A review of epidemiologic studies of low-level exposures to organophosphorus insecticides in non-occupational populations

Critical Reviews in Toxicology

Volumn 45, Issue 7, 2015, Pages 531-641

  Reiss, Richard ^a   Chang, Ellen T ^a,b   Richardson, Rudy J ^c,d   Goodman, Michael ^e  

^a EXPONENT INC   (United States)

^b STANFORD UNIVERSITY   (United States)

^c UNIVERSITY OF MICHIGAN   (United States)

^d UNIVERSITY OF MICHIGAN MEDICAL SCHOOL   (United States)

^e EMORY UNIVERSITY   (United States)

Author keywords

Bradford Hill; Epidemiology; Insecticides; Organophosphorus; Pesticides

Indexed keywords

CHOLINESTERASE; ORGANOPHOSPHATE INSECTICIDE; ACETYLCHOLINESTERASE; INSECTICIDE; ORGANOPHOSPHORUS COMPOUND; POLLUTANT;

AIR MONITORING; BIRTH WEIGHT; CHOLINERGIC SYNAPSE; CHOLINESTERASE BLOOD LEVEL; DOSE RESPONSE; ELIMINATION HALF-LIFE; ENVIRONMENTAL EXPOSURE; ENZYME INHIBITION; EPIDEMIOLOGY; ESTRUS CYCLE; FEMALE; FETUS GROWTH; GENOTYPE; GESTATIONAL AGE; HEAD CIRCUMFERENCE; HEALTH STATUS; HUMAN; LIMIT OF DETECTION; LONG TERM MEMORY; OUTCOME ASSESSMENT; PREGNANCY; PREGNANCY OUTCOME; PSYCHOMOTOR DEVELOPMENT; REVIEW; RISK ASSESSMENT; UMBILICAL CORD BLOOD; URINE LEVEL; URINE VOLUME; ADVERSE EFFECTS; ANIMAL; DRUG EFFECTS; METABOLISM; NEWBORN; POLLUTANT; TOXICITY;

ACETYLCHOLINESTERASE; ANIMALS; ENVIRONMENTAL EXPOSURE; ENVIRONMENTAL POLLUTANTS; FEMALE; HUMANS; INFANT, NEWBORN; INSECTICIDES; ORGANOPHOSPHORUS COMPOUNDS; PREGNANCY; PREGNANCY OUTCOME;

EID: 84936742751     PISSN: 10408444     EISSN: 15476898     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.3109/10408444.2015.1043976     Document Type: Review

References (118)

1. Abu-Saad K, Fraser D. (2010). Maternal nutrition and birth outcomes. Epidemiol Rev, 32, 5-25.
2. Andres RL, Day MC. (2000). Perinatal complications associated with maternal tobacco use. Semin Neonatol, 5, 231-41.
3. Anjos T, Altmae S, Emmett P, Tiemeier H, Closa-Monasterolo R, Luque V, et al. (2013). Nutrition and neurodevelopment in children: focus on NUTRIMENTHE project. Eur J Nutr, 52, 1825-42.
4. Attfield KR, Hughes MD, Spengler JD, Lu C. (2014). Within-and betweenchild variation in repeated urinary pesticide metabolite measurements over a 1-year period. Environ Health Perspect, 122, 201-6.
5. Aviram M, Vaya J. (2013). Paraoxonase 1 activities, regulation, and interactions with atherosclerotic lesion. Curr Opin Lipidol, 24, 339-44.
6. Barr DB, Ananth CV, Yan X, Lashley S, Smulian JC, Ledoux TA, et al. (2010). Pesticide concentrations in maternal and umbilical cord sera and their relation to birth outcomes in a population of pregnant women and newborns in New Jersey. Sci Total Environ, 408, 790-5.
7. Berkowitz GS, Wetmur JG, Birman-Deych E, Obel J, Lapinski RH, Godbold JH, et al. (2004). In utero pesticide exposure, maternal paraoxonase activity, and head circumference. Environ Health Perspect, 112, 388-91.
8. Berman T, Goldsmith R, Goen T, Spungen J, Novack L, Levine H, et al. (2013). Urinary concentrations of organophosphate pesticide metabolites in adults in Israel: demographic and dietary predictors. Environ Int, 60, 183-9.
9. Bliddal M, Olsen J, Stovring H, Eriksen HL, Kesmodel US, Sorensen TI, Nohr EA. (2014). Maternal pre-pregnancy BMI and intelligence quotient (IQ) in 5-year-old children: a cohort based study. PLoS One, 9, e94498.
10. Boon PE, Van der Voet H, Van Raaij MT, Van Klaveren JD. (2008). Cumulative risk assessment of the exposure to organophosphorus and carbamate insecticides in the Dutch diet. Food Chem Toxicol, 46, 3090-8.
11. Bouchard M, Gosselin NH, Brunet RC, Samuel O, Dumoulin MJ, Carrier G. (2003). A toxicokinetic model of malathion and its metabolites as a tool to assess human exposure and risk through measurements of urinary biomarkers. Toxicol Sci, 73, 182-94.
12. Bouchard MF, Bellinger DC, Wright RO, Weisskopf MG. (2010). Attention-defi cit/hyperactivity disorder and urinary metabolites of organophosphate pesticides. Pediatrics, 125, e1270-7.
13. Bouchard MF, Chevrier J, Harley KG, Kogut K, Vedar M, Calderon N, et al. (2011). Prenatal exposure to organophosphate pesticides and IQ in 7-year-old children. Environ Health Perspect, 119, 1189-95.
14. Bradman A, Eskenazi B, Barr DB, Bravo R, Castorina R, Chevrier J, et al. (2005). Organophosphate urinary metabolite levels during pregnancy and after delivery in women living in an agricultural community. Environ Health Perspect, 113, 1802-7.
15. Bradman A, Kogut K, Eisen EA, Jewell NP, Quiros-Alcala L, Castorina R, et al. (2013). Variability of organophosphorous pesticide metabolite levels in spot and 24-hr urine samples collected from young children during 1 week. Environ Health Perspect, 121, 118-24.
16. Burkhalter TM, Hillman CH. (2011). A narrative review of physical activity, nutrition, and obesity to cognition and scholastic performance across the human lifespan. Adv Nutr, 2, 201S-6S.
17. Burns CJ, McIntosh LJ, Mink PJ, Jurek AM, Li AA. (2013). Pesticide exposure and neurodevelopmental outcomes: review of the epidemiologic and animal studies. J Toxicol Environ Health B Crit Rev, 16, 127-283.
18. Cantor KP, Blair A, Everett G, Gibson R, Burmeister LF, Brown LM, et al. (1992). Pesticides and other agricultural risk factors for non-Hodgkin ' s lymphoma among men in Iowa and Minnesota. Cancer Res, 52, 2447-55.
19. Carr RL, Adams AL, Kepler DR, Ward AB, Ross MK. (2013). Induction of endocannabinoid levels in juvenile rat brain following developmental chlorpyrifos exposure. Toxicol Sci, 135, 193-201.
20. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC). (2014). National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey. CDC Website. http://www. cdc.gov/nchs/nhanes.htm.
21. Chen L, Zhao T, Pan C, Ross J, Ginevan M, Vega H, Krieger R. (2013). Absorption and excretion of organophosphorous insecticide biomarkers of malathion in the rat: implications for overestimation bias and exposure misclassifi cation from environmental biomonitoring. Regul Toxicol Pharmacol, 65, 287-93.
22. Chen L, Zhao T, Pan C, Ross JH, Krieger RI. (2012). Preformed biomarkers including dialkylphosphates (DAPs) in produce may confound biomonitoring in pesticide exposure and risk assessment. J Agric Food Chem, 60, 9342-51.
23. Claeys WL, De Voghel S, Schmit JF, Vromman V, Pussemier L. (2008). Exposure assessment of the Belgian population to pesticide residues through fruit and vegetable consumption. Food Addit Contam Part A Chem Anal Control Expo Risk Assess, 25, 851-63.
24. Coombes RH, Meek EC, Dail MB, Chambers HW, Chambers JE. (2014). Human paraoxanase 1 hydrolysis of nanomolar chlorpyrifos-oxon concentrations is unaff ected by phenotype or Q192R genotype. Toxicol Lett, 230, 57-61.
25. Curl CL, Fenske RA, Elgethun K. (2003). Organophosphorous pesticide exposure of urban and suburban preschool children with organic and conventional diets. Environ Health Perspect, 111, 377-82.
26. Dickersin K, Min YI. (1993). Publication bias: the problem that won ' t go away. Ann NY Acad Sci, 703, 135-46; discussion 146-138.
27. Duggan A, Charnley G, Chen W, Chukwudebe A, Hawk R, Krieger RL, et al. 2003. Dialkylphosphate biomonitoring data: assessing cumulative exposure to organophosphate pesticides. Regul Toxicol Pharmacol, 37, 382-95.
28. Dwan K, Altman DG, Arnaiz JA, Bloom J, Chan AW, Cronin E, et al. (2008). Systematic review of the empirical evidence of study publication bias and outcome reporting bias. PLoS One, 3, e3081.
29. Gonzales ET, Bauer SB. (1999). Pediatric urology practice. Philadelphia, PA: Lippincott Williams, & Wilkins.
30. Eaton DL, Daroff RB, Autrup H, Bridges J, Buffl er P, Costa LG, et al. (2008). Review of the toxicology of chlorpyrifos with an emphasis on human exposure and neurodevelopment. Crit Rev Toxicol, 38, 1-125.
31. Eddleston M, Buckley NA, Eyer P, Dawson AH. (2008). Management of acute organophosphorus pesticide poisoning. Lancet, 371, 597-607.
32. Engel SM, Berkowitz GS, Barr DB, Teitelbaum SL, Siskind J, Meisel SJ, et al. (2007). Prenatal organophosphate metabolite and organochlorine levels and performance on the Brazelton Neonatal Behavioral Assessment Scale in a multiethnic pregnancy cohort. Am J Epidemiol, 165, 1397-404.
33. Engel SM, Wetmur J, Chen J, Zhu C, Barr DB, Canfi eld RL, Wolff MS. (2011). Prenatal exposure to organophosphates, paraoxonase 1, and cognitive development in childhood. Environ Health Perspect, 119, 1182-8.
34. Eskenazi B, Harley K, Bradman A, Weltzien E, Jewell NP, Barr DB, et al. (2004). Association of in utero organophosphate pesticide exposure and fetal growth and length of gestation in an agricultural population. Environ Health Perspect, 112, 1116-24.
35. Eskenazi B, Huen K, Marks A, Harley KG, Bradman A, Barr DB, Holland N. (2010). PON1 and neurodevelopment in children from the CHAMACOS study exposed to organophosphate pesticides in utero. Environ Health Perspect, 118, 1775-81.
36. Eskenazi B, Marks AR, Bradman A, Harley K, Barr DB, Johnson C, et al. (2007). Organophosphate pesticide exposure and neurodevelopment in young Mexican-American children. Environ Health Perspect, 115, 792-8.
37. Ferioli A, Maroni M. (2011). Biological monitoring. In: La Ferla F, Lauwerys RR, eds. Encyclopedia of Occupational Health and Safety. Geneva, Switzerland: International Labor Organization.
38. Fortenberry GZ, Meeker JD, Sanchez BN, Barr DB, Panuwet P, Bellinger D, et al. (2014). Urinary 3, 5, 6-trichloro-2-pyridinol (TCPY) in pregnant women from Mexico City: distribution, temporal variability, and relationship with child attention and hyperactivity. Int J Hyg Environ Health, 217, 405-12.
39. Garfitt SJ, Jones K, Mason HJ, Cocker J. (2002). Exposure to the organophosphate diazinon: data from a human volunteer study with oral and dermal doses. Toxicol Lett, 134, 105-13.
40. Giles D, Dickson J. (2000). A randomized double blind ascending single oral dose study with malathion to determine the no effect level on plasma and RBC cholinesterase activity. Tranent, Scotland: Inveresk Research
41. Glickman ME, Rao SR, Schultz MR. (2014). False discovery rate control is a recommended alternative to Bonferroni-type adjustments in health studies. J Clin Epidemiol, 67, 850-7.
42. Gonzales ET, Bauer SB. (1999). Pediatric urology practice. Philadelphia, PA: Lippincott Williams & Wilkins.
43. Goodman R, Scott S. (1999). Comparing the strengths and diffi culties questionnaire and the child behavior checklist: is small beautiful? J Abnorm Child Psychol, 27, 17-24.
44. Gordis L. (2013). Epidemiology. 5th ed. Philadelphia: Elsevier.
45. Griffith W, Curl CL, Fenske RA, Lu CA, Vigoren EM, Faustman EM. (2011). Organophosphate pesticide metabolite levels in pre-school children in an agricultural community: within-and between-child variability in a longitudinal study. Environ Res, 111, 751-6.
46. Guodong D, Pei W, Ying T, Jun Z, Yu G, Xiaojin W, et al. (2012). Organophosphate pesticide exposure and neurodevelopment in young Shanghai children. Environ Sci Technol, 46, 2911-7.
47. Harley KG, Huen K, Aguilar Schall R, Holland NT, Bradman A, Barr DB, Eskenazi B. (2011). Association of organophosphate pesticide exposure and paraoxonase with birth outcome in Mexican-American women. PLoS One, 6, e23923.
48. Hill AB. (1965). The environment and disease: association or causation?. Proc R Soc Med, 58, 295-300.
49. Horton MK, Kahn LG, Perera F, Barr DB, Rauh V. (2012). Does the home environment and the sex of the child modify the adverse eff ects of prenatal exposure to chlorpyrifos on child working memory? Neurotoxicol Teratol, 34, 534-41.
50. Jensen AF, Petersen A, Granby K. (2003). Cumulative risk assessment of the intake of organophosphorus and carbamate pesticides in the Danish diet. Food Addit Contam, 20, 776-85.
51. Jensen BH, Petersen A, Christensen T. (2009). Probabilistic assessment of the cumulative dietary acute exposure of the population of Denmark to organophosphorus and carbamate pesticides. Food Addit Contam Part A Chem Anal Control Expo Risk Assess, 26, 1038-48.
52. Jurek AM, Greenland S, Maldonado G. (2008). How far from nondiff erential does exposure or disease misclassifi cation have to be to bias measures of association away from the null? Int J Epidemiol, 37, 382-5.
53. Jurek AM, Greenland S, Maldonado G, Church TR. (2005). Proper interpretation of non-diff erential misclassifi cation eff ects: expectations vs observations. Int J Epidemiol, 34, 680-7.
54. Krasowski MD, Mcgehee DS, Moss J. (1997). Natural inhibitors of cholinesterases: implications for adverse drug reactions. Can J Anaesth, 44, 525-34.
55. Krieger RI, Chen L, Ginevan M, Watkins D, Cochran RC, Driver JH, Ross JH. 2012. Implications of estimates of residential organophosphate exposure from dialkylphosphates (DAPs) and their relevance to risk. Regul Toxicol Pharmacol, 64, 263-66.
56. Kyzas PA, Denaxa-Kyza D, Ioannidis JP. (2007). Almost all articles on cancer prognostic markers report statistically signifi cant results. Europ J Cancer, 43, 2559-2579.
57. Lefkowitz LJ, Kupina JM, Hirth NL, Henry RM, Noland GY, Barbee JYJ, et al. (2007). Intraindividual stability of human erythrocyte cholinesterase activity. Clin Chem, 53, 1358-1363.
58. Lester BM, Tronick EZ, Brazelton TB. (2004). The Neonatal Intensive Care Unit Network Neurobehavioral Scale procedures. Pediatrics, 113, 641-67.
59. Li B, Sedlacek M, Manoharan I, Boopathy R, Duysen EG, Masson P, Lockridge O (2005). Butyrylcholinesterase, paraoxonase, and albumin esterase, but not carboxylesterase, are present in human plasma. Biochem Pharmacol, 70, 1673-1684.
60. Li AA, Lowe KA, McIntosh LJ, Mink PJ. (2012). Evaluation of epidemiology and animal data for risk assessment: chlorpyrifos developmental neurobehavioral outcomes. J Toxicol Environ Health B Crit Rev, 15, 109-84.
61. Lizardi PS, O ' Rourke MK, Morris RJ. (2008). The eff ects of organophosphate pesticide exposure on Hispanic children ' s cognitive and behavioral functioning. J Pediatr Psychol, 33, 91-101.
62. Lovasi GS, Quinn JW, Rauh VA, Perera FP, Andrews HF, Garfinkel R, et al. (2011). Chlorpyrifos exposure and urban residential environment characteristics as determinants of early childhood neurodevelopment. Am J Public Health, 101, 63-70.
63. Lu C, Barr DB, Pearson MA, Waller LA. (2008). Dietary intake and its contribution to longitudinal organophosphorus pesticide exposure in urban/suburban children. Environ Health Perspect, 116, 537-42.
64. Macharia M, Kengne AP, Blackhurst DM, Erasmus RT, Matsha TE. (2014). The impact of chronic untreated hyperglycaemia on the longterm stability of paraoxonase 1 (PON1) and antioxidant status in human sera. J Clin Pathol, 67, 55-9.
65. Medina JL, Reinicke K, Simpfendfer R, Roa A, Oliveros H, Bardisa L, Rudolph MI. (1993). Characterization and distribution of cholinesterase activity in mouse uterine horns: changes in estrous cycle. Comp Biochem Phys C, 106, 473-78.
66. Marks AR, Harley K, Bradman A, Kogut K, Barr DB, Johnson C, et al. (2010). Organophosphate pesticide exposure and attention in young Mexican-American children: the CHAMACOS study. Environ Health Perspect, 118, 1768-74.
67. Marshall NE, Spong CY. (2012). Obesity, pregnancy complications, and birth outcomes. Semin Reprod Med, 30, 465-71.
68. Mason JB, Saldanha LS, Ramakrishnan U, Lowe A, Noznesky EA, Girard AW, et al. (2012). Opportunities for improving maternal nutrition and birth outcomes: synthesis of country experiences. Food Nutr Bull, 33, S104-37.
69. McDaniel CY, Dail MB, Wills RW, Chambers HW, Chambers JE. (2014) Paraoxonase 1 polymorphisms within a Mississippi USA population as possible biomarkers of enzyme activities associated with disease susceptibility. Biochem Genet, 52, 509-23.
70. Mileson BE, Chambers JE, Chen WL, Dettbarn W, Ehrich M, Eldefrawi AT, et al. (1998) Common mechanism of toxicity: a case study of organophosphorus pesticides. Toxicol Sci, 41, 8-20.
71. Millichap JG, Yee MM. (2012). The diet factor in attentiondefi cit/hyperactivity disorder. Pediatrics, 129, 330-7.
72. Mink PJ, Kimmel CA, Li AA. (2012). Potential eff ects of chlorpyrifos on fetal growth outcomes: implications for risk assessment. J Toxicol Env Heal B, 15, 281-316.
73. Morgan MK, Sheldon LS, Jones PA, Croghan CW, Chuang JC, Wilson NK. (2011). The reliability of using urinary biomarkers to estimate children ' s exposures to chlorpyrifos and diazinon. J Expo Sci Environ Epidemiol, 21, 280-90.
74. Neggers YH, Goldenberg RL, Ramey SL, Cliver SP. (2003). Maternal prepregnancy body mass index and psychomotor development in children. Acta Obstet Gynecol Scand, 82, 235-40.
75. Nougadere A, Sirot V, Kadar A, Fastier A, Truchot E, Vergnet C, et al. (2012). Total diet study on pesticide residues in France: levels in food as consumed and chronic dietary risk to consumers. Environ Int, 45, 135-50.
76. Oulhote Y, Bouchard MF. (2013). Urinary metabolites of organophosphate and pyrethroid pesticides and behavioral problems in Canadian children. Environ Health Perspect, 121, 1378-84.
77. Ozarowski M, Mikolajczak PL, Bogacz A, Gryszczynska A, Kujawska M, Jodynis-Liebert J, et al. (2013). Rosmarinus officinalis L. leaf extract improves memory impairment and aff ects acetylcholinesterase and butyrylcholinesterase activities in rat brain. Fitoterapia, 91, 261-71.
78. Perera FP, Rauh V, Tsai WY, Kinney P, Camann D, Barr D, et al. (2003). Effects of transplacental exposure to environmental pollutants on birth outcomes in a multiethnic population. Environ Health Perspect, 111, 201-5.
79. Quiros-Alcala L, Alkon AD, Boyce WT, Lippert S, Davis NV, Bradman A, et al. (2011). Maternal prenatal and child organophosphate pesticide exposures and children ' s autonomic function. Neurotoxicology, 32, 646-55.
80. Rauch SA, Braun JM, Barr DB, Calafat AM, Khoury J, Montesano AM, et al. (2012). Associations of prenatal exposure to organophosphate pesticide metabolites with gestational age and birth weight. Environ Health Perspect, 120, 1055-60.
81. Rauh V, Arunajadai S, Horton M, Perera F, Hoepner L, Barr DB, Whyatt R. (2011). Seven-year neurodevelopmental scores and prenatal exposure to chlorpyrifos, a common agricultural pesticide. Environ Health Perspect, 119, 1196-201.
82. Rauh VA, Garfinkel R, Perera FP, Andrews HF, Hoepner L, Barr DB, et al. (2006). Impact of prenatal chlorpyrifos exposure on neurodevelopment in the fi rst 3 years of life among inner-city children. Pediatrics, 118, e1845-59.
83. Rauh VA, Perera FP, Horton MK, Whyatt RM, Bansal R, Hao X, et al. (2012). Brain anomalies in children exposed prenatally to a common organophosphate pesticide. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA, 109, 7871-6.
84. Reiss R. (2012). Benchmark dose modeling for an omethoate acute comparative cholinesterase study in neonatal and adult rats. Prepared for Cheminova, Inc. Exponent report number VA10532.000 B0T0 0212 RR22.
85. Rice D, Barone S Jr. (2000). Critical periods of vulnerability for the developing nervous system: evidence from humans and animal models. Environ Health Perspect, 108, 511-33.
86. Rothman KJ, Greenland S, Lash TL. (2012). Modern epidemiology. 3rd ed. (revised). Philadelphia, PA: Lippincott Williams & Wilkins Sandjaja
87. Poh BK, Rojroonwasinkul N, Le Nyugen BK, Budiman B, Ng LO, et al. (2013). Relationship between anthropometric indicators and cognitive performance in Southeast Asian school-aged children. Br J Nutr, 110, S57-64.
88. Schrader C, Rimbach G. (2011). Determinants of paraoxonase 1 status: genes, drugs and nutrition. Curr Med Chem, 18, 5624-43.
89. Sexton K, Ryan AD. (2012) Using exposure biomarkers in children to compare between-child and within-child variance and calculate correlations among siblings for multiple environmental chemicals. J Expo Sci Environ Epidemiol, 22, 16-23.
90. Slotkin TA, Seidler FJ. (2007). Comparative developmental neurotoxicity of organophosphates in vivo: transcriptional responses of pathways for brain cell development, cell signaling, cytotoxicity and neurotransmitter systems. Brain Res Bull, 72, 232-74.
91. Smithers LG, Lynch JW, Yang S, Dahhou M, Kramer MS. (2013). Impact of neonatal growth on IQ and behavior at early school age. Pediatrics, 132, e53-60.
92. Solecki R. (2002). Pesticide residues in food-2002-joint FAO/WHO meeting on pesticide residues-acephate. IPCS International Program on Chemical Safety [Online] Available At: http://www.Inchem.Org/Documents/Jmpr/Jmpmono/2002pr02.Htm. Accessed on 14 July 2014.
93. Sorahan T, Gilthorpe MS. (1994). Non-diff erential misclassifi cation of exposure always leads to an underestimate of risk: an incorrect conclusion. Occup Environ Med, 51, 839-40.
94. Strmberg U, Bjrk J, Broberg K, Mertens F, Vineis P. (2008). Selection of influential genetic markers among a large number of candidates based on eff ect estimation rather than hypothesis testing: an approach for genome-wide association studies. Epidemiology, 19, 302-8.
95. Sudakin DL, Stone DL. (2011). Dialkyl phosphates as biomarkers of organophosphates: the current divide between epidemiology and clinical toxicology. Clin Toxicol, 49, 771-81.
96. Timchalk C, Nolan RJ, Mendrala AL, Dittenber DA, Brzak KA, Mattsson JL. (2002). A Physiologically based pharmacokinetic and pharmacodynamic (PBPK/PD) model for the organophosphate insecticide chlorpyrifos in rats and humans. Toxicol Sci, 66, 34-53.
97. U.S. Department of Agriculture (USDA). (2014). Pesticide data program. annual summary, calendar year 2012. In: Agriculture USDO (ed.). Washington, DC: U.S. Department of Agriculture.
98. U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (EPA). (2009a). Dimethoate: human health assessment scoping document in support of registration review.
99. USEPA Office of Pesticide Program, U.S Environmental Protection Agency (EPA). 2009b. Registration eligibility decision (RED) for malathion. USEPA Offi ce of Pesticide Program
100. U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (EPA). (2005). Dimethoate and omethoate: comparative toxicity and determination of toxicity adjustment factors. (addendum to HED nos. 0050651 and 0050901)
101. USEPA Ofice of Pesticide Programs, U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (EPA). (2011). Chlorpyrifos: preliminary human health risk assessment for registration review.
102. USEPA Ofi ce of Pesticide Programs (ed.), US Environmental Protection Agency (EPA). (2002). Guidance on cumulative risk assessment of pesticide chemicals that have a common mechanism of toxicity.
103. USEPA Ofice of Pesticide Programs, US Environmental Protection Agency (EPA). (2000). Office of pesticide programs science policy on the use of data on cholinesterase inhibition for risk assessments of organophosphorous and carbamate pesticides. USEPA Office of Pesticide Programs.
104. Wacholder S, Chanock S, Garcia-Closas M, El Ghormli L, Rothman N. (2004). Assessing the probability that a positive report is false: an approach for molecular epidemiology studies. J Natl Cancer Inst, 96, 434-42.
105. Wacholder S, Hartge P, Lubin JH, Dosemeci M. (1995). Non-diff erential misclassifi cation and bias towards the null: a clarifi cation. Occup Environ Med, 52, 557-8.
106. Wakefield J. (2007). A Bayesian measure of the probability of false discovery in genetic epidemiology studies. Am J Hum Genet, 81, 208-27.
107. Wang P, Tian Y, Wang XJ, Gao Y, Shi R, Wang GQ, et al. (2012). Organophosphate pesticide exposure and perinatal outcomes in Shanghai, China. Environ Int, 42, 100-4.
108. Weitkunat R, Kaelin E, Vuillaume G, Kallischnigg G. ( 2010). Eff ectiveness of strategies to increase the validity of fi ndings from association studies: size vs. replication. BMC Med Res Methodol, 10, 47.
109. World Health Organization (WHO). (1996). Biological monitoring of chemical exposure in the workplace. guidelines. volume 1. WHO/HPR/OCH 96.1. Geneva.
110. Whyatt RM, Camann D, Perera FP, Rauh VA, Tang D, Kinney PL, et al. (2005). Biomarkers in assessing residential insecticide exposures during pregnancy and eff ects on fetal growth. Toxicol Appl Pharmacol, 206, 246-54.
111. Whyatt RM, Camann DE, Kinney PL, Reyes A, Ramirez J, Dietrich J, et al. (2002). Residential pesticide use during pregnancy among a cohort of urban minority women. Environ Health Perspect, 110, 507-14.
112. Whyatt RM, Rauh V, Barr DB, Camann DE, Andrews HF, Garfinkel R, et al. (2004). Prenatal insecticide exposures and birth weight and length among an urban minority cohort. Environ Health Perspect, 112, 1125-32.
113. Wickerham EL, Lozoff B, Shao J, Kaciroti N, Xia Y, Meeker JD. (2012). Reduced birth weight in relation to pesticide mixtures detected in cord blood of full-term infants. Environ Int, 47, 80-5.
114. Wolff MS, Engel S, Berkowitz G, Teitelbaum S, Siskind J, Barr DB, Wetmur J. (2007). Prenatal pesticide and PCB exposures and birth outcomes. Pediatr Res, 61, 243-50.
115. Yang D, Lauridsen H, Buels K, Chi LH, La Du J, Brunn DA, et al. (2011). Chlorpyrifos-oxon disrupts zebrafi sh axonal growth and motor behavior. Toxicol Sci, 121, 146-59.
116. Ye X, Pierik FH, Hauser R, Duty S, Angerer J, Park MM, et al. (2008). Urinary metabolite concentrations of organophosphorous pesticides, bisphenol A, and phthalates among pregnant women in Rotterdam, the Netherlands: the Generation R study. Environ Res, 108, 260-7.
117. Yolton K, Xu Y, Sucharew H, Succop P, Altaye M, Popelar A, et al. (2013). Impact of low-level gestational exposure to organophosphate pesticides on neurobehavior in early infancy: a prospective study. Environ Health, 12, 79.
118. Young JG, Eskenazi B, Gladstone EA, Bradman A, Pedersen L, Johnson C, et al. (2005). Association between in utero organophosphate pesticide exposure and abnormal reflexes in neonates. Neurotoxicology, 26, 199-209.