal depression. JClin Sleep Med 2014, 10:527-533.
22. Picchietti M.A., Picchietti D.L. Advances in pediatric restless legs syndrome: iron, genetics, diagnosis and treatment. Sleep Med 2010, 11:643-651.
23. Allen R. Dopamine and iron in the pathophysiology of restless legs syndrome (RLS). Sleep Med 2004, 5:385-391.
24. Clemens S., Rye D., Hochman S. Restless legs syndrome: revisiting the dopamine hypothesis from the spinal cord perspective. Neurology 2006, 67:125-130.
25. Dauvilliers Y., Winkelmann J. Restless legs syndrome: update on pathogenesis. Curr Opin Pulm Med 2013, 19:594-600.
26. Manconi M., Ulfberg J., Berger K., Ghorayeb I., Wesström J., Fulda S., et al. When gender matters: restless legs syndrome. Report of the "RLS and woman" workshop endorsed by the European RLS Study Group. Sleep Med Rev 2012, 16:297-307.
27. Pereira J.C., Rocha E.S.I.R., Pradella-Hallinan M. Transient Willis-Ekbom's disease (restless legs syndrome) during pregnancy may be caused by estradiol-mediated dopamine overmodulation. Med Hypotheses 2013, 80:205-208.
28. Briggs G.G., Freeman R.K., Yaffe S.J. Drugs in pregnancy and lactation 2011, Lippincott Williams & Wilkins, Philadelphia. 9th ed.
29. Hale T. Medications and mothers' milk online 2013, Hale Publishing, Amarillo, Tx, Available at:, [accessed 12.06.13]. http://www.medsmilk.com.
30. The hospital for sick children 2013, Motherisk, Toronto, Available at:, [accessed 28.01.13]. http://www.motherisk.org.
31. The Organization of Teratology Information Specialists (OTIS) Available at: www.otispregnancy.org, [accessed 28.01.13].
32. LactMed U.S. National Library of Medicine 2013, Available at:, [accessed 28.01.13]. http://www.toxnet.nlm.nih.gov.
33. Micromedex Inc. Micromedex healthcare series. Englewood, Colo.: Micromedex.
34. Ramoz L.L., Patel-Shori N.M. Recent changes in pregnancy and lactation labeling: retirement of risk categories. Pharmacother J Hum Pharmacol Drug Ther 2014, 34:389-395.
35. Walters A.S., LeBrocq C., Dhar A., Hening W., Rosen R., Allen R.P., et al. Validation of the International Restless Legs Syndrome Study Group rating scale for restless legs syndrome. Sleep Med 2003, 4:121-132.
36. Koren G., Pastuszak A., Ito S. Drugs in pregnancy. NEngl J Med 1998, 338:1128-1137.
37. Fulda S., Wetter T.C. Where dopamine meets opioids: a meta-analysis of the placebo effect in restless legs syndrome treatment studies. Brain 2008, 131:902-917.
38. Lidstone S.C., Schulzer M., Dinelle K., Mak E., Sossi V., Ruth T.J., et al. Effects of expectation on placebo-induced dopamine release in Parkinson disease. Arch Gen Psychiatry 2010, 67:857-865.
39. Allen R.P., Picchietti D.L., Garcia-Borreguero D., Ondo W.G., Walters A.S., Winkelman J.W., et al. Restless legs syndrome/Willis-Ekbom disease diagnostic criteria: updated International Restless Legs Syndrome Study Group (IRLSSG) consensus criteria - history, rationale, description, and significance. Sleep Med 2014, 15:860-873.
40. Balendran J., Champion D., Jaaniste T., Welsh A. Acommon sleep disorder in pregnancy: restless legs syndrome and its predictors. Aust N Z J Obstetrics Gynaecol 2011, 51:262-264.
41. Cesnik E., Casetta I., Turri M., Govoni V., Granieri E., Strambi L.F., et al. Transient RLS during pregnancy is a risk factor for the chronic idiopathic form. Neurology 2010, 75:2117-2120.
42. Xiong L., Montplaisir J., Desautels A., Barhdadi A., Turecki G., Levchenko A., et al. Family study of restless legs syndrome in Quebec, Canada: clinical characterization of 671 familial cases. Arch Neurol 2010, 67:617-622.
43. Trotti L.M., Rye D.B. Restless legs syndrome. Handb Clin Neurol 2011, 100:661-673.
44. Picchietti D.L., Wang V.C., Picchietti M.A. Intravenous iron given prior to pregnancy for restless legs syndrome is associated with remission of symptoms. JClin Sleep Med 2012, 8:585-586.
45. Hening W.A., Allen R.P., Washburn M., Lesage S.R., Earley C.J. The four diagnostic criteria for Restless Legs Syndrome are unable to exclude confounding conditions ("mimics"). Sleep Med 2009, 10:976-981.
46. Allen R.P., Burchell B.J., MacDonald B., Hening W.A., Earley C.J. Validation of the self-completed Cambridge-Hopkins questionnaire (CH-RLSq) for ascertainment of restless legs syndrome (RLS) in a population survey. Sleep Med 2009, 10:1097-1100.
47. Popat R.A., Van Den Eeden S.K., Tanner C.M., Kushida C.A., Rama A.N., Black J.E., et al. Reliability and validity of two self-administered questionnaires for screening restless legs syndrome in population-based studies. Sleep Med 2010, 11:154-160.
48. Moller C., Wetter T.C., Koster J., Stiasny-Kolster K. Differential diagnosis of unpleasant sensations in the legs: prevalence of restless legs syndrome in a primary care population. Sleep Med 2010, 11:161-166.
49. Hensley J.G. Leg cramps and restless legs syndrome during pregnancy. JMidwifery Women's Health 2009, 54:211-218.
50. Earley C.J., Silber M.H. Restless legs syndrome: understanding its consequences and the need for better treatment. Sleep Med 2010, 11:807-815.
51. Dodel R., Happe S., Peglau I., Mayer G., Wasem J., Reese J.P., et al. Health economic burden of patients with restless legs syndrome in a german ambulatory setting. Pharmacoeconomics 2010, 28:381-393.
52. Allen R.P., Walters A.S., Montplaisir J., Hening W., Myers A., Bell T.J., et al. Restless legs syndrome prevalence and impact: REST general population study. Arch Intern Med 2005, 165:1286-1292.
53. Harano S., Ohida T., Kaneita Y., Yokoyama E., Tamaki T., Takemura S., et al. Prevalence of restless legs syndrome with pregnancy and the relationship with sleep disorders in the Japanese large population. Sleep Biol Rhythms 2008, 6:102-109.
54. Ohayon M.M., O'Hara R., Vitiello M.V. Epidemiology of restless legs syndrome: a synthesis of the literature. Sleep Med Rev 2012, 16:283-295.
55. Uglane M.T., Westad S., Backe B. Restless legs syndrome in pregnancy is a frequent disorder with a good prognosis. Acta Obstetricia Gynecol Scand 2011, 90:1046-1048.
56. Manconi M., Govoni V., De Vito A., Tiberio Economou N., Cesnik E., Mollica G., et al. Pregnancy as a risk factor for restless legs syndrome. Sleep Med 2004, 5:305-308.
57. Goodman J.D., Brodie C., Ayida G.A. Restless leg syndrome in pregnancy. BMJ 1988, 297:1101-1102.
58. Ko H., Shin J., Kim M.Y., Kim Y.H., Lee J., Kil K.C., et al. Sleep disturbances in Korean pregnant and postpartum women. JPsychosom Obstet Gynecol 2012, 33:85-90.
59. Sarberg M., Josefsson A., Wirehn A.B., Svanborg E. Restless legs syndrome during and after pregnancy and its relation to snoring. Acta Obstet Gynecol Scand 2012, 91:850-855.
60. Lavigne G.L., Lobbezoo F., Rompre P.H., Nielsen T.A., Montplaisir J. Cigarette smoking as a risk factor or an exacerbating factor for restless legs syndrome and sleep bruxism. Sleep 1997, 20:290-293.
61. Ohayon M.M., Roth T. Prevalence of restless legs syndrome and periodic limb movement disorder in the general population. JPsychosom Res 2002, 53:547-554.
62. Phillips B., Young T., Finn L., Asher K., Hening W.A., Purvis C. Epidemiology of restless legs symptoms in adults. Arch Intern Med 2000, 160:2137-2141.
63. Provini F., Antelmi E., Vignatelli L., Zaniboni A., Naldi G., Calandra-Buonaura G., et al. Increased prevalence of nocturnal smoking in restless legs syndrome (RLS). Sleep Med 2010, 11:218-220.
64. Schlesinger I., Erikh I., Avizohar O., Sprecher E., Yarnitsky D. Cardiovascular risk factors in restless legs syndrome. Mov Disord 2009, 24:1587-1592.
65. Suzuki S., Suzuki K., Miyamoto M., Miyamoto T., Watanabe Y., Takashima R., et al. Evaluation of contributing factors to restless legs syndrome in migraine patients. JNeurol 2011, 258:2026-2035.
66. Winkelman J.W., Shahar E., Sharief I., Gottlieb D.J. Association of restless legs syndrome and cardiovascular disease in the Sleep Heart Health Study. Neurology 2008, 70:35-42.
67. Rodrigues R.N.D., Abreu e Silva Rodrigues AAAd, Pratesi R., Krieger J. Outcome of restless legs severity after continuous positive air pressure (CPAP) treatment in patients affected by the association of RLS and obstructive sleep apneas. Sleep Med 2006, 7:235-239.
68. Jones C.R. Diagnostic and management approach to common sleep disorders during pregnancy. Clin Obstet Gynecol 2013, 56:360-371.
69. Aukerman M.M., Aukerman D., Bayard M., Tudiver F., Thorp L., Bailey B. Exercise and restless legs syndrome: a randomized controlled trial. JAm Board Fam Med 2006, 19:487-493.
70. Giannaki C.D., Sakkas G.K., Karatzaferi C., Hadjigeorgiou G.M., Lavdas E., Kyriakides T., et al. Effect of exercise training and dopamine agonists in patients with uremic restless legs syndrome: a six-month randomized, partially double-blind, placebo-controlled comparative study. BMC Nephrol 2013, 14:194.
71. ACOG Committee opinion Number 267, January 2002: exercise during pregnancy and the postpartum period. Obstet Gynecol 2002, 99:171-173.
72. Koltyn K.F., Schultes S.S. Psychological effects of an aerobic exercise session and a rest session following pregnancy. JSports Med Phys Fit 1997, 37:287-291.
73. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention Physical activity guidelines for Americans 2008, Available at:, [accessed 22.02.14]. http://www.cdc.gov/physicalactivity/everyone/guidelines/adults.html.
74. Innes K.E., Selfe T.K. The effects of a Gentle yoga program on sleep, mood, and blood pressure in older women with restless legs syndrome (RLS): a preliminary randomized controlled trial. Evid Based Complement Altern Med 2012, 2012:294058. Epub 2012 Jan 22. 10.1155/2012/294058.
75. Innes K.E., Selfe T.K., Agarwal P., Williams K., Flack K.L. Efficacy of an 8-Week yoga intervention on symptoms of restless legs syndrome (RLS): a pilot study. JAltern Complement Med 2012, 19:527-535.
76. Russell M. Massage therapy and restless legs syndrome. JBodyw Mov Ther 2007, 11:146-150.
77. Cuellar N., Galper D.I., Taylor A.G., D'Huyvetter K., Miederhoff P., Stubbs P. Restless legs syndrome. JAltern Complement Med 2004, 10:422-423.
78. Buchfuhrer M.J. Restless legs syndrome (RLS) with expansion of symptoms to the face. Sleep Med 2008, 9:188-190.
79. Eliasson A.H., Lettieri C.J. Sequential compression devices for treatment of restless legs syndrome. Medicine (Baltimore) 2007, 86:317-323.
80. Lettieri C.J., Eliasson A.H. Pneumatic compression devices are an effective therapy for restless legs syndrome: a prospective, randomized, double-blinded, sham-controlled trial. Chest 2009, 135:74-80.
81. Rajaram S.S., Rudzinskiy P., Walters A.S. Enhanced external counter pulsation (EECP) for restless legs syndrome (RLS): preliminary negative results in a parallel double-blind study. Sleep Med 2006, 7:390-391.
82. Rajaram S.S., Shanahan J., Ash C., Walters A.S., Weisfogel G. Enhanced external counter pulsation (EECP) as a novel treatment for restless legs syndrome (RLS): a preliminary test of the vascular neurologic hypothesis for RLS. Sleep Med 2005, 6:101-106.
83. Mitchell U.H., Johnson A.W., Myrer B. Comparison of two infrared devices in their effectiveness in reducing symptoms associated with RLS. Physiotherapy Theory Pract 2011, 27:352-359.
84. Mitchell U.H., Myrer J.W., Johnson A.W., Hilton S.C. Restless legs syndrome and near-infrared light: an alternative treatment option. Physiother Theory Pract 2011, 27:345-351.
85. Micromedex® Healthcare Series [intranet database]. Version 5.1. Greenwood Village, Colo: Thomson Reuters (Healthcare) Inc. [accessed 12.06.13].
86. Cuellar N.G., Ratcliffe S.J. Does valerian improve sleepiness and symptom severity in people with restless legs syndrome?. Altern Ther Health Med 2009, 15:22-28.
87. Yan X., Wang W.-D., Walters A.S., Wang Q., Liu Y.-J., Chu F.-Y. Traditional Chinese medicine herbal preparations in restless legs syndrome (RLS) treatment: a review and probable first description of RLS in 1529. Sleep Med Rev 2012, 16:509-518.
88. Earley C.J., Barker P.B., Horska A., Allen R.P. MRI-determined regional brain iron concentrations in early- and late-onset restless legs syndrome. Sleep Med 2006, 7:458-461.
89. Godau J., Klose U., Di Santo A., Schweitzer K., Berg D. Multiregional brain iron deficiency in restless legs syndrome. Mov Disord 2008, 23:1184-1187.
90. Earley C.J., Connor J.R., Beard J.L., Clardy S.L., Allen R.P. Ferritin levels in the cerebrospinal fluid and restless legs syndrome: effects of different clinical phenotypes. Sleep 2005, 28:1069-1075.
91. Connor J.R., Boyer P.J., Menzies S.L., Dellinger B., Allen R.P., Ondo W.G., et al. Neuropathological examination suggests impaired brain iron acquisition in restless legs syndrome. Neurology 2003, 61:304-309.
92. Connor J.R., Ponnuru P., Wang X.S., Patton S.M., Allen R.P., Earley C.J. Profile of altered brain iron acquisition in restless legs syndrome. Brain 2011, 134:959-968.
93. O'Keeffe S.T., Gavin K., Lavan J.N. Iron status and restless legs syndrome in the elderly. Age Ageing 1994, 23:200-203.
94. Sun E.R., Chen C.A., Ho G., Earley C.J., Allen R.P. Iron and the restless legs syndrome. Sleep 1998, 21:371-377.
95. Frauscher B., Gschliesser V., Brandauer E., El-Demerdash E., Kaneider M., Rucker L., et al. The severity range of restless legs syndrome (RLS) and augmentation in a prospective patient cohort: association with ferritin levels. Sleep Med 2009, 10:611-615.
96. Allen R.P., Auerbach S., Bahrain H., Auerbach M., Earley C.J. The prevalence and impact of restless legs syndrome on patients with iron deficiency anemia. Am J Hematol 2013, 88:261-264.
97. Grote L., Leissner L., Hedner J., Ulfberg J. Arandomized, double-blind, placebo controlled, multi-center study of intravenous iron sucrose and placebo in the treatment of restless legs syndrome. Mov Disord 2009, 24:1445-1452.
98. Wang J., O'Reilly B., Venkataraman R., Mysliwiec V., Mysliwiec A. Efficacy of oral iron in patients with restless legs syndrome and a low-normal ferritin: a randomized, double-blind, placebo-controlled study. Sleep Med 2009, 10:973-975.
99. Ondo W.G. Intravenous iron dextran for severe refractory restless legs syndrome. Sleep Med 2010, 11:494-496.
100. Allen R.P., Adler C.H., Du W., Butcher A., Bregman D.B., Earley C.J. Clinical efficacy and safety of IV ferric carboxymaltose (FCM) treatment of RLS: a multi-centred, placebo-controlled preliminary clinical trial. Sleep Med 2011, 12:906-913.
101. Silber M.H., Becker P.M., Earley C., Garcia-Borreguero D., Ondo W.G., Willis-Ekbom Dis F. Willis-Ekbom disease foundation revised consensus statement on the management of restless legs syndrome. Mayo Clin Proc 2013, 88:977-986.
102. Garcia-Borreguero D., Ferini-Strambi L., Kohnen R., O'Keeffe S., Trenkwalder C., Hogl B., et al. European guidelines on management of restless legs syndrome: report of a joint task force by the European Federation of Neurological Societies, the European Neurological Society and the European Sleep Research Society. Eur J Neurol 2012, 19:1385-1396.
103. Aurora R.N., Kristo D.A., Bista S.R., Rowley J.A., Zak R.S., Casey K.R., et al. The treatment of restless legs syndrome and periodic limb movement disorder in Adults-An update for 2012: practice parameters with an evidence-based systematic review and meta-analyses. Sleep 2012, 35:1039-1062.
104. Vadasz D., Ries V., Oertel W.H. Intravenous iron sucrose for restless legs syndrome in pregnant women with low serum ferritin. Sleep Med 2013, 14:1214-1216.
105. Schneider J., Krafft A., Bloch A., Huebner A., Raimondi M., Baumann C., et al. Iron infusion in restless legs syndrome in pregnancy. JNeurol 2011, 258:55.
106. Bothwell T.H. Iron requirements in pregnancy and strategies to meet them. Am J Clin Nutr 2000, 72:257S-264S.
107. Pavord S., Myers B., Robinson S., Allard S., Strong J., Oppenheimer C. UK guidelines on the management of iron deficiency in pregnancy. Br J Haematol 2012, 156:588-600.
108. Swaney P., Thorp J., Allen I. Vitamin C supplementation in pregnancy-does it decrease rates of preterm birth? a systematic review. Am J Perinatol 2014, 31:91-98.
109. Cho Y.W., Allen R.P., Earley C.J. Lower molecular weight intravenous iron dextran for restless legs syndrome. Sleep Med 2013, 14:274-277.
110. Birgegård G., Schneider K., Ulfberg J. High incidence of iron depletion and restless leg syndrome (RLS) in regular blood donors: intravenous iron sucrose substitution more effective than oral iron. Vox Sang 2010, 99:354-361.
111. Christoph P., Schuller C., Studer H., Irion O., De Tejada B.M., Surbek D. Intravenous iron treatment in pregnancy: comparison of high-dose ferric carboxymaltose vs. iron sucrose. JPerinat Med 2012, 40:469-474.
112. Schrier S.L., Auerbach M. Treatment of the adult with iron deficiency anemia. UpToDate 2013, UpToDate, Waltham, MA. D.S. Basow (Ed.).
113. Walters A.S., Elin R.J., Cohen B., Moller J.C., Oertel W., Stiasny-Kolster K. Magnesium not likely to play a major role in the pathogenesis of Restless Legs Syndrome: serum and cerebrospinal fluid studies. Sleep Med 2007, 8:186-187.
114. Dzaja A., Wehrle R., Lancel M., Pollmacher T. Elevated estradiol plasma levels in women with restless legs during pregnancy. Sleep 2009, 32:169-174.
115. Hornyak M., Voderholzer U., Hohagen F., Berger M., Riemann D. Magnesium therapy for periodic leg movements-related insomnia and restless legs syndrome: an open pilot study. Sleep 1998, 21:501-505.
116. Hornyak M., Riemann D., Voderholzer U. Magnesium therapy in patients with idiopathic restless legs syndrome: a placebo-controlled, randomized, double blind study. Sleep 2006, 29:A848.
117. Bartell S., Zallek S. Intravenous magnesium sulfate may relieve restless legs syndrome in pregnancy. JClin Sleep Med 2006, 2:187-188.
118. Tunc T., Karadag Y.S., Dogulu F., Inan L.E. Predisposing factors of restless legs syndrome in pregnancy. Mov Disord 2007, 22:627-631.
119. Botez M.I., Lambert B. Folate deficiency and restless-legs syndrome in pregnancy. NEngl J Med 1977, 297:670.
120. Patrick L.R. Restless legs syndrome: pathophysiology and the role of iron and folate. Altern Med Rev 2007, 12:101-112.
121. Sagheb M.M., Dormanesh B., Fallahzadeh M.K., Akbari H., Sohrabi Nazari S., Heydari S.T., et al. Efficacy of vitamins C, E, and their combination for treatment of restless legs syndrome in hemodialysis patients: a randomized, double-blind, placebo-controlled trial. Sleep Med 2012, 13:542-545.
122. Balaban H., Yildiz Ö.K., Çil G., Şentürk I.A., Erselcan T., Bolayir E., et al. Serum 25-hydroxyvitamin D levels in restless legs syndrome patients. Sleep Med 2012, 13:953-957.
123. Rumbold A., Crowther C.A. Vitamin C supplementation in pregnancy. Cochrane Database Syst Rev 2005, CD004072.
124. Xu H., Perez-Cuevas R., Xiong X., Reyes H., Roy C., Julien P., et al. An international trial of antioxidants in the prevention of preeclampsia (INTAPP). Am J Obstetrics Gynecol 2010, 202. 239.e1-.e10.
125. Manconi M., Ferri R., Zucconi M., Bassetti C.L., Fulda S., Arico D., et al. Dissociation of periodic leg movements from arousals in restless legs syndrome. Ann Neurol 2012, 71:834-844.
126. Saletu M., Anderer P., Saletu-Zyhlarz G., Prause W., Semler B., Zoghlami A., et al. Restless legs syndrome (RLS) and periodic limb movement disorder (PLMD): acute placebo-controlled sleep laboratory studies with clonazepam. Eur Neuropsychopharmacol 2001, 11:153-161.
127. Montagna P., Sassoli de Bianchi L., Zucconi M., Cirignotta F., Lugaresi E. Clonazepam and vibration in restless legs syndrome. Acta Neurol Scand 1984, 69:428-430.
128. Lin A.E., Peller A.J., Westgate M.N., Houde K., Franz A., Holmes L.B. Clonazepam use in pregnancy and the risk of malformations. Birth Defects Res A Clin Mol Teratol 2004, 70:534-536.
129. Weinstock L., Cohen L.S., Bailey J.W., Blatman R., Rosenbaum J.F. Obstetrical and neonatal outcome following clonazepam use during pregnancy: a case series. Psychother Psychosom 2001, 70:158-162.
130. Wikner B.N., Stiller C.-O., Bergman U., Asker C., Källén B. Use of benzodiazepines and benzodiazepine receptor agonists during pregnancy: neonatal outcome and congenital malformations. Pharmacoepidemiol Drug Saf 2007, 16:1203-1210.
131. Eros E., Czeizel A.E., Rockenbauer M., Sorensen H.T., Olsen J. Apopulation-based case-control teratologic study of nitrazepam, medazepam, tofisopam, alprazolum and clonazepam treatment during pregnancy. Eur J Obstet Gynecol Reprod Biol 2002, 101:147-154.
132. Samren E.B., van Duijn C.M., Christiaens G.C., Hofman A., Lindhout D. Antiepileptic drug regimens and major congenital abnormalities in the offspring. Ann Neurol 1999, 46:739-746.
133. Kargas G.A., Kargas S.A., Bruyere H.J., Gilbert E.F., Opitz J.M. Perinatal mortality due to interaction of diphenhydramine and temazepam. NEngl J Med 1985, 313:1417-1418.
134. Fisher J.B., Edgren B.E., Mammel M.C., Coleman J.M. Neonatal apnea associated with maternal clonazepam therapy: a case report. Obstet Gynecol 1985, 66:34S-35S.
135. Kelly L.E., Poon S., Madadi P., Koren G. Neonatal benzodiazepines exposure during breastfeeding. JPediatr 2012, 161:448-451.
136. Almgren M., Källén B., Lavebratt C. Population-based study of antiepileptic drug exposure in utero-Influence on head circumference in newborns. Seizure 2009, 18:672-675.
137. Birnbaum C.S., Cohen L.S., Bailey J.W., Grush L.R., Robertson L.M., Stowe Z.N. Serum concentrations of antidepressants and benzodiazepines in nursing infants: a case series. Pediatrics 1999, 104:e11.
138. Hwang T.-J., Ni H.-C., Chen H.-C., Lin Y.-T., Liao S.-C. Risk predictors for hypnosedative-related complex sleep behaviors. JClin Psychiatry 2010, 71:1331-1335.
139. Aurora R.N., Kristo D.A., Bista S.R., Rowley J.A., Zak R.S., Casey K.R., et al. Update to the AASM clinical practice guideline: "the treatment of restless legs syndrome and periodic limb movement disorder in adults-an update for 2012: practice parameters with an evidence-based systematic review and meta-analyses". Sleep 2012, 35:1037.
140. Allen R.P., Chen C., Garcia-Borreguero D., Polo O., DuBrava S., Miceli J., et al. Comparison of pregabalin with pramipexole for restless legs syndrome. NEngl J Med 2014, 370:621-631.
141. Montouris G. Gabapentin exposure in human pregnancy: results from the Gabapentin Pregnancy Registry. Epilepsy Behav 2003, 4:310-317.
142. Djokanovic N., Garcia-Bournissen F., Koren G. Medications for restless legs syndrome in pregnancy. JObstet Gynaecol Can 2008, 30:505-507.
143. Hernandez-Diaz S., Smith C.R., Shen A., Mittendorf R., Hauser W.A., Yerby M., et al. Comparative safety of antiepileptic drugs during pregnancy. Neurology 2012, 78:1692-1699.
144. Holmes L.B., Hernandez-Diaz S. Newer anticonvulsants: lamotrigine, topiramate and gabapentin. Birth Defects Res Part A Clin Mol Teratol 2012, 94:599-606.
145. Molgaard-Nielsen D., Hviid A. Newer-generation antiepileptic drugs and the risk of major birth defects. JAMA 2011, 305:1996-2002.
146. Eroglu Ç., Allen N.J., Susman M.W., O'Rourke N.A., Park C.Y., Özkan E., et al. Gabapentin receptor α2δ-1 is a neuronal thrombospondin receptor responsible for excitatory CNS synaptogenesis. Cell 2009, 139:380-392.
147. Linnebank M., Moskau S., Semmler A., Widman G., Stoffel-Wagner B., Weller M., et al. Antiepileptic drugs interact with folate and vitamin B12 serum levels. Ann Neurol 2011, 69:352-359.
148. Cheschier N. ACOG practice bulletin. Neural tube defects. Number 44, July 2003. (Replaces committee opinion number 252, March 2001). Int J Gynaecol Obstet 2003, 83:123-133.
149. Ohman I., Vitols S., Tomson T. Pharmacokinetics of gabapentin during delivery, in the neonatal period, and lactation: does a fetal accumulation occur during pregnancy?. Epilepsia 2005, 46:1621-1624.
150. Ohman I., Tomson T. Gabapentin kinetics during delivery, in the neonatal period, and during lactation. Epilepsia 2009, 50(Suppl.10):108.
151. Kristensen J.H., Ilett K.F., Hackett L.P., Kohan R. Gabapentin and breastfeeding: a case report. JHum Lact 2006, 22:426-428.
152. Serikawa T., Shimohata T., Akashi M., Yokoseki A., Tsuchiya M., Hasegawa A., et al. Successful twin pregnancy in a patient with parkin-associated autosomal recessive juvenile parkinsonism. BMC Neurol 2011, 11:72.
153. Watanabe T., Matsubara S., Baba Y., Tanaka H., Suzuki T., Suzuki M. Successful management of pregnancy in a patient with Segawa disease: case report and literature review. JObstet Gynaecol Res 2009, 35:562-564.
154. Dostal M., Weber-Schoendorfer C., Sobesky J., Schaefer C. Pregnancy outcome following use of levodopa, pramipexole, ropinirole, and rotigotine for restless legs syndrome during pregnancy: a case series. Eur J Neurol 2013, 20:1241-1246.
155. Trenkwalder C. Emergency call from gynecologists: how to treat restless legs syndrome during pregnancy?. Eur J Neurol 2013, 20:1223-1224.
156. Garcia-Borreguero D., Allen R.P., Kohnen R., Hogl B., Trenkwalder C., Oertel W., et al. Diagnostic standards for dopaminergic augmentation of restless legs syndrome: report from a World Association of Sleep Medicine-International Restless Legs Syndrome Study Group consensus conference at the Max Planck Institute. Sleep Med 2007, 8:520-530.
157. Mucchiut M., Belgrado E., Cutuli D., Antonini A., Bergonzi P. Pramipexole-treated Parkinson's disease during pregnancy. Mov Disord 2004, 19:1114-1115.
158. Andersohn F., Garbe E. Cardiac and noncardiac fibrotic reactions caused by ergot-and nonergot-derived dopamine agonists. Mov Disord 2009, 24:129-133.
159. Trenkwalder C., Benes H., Grote L., Garcia-Borreguero D., Hogl B., Hopp M., et al. Prolonged release oxycodone-naloxone for treatment of severe restless legs syndrome after failure of previous treatment: a double-blind, randomised, placebo-controlled trial with an open-label extension. Lancet Neurol 2013, 12:1141-1150.
160. Silver N., Allen R.P., Senerth J., Earley C.J. A10-year, longitudinal assessment of dopamine agonists and methadone in the treatment of restless legs syndrome. Sleep Med 2011, 12:440-444.
161. Walters A.S., Winkelmann J., Trenkwalder C., Fry J.M., Kataria V., Wagner M., et al. Long-term follow-up on restless legs syndrome patients treated with opioids. Mov Disord 2001, 16:1105-1109.
162. Broussard C.S., Rasmussen S.A., Reefhuis J., Friedman J.M., Jann M.W., Riehle-Colarusso T., et al. Maternal treatment with opioid analgesics and risk for birth defects. Am J Obstetrics Gynecol 2011, 204:314.e1-314.e11.
163. Brennan M.C., Rayburn W.F. Counseling about risks of congenital anomalies from prescription opioids. Birth Defects Res A Clin Mol Teratol 2012, 94:620-625.
164. Rayburn W.F., Brennan M.C. Periconception warnings about prescribing opioids. Am J Obstetrics Gynecol 2011, 204:281-282.
165. Jong G.W., Koren G. Maternal treatment with opioid analgesics and risk for birth defects. Am J Obstet Gynecol 2011, 205:e10. author reply e -1.
166. Nezvalova-Henriksen K., Spigset O., Nordeng H. Effects of codeine on pregnancy outcome: results from a large population-based cohort study. Eur J Clin Pharmacol 2011, 67:1253-1261.
167. Smith H.S. Opioid metabolism. Mayo Clin Proc 2009, 84:613-624.
168. U.S.Food and Drug Administration FDA drug safety communication: codeine use in certain children after tonsillectomy and/or adenoidectomy may lead to rare, but life threatening adverse events or death 2012, Available at:, [accessed 19.01.2014]. http://www.fda.gov/drugs/drugsafety/ucm313631.htm.
169. Andreassen T.N., Eftedal I., Klepstad P., Davies A., Bjordal K., Lundström S., et al. Do CYP2D6 genotypes reflect oxycodone requirements for cancer patients treated for cancer pain? A cross-sectional multicentre study. Eur J Clin Pharmacol 2011, 68:55-64.
170. Klimas R., Witticke D., El Fallah S., Mikus G. Contribution of oxycodone and its metabolites to the overall analgesic effect after oxycodone administration. Expert Opin Drug Metab Toxicol 2013, 9:517-528.
171. Timm N.L. Maternal use of oxycodone resulting in opioid intoxication in her breastfed neonate. JPediatr 2013, 162:421-422.
172. Lam J., Kelly L., Ciszkowski C., Landsmeer M.L., Nauta M., Carleton B.C., et al. Central nervous system depression of neonates breastfed by mothers receiving oxycodone for postpartum analgesia. JPediatr 2012, 160. 33-7 e2.
173. Sauberan J.B., Anderson P.O., Lane J.R., Rafie S., Nguyen N., Rossi S.S., et al. Breast milk hydrocodone and hydromorphone levels in mothers using hydrocodone for postpartum pain. Obstet Gynecol 2011, 117:611-617.
174. Hudak M.L., Tan R.C. Neonatal drug withdrawal. Pediatrics 2012, 129:e540-e560.
175. Patrick S.W., Schumacher R.E., Benneyworth B.D., Krans E.E., McAllister J.M., Davis M.M. Neonatal abstinence syndrome and associated health care expenditures: United States, 2000-2009. JAMA 2012, 307:1934-1940.
176. Burns L., Conroy E., Mattick R.P. Infant mortality among women on a methadone program during pregnancy. Drug Alcohol Rev 2010, 29:551-556.
177. Klonoff-Cohen H., Lam-Kruglick P. Maternal and paternal recreational drug use and sudden infant death syndrome. Arch Pediatr Adolesc Med 2001, 155:765-770.
178. Liew Z., Ritz B., Rebordosa C., Lee P.C., Olsen J. Acetaminophen use during pregnancy, behavioral problems, and hyperkinetic disorders. JAMA Pediatr 2014, 168:313-320.
179. Lauerma H., Markkula J. Treatment of restless legs syndrome with tramadol: an open study. JClin Psychiatry 1999, 60:241-244.
180. Bloor M., Paech M.J., Kaye R. Tramadol in pregnancy and lactation. Int J Obstet Anesth 2012, 21:163-167.
181. Ilett K.F., Paech M.J., Page-Sharp M., Sy S.K., Kristensen J.H., Goy R., et al. Use of a sparse sampling study design to assess transfer of tramadol and its O-desmethyl metabolite into transitional breast milk. Br J Clin Pharmacol 2008, 65:661-666.
182. Salman S., Sy S.K., Ilett K.F., Page-Sharp M., Paech M.J. Population pharmacokinetic modeling of tramadol and its O-desmethyl metabolite in plasma and breast milk. Eur J Clin Pharmacol 2011, 67:899-908.
183. Bossini L., Casolaro I., Koukouna D., Cecchini F., Fagiolini A. Off-label uses of trazodone: a review. Expert Opin Pharmacother 2012, 13:1707-1717.
184. Jindal R.D. Insomnia in patients with depression some pathophysiological and treatment considerations. CNS Drugs 2009, 23:309-329.
185. Becker P.M. Trazodone as a hypnotic in major depression. Sleep Med 2004, 5:7-8.
186. Wagner M.L., Walters A.S., Coleman R.G., Hening W.A., Grasing K., Chokroverty S. Randomized, double-blind, placebo-controlled study of clonidine in restless legs syndrome. Sleep 1996, 19:52-58.
187. Einarson A., Choi J., Einarson T.R., Koren G. Incidence of major malformations in infants following antidepressant exposure in pregnancy: results of a large prospective cohort study. Can J Psychiatry 2009, 54:242-246.
188. Horvath J.S., Phippard A., Korda A., Henderson-Smart D.J., Child A., Tiller D.J. Clonidine hydrochloride-a safe and effective antihypertensive agent in pregnancy. Obstet Gynecol 1985, 66:634-638.
189. Verbeeck R.K., Ross S.G., McKenna E.A. Excretion of trazodone in breast milk. Br J Clin Pharmacol 1986, 22:367-370.
190. Khazaie H., Ghadami M.R., Knight D.C., Emamian F., Tahmasian M. Insomnia treatment in the third trimester of pregnancy reduces postpartum depression symptoms: a randomized clinical trial. Psychiatry Res 2013, 210:901-905.
191. Werler M.M., Ahrens K.A., Bosco J.L.F., Mitchell A.A., Anderka M.T., Gilboa S.M., et al. Use of antiepileptic medications in pregnancy in relation to risks of birth defects. Ann Epidemiol 2011, 21:842-850.
192. Yonkers K.A., Wisner K.L., Stewart D.E., Oberlander T.F., Dell D.L., Stotland N., et al. The management of depression during pregnancy: a report from the American Psychiatric Association and the American College of Obstetricians and Gynecologists. General Hosp Psychiatry 2009, 31:403-413.
193. Koren G., Nordeng H. Antidepressant use during pregnancy; the benefit- risk ratio. Am J Obstetrics Gynecol 2012, 207:157-163.
194. Bennett H.A., Einarson A., Taddio A., Koren G., Einarson T.R. Prevalence of depression during pregnancy: systematic review. Obstet Gynecol 2004, 103:698-709.
195. Grote N.K., Bridge J.A., Gavin A.R., Melville J.L., Iyengar S., Katon W.J. Ameta-analysis of depression during pregnancy and the risk of preterm birth, low birth weight, and intrauterine growth restriction. Arch Gen Psychiatry 2010, 67:1012-1024.
196. Kurki T., Hiilesmaa V., Raitasalo R., Mattila H., Ylikorkala O. Depression and anxiety in early pregnancy and risk for preeclampsia. Obstet Gynecol 2000, 95:487-490.
197. Wisner K.L., Sit D.K., Hanusa B.H., Moses-Kolko E.L., Bogen D.L., Hunker D.F., et al. Major depression and antidepressant treatment: impact on pregnancy and neonatal outcomes. Am J Psychiatry 2009, 166:557-566.
198. Cho S.J., Hong J.P., Hahm B.J., Jeon H.J., Chang S.M., Cho M.J., et al. Restless legs syndrome in a community sample of Korean adults: prevalence, impact on quality of life, and association with DSM-IV psychiatric disorders. Sleep 2009, 32:1069-1076.
199. Winkelmann J., Prager M., Lieb R., Pfister H., Spiegel B., Wittchen H.U., et al. "Anxietas Tibiarum" depression and anxiety disorders in patients with restless legs syndrome. JNeurol 2005, 252:67-71.
200. Lee H.B., Hening W.A., Allen R.P., Kalaydjian A.E., Earley C.J., Eaton W.W., et al. Restless legs syndrome is associated with DSM-IV major depressive disorder and panic disorder in the community. JNeuropsychiatry Clin Neurosci 2008, 20:101-105.
201. Broman J.E., Mallon L., Hetta J. Restless legs syndrome and its relationship with insomnia symptoms and daytime distress: epidemiological survey in Sweden. Psychiatry Clin Neurosci 2008, 62:472-475.
202. Sevim S., Dogu O., Kaleagasi H., Aral M., Metin O., Camdeviren H. Correlation of anxiety and depression symptoms in patients with restless legs syndrome: a population based survey. JNeurol Neurosurg Psychiatry 2004, 75:226-230.
203. Winkelman J.W., Finn L., Young T. Prevalence and correlates of restless legs syndrome symptoms in the Wisconsin Sleep Cohort. Sleep Med 2006, 7:545-552.
204. Benes H., Mattern W., Peglau I., Dreykluft T., Bergmann L., Hansen C., et al. Ropinirole improves depressive symptoms and restless legs syndrome severity in RLS patients: a multicentre, randomized, placebo-controlled study. J Neurol. 2011, 258:1046-1054.
205. Montagna P., Hornyak M., Ulfberg J., Hong S.B., Koester J., Crespi G., et al. Randomized trial of pramipexole for patients with restless legs syndrome (RLS) and RLS-related impairment of mood. Sleep Med 2011, 12:34-40.
206. Picchietti D., Winkelman J.W. Restless legs syndrome, periodic limb movements in sleep, and depression. Sleep 2005, 28:891-898.
207. Rottach K.G., Schaner B.M., Kirch M.H., Zivotofsky A.Z., Teufel L.M., Gallwitz T., et al. Restless legs syndrome as side effect of second generation antidepressants. JPsychiatr Res 2008, 43:70-75.
208. Yang C., White D.P., Winkelman J.W. Antidepressants and periodic leg movements of sleep. Biol Psychiatry 2005, 58:510-514.
209. Fulda S., Kloiber S., Dose T., Lucae S., Holsboer F., Schaaf L., et al. Mirtazapine provokes periodic leg movements during sleep in young healthy men. Sleep 2013, 36:661-669.
210. Bayard M., Bailey B., Acharya D., Ambreen F., Duggal S., Kaur T., et al. Bupropion and restless legs syndrome: a randomized controlled trial. JAm Board Fam Med 2011, 24:422-428.
211. Nofzinger E.A., Fasiczka A., Berman S., Thase M.E. Bupropion SR reduces periodic limb movements associated with arousals from sleep in depressed patients with periodic limb movement disorder. JClin Psychiatry 2000, 61:858-862.
212. Alwan S., Reefhuis J., Botto L.D., Rasmussen S.A., Correa A., Friedman J.M. Maternal use of bupropion and risk for congenital heart defects. Am J Obstet Gynecol 2010, 203(52):e1-6.
213. Cole J.A., Modell J.G., Haight B.R., Cosmatos I.S., Stoler J.M., Walker A.M. Bupropion in pregnancy and the prevalence of congenital malformations. Pharmacoepidemiol Drug Saf 2007, 16:474-484.
214. Chun-Fai-Chan B., Koren G., Fayez I., Kalra S., Voyer-Lavigne S., Boshier A., et al. Pregnancy outcome of women exposed to bupropion during pregnancy: a prospective comparative study. Am J Obstet Gynecol 2005, 192:932-936.
215. Figueroa R. Use of antidepressants during pregnancy and risk of attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder in the offspring. JDev Behav Pediatr 2010, 31:641-648.
216. Milberger S., Biederman J., Faraone S.V., Chen L., Jones J. Is maternal smoking during pregnancy a risk factor for attention deficit hyperactivity disorder in children?. Am J Psychiatry 1996, 153:1138-1142.
217. Sun X., Ioannidis J.P., Agoritsas T., Alba A.C., Guyatt G. How to use a subgroup analysis: users' guide to the medical literature. JAMA 2014, 311:405-411.
218. Chaudron L.H., Schoenecker C.J. Bupropion and breastfeeding: a case of a possible infant seizure. JClin Psychiatry 2004, 65:881-882.
219. Haas J.S., Kaplan C.P., Barenboim D., Jacob P., Benowitz N.L. Bupropion in breast milk: an exposure assessment for potential treatment to prevent post-partum tobacco use. Tob Control 2004, 13:52-56.
220. Harden C.L., Pennell P.B., Koppel B.S., Hovinga C.A., Gidal B., Meador K.J., et al. Practice parameter update: management issues for women with epilepsy - focus on pregnancy (an evidence-based review): Vitamin K, folic acid, blood levels, and breastfeeding: report of the Quality Standards Subcommittee and Therapeutics and Technology Assessment Subcommittee of the American Academy of Neurology and American Epilepsy Society. Neurology 2009, 73:142-149.