How sex and age affect immune responses, susceptibility to infections, and response to vaccination

Aging Cell

Volumn 14, Issue 3, 2015, Pages 309-321

  Giefing Kröll, Carmen ^a   Berger, Peter ^a   Lepperdinger, Günter ^a   Grubeck Loebenstein, Beatrix ^a  

^a UNIVERSITY OF INNSBRUCK   (Austria)

Author keywords

Hormone replacement; Immunosenescence; Infectious diseases; Menopause; Sex differences; Vaccination

Indexed keywords

DIPHTHERIA VACCINE; ESTRADIOL; HEPATITIS B VACCINE; HERPES SIMPLEX VACCINE; INFLUENZA VACCINE; PNEUMOCOCCUS VACCINE; SEX HORMONE; TESTOSTERONE; TETANUS TOXOID;

ADAPTIVE IMMUNITY; AGING; DIPHTHERIA; HEPATITIS B; HERPES SIMPLEX; HUMAN; IMMUNE RESPONSE; IMMUNOCOMPETENCE; INFECTION; INFECTION SENSITIVITY; INFLUENZA; INFLUENZA VACCINATION; INNATE IMMUNITY; LIFE EXPECTANCY; MENOPAUSE; MORTALITY; NONHUMAN; PNEUMOCOCCAL INFECTION; POSTMENOPAUSE; PRIORITY JOURNAL; REVIEW; SEX DIFFERENCE; TETANUS; VACCINATION; ANIMAL; DISEASE PREDISPOSITION; IMMUNOLOGY; METABOLISM; PHYSIOLOGY;

AGING; ANIMALS; DISEASE SUSCEPTIBILITY; GONADAL STEROID HORMONES; HUMANS; MENOPAUSE; SEX FACTORS; VACCINATION;

EID: 84927911989     PISSN: 14749718     EISSN: 14749726     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1111/acel.12326     Document Type: Review

References (214)

1. Addo MM, Altfeld M (2014) Sex-based differences in HIV type 1 pathogenesis. J. Infect. Dis. 209(Suppl 3), S86-S92.
2. Ademokun A, Wu YC, Dunn-Walters D (2010) The ageing B cell population: composition and function. Biogerontology 11, 125-137.
3. Aggarwal R, Kumar R, Pal R, Naik S, Semwal SN, Naik SR (2002) Role of travel as a risk factor for hepatitis E virus infection in a disease-endemic area. Indian J. Gastroenterol. 21, 14-18.
4. Agrawal A, Gupta S (2011) Impact of aging on dendritic cell functions in humans. Ageing Res. Rev. 10, 336-345.
5. Al-Azzawi F, Palacios S (2009) Hormonal changes during menopause. Maturitas 63, 135-137.
6. Albrecht AE, Hartmann BW, Scholten C, Huber JC, Kalinowska W, Zielinski CC (1996) Effect of estrogen replacement therapy on natural killer cell activity in postmenopausal women. Maturitas 25, 217-222.
7. Alter MJ, Kruszon-Moran D, Nainan OV, McQuillan GM, Gao F, Moyer LA, Kaslow RA, Margolis HS (1999) The prevalence of hepatitis C virus infection in the United States, 1988 through 1994. N. Engl. J. Med. 341, 556-562.
8. Amadori A, Zamarchi R, De Silvestro G, Forza G, Cavatton G, Danieli GA, Clementi M, Chieco-Bianchi L (1995) Genetic control of the CD4/CD8 T-cell ratio in humans. Nat. Med. 1, 1279-1283.
9. Annunziata K, Rak A, Del Buono H, DiBonaventura M, Krishnarajah G (2012) Vaccination rates among the general adult population and high-risk groups in the United States. PLoS ONE 7, e50553.
10. Arnold CR, Wolf J, Brunner S, Herndler-Brandstetter D, Grubeck-Loebenstein B (2011) Gain and loss of T cell subsets in old age-age-related reshaping of the T cell repertoire. J. Clin. Immunol. 31, 137-146.
11. + regulatory T cells during the follicular phase of the menstrual cycle: implications for human reproduction. J. Immunol. 178, 2572-2578.
12. Ashcroft GS, Greenwell-Wild T, Horan MA, Wahl SM, Ferguson MW (1999) Topical estrogen accelerates cutaneous wound healing in aged humans associated with an altered inflammatory response. Am. J. Pathol. 155, 1137-1146.
13. Aune B, Oian P, Omsjo I, Osterud B (1995) Hormone replacement therapy reduces the reactivity of monocytes and platelets in whole blood-a beneficial effect on atherogenesis and thrombus formation? Am. J. Obstet. Gynecol. 173, 1816-1820.
14. Austad SN (2006) Why women live longer than men: sex differences in longevity. Gend. Med. 3, 79-92.
15. Baden R, Rockstroh JK, Buti M (2014) Natural history and management of hepatitis C: does sex play a role? J. Infect. Dis. 209(Suppl 3), S81-S85.
16. Baig S (2009) Gender disparity in infections of Hepatitis B virus. J. Coll. Physicians Surg. Pak. 19, 598-600.
17. Banga N, Guss P, Banga A, Rosenman KD (2014) Incidence and variables associated with inadequate antibody titers after pre-exposure rabies vaccination among veterinary medical students. Vaccine 32, 979-983.
18. Bayas JM, Vilella A, Bertran MJ, Vidal J, Batalla J, Asenjo MA, Salleras LL (2001) Immunogenicity and reactogenicity of the adult tetanus-diphtheria vaccine. How many doses are necessary? Epidemiol. Infect. 127, 451-460.
19. Berg G, Ekerfelt C, Hammar M, Lindgren R, Matthiesen L, Ernerudh J (2002) Cytokine changes in postmenopausal women treated with estrogens: a placebo-controlled study. Am. J. Reprod. Immunol. 48, 63-69.
20. Bernin H, Lotter H (2014) Sex bias in the outcome of human tropical infectious diseases: influence of steroid hormones. J. Infect. Dis. 209(Suppl 3), S107-S113.
21. Beyer WE, Palache AM, Kerstens R, Masurel N (1996) Gender differences in local and systemic reactions to inactivated influenza vaccine, established by a meta-analysis of fourteen independent studies. Eur. J. Clin. Microbiol. Infect. Dis. 15, 65-70.
22. Bhasin S, Pencina M, Jasuja GK, Travison TG, Coviello A, Orwoll E, Wang PY, Nielson C, Wu F, Tajar A, Labrie F, Vesper H, Zhang A, Ulloor J, Singh R, D'Agostino R, Vasan RS (2011) Reference ranges for testosterone in men generated using liquid chromatography tandem mass spectrometry in a community-based sample of healthy nonobese young men in the Framingham Heart Study and applied to three geographically distinct cohorts. J. Clin. Endocrinol. Metab. 96, 2430-2439.
23. Bhavanam S, Snider DP, Kaushic C (2008) Intranasal and subcutaneous immunization under the effect of estradiol leads to better protection against genital HSV-2 challenge compared to progesterone. Vaccine 26, 6165-6172.
24. Blatter M, Friedland LR, Weston WM, Li P, Howe B (2009) Immunogenicity and safety of a tetanus toxoid, reduced diphtheria toxoid and three-component acellular pertussis vaccine in adults 19-64 years of age. Vaccine 27, 765-772.
25. Booy R, Khandaker G, Heron LG, Yin J, Doyle B, Tudo KK, Hueston L, Gilbert GL, Macintyre CR, Dwyer DE (2011) Cross-reacting antibodies against the pandemic (H1N1) 2009 influenza virus in older Australians. Med. J. Aust. 194, 19-23.
26. Boraschi D, Aguado MT, Dutel C, Goronzy J, Louis J, Grubeck-Loebenstein B, Rappuoli R, Del Giudice G (2013) The gracefully aging immune system. Sci. Transl. Med. 5, 185ps188.
27. Bouman A, Heineman MJ, Faas MM (2005) Sex hormones and the immune response in humans. Hum. Reprod. Updat. 11, 411-423.
28. Brandao AP, de Oliveira TC, de Cunto Brandileone MC, Goncalves JE, Yara TI, Simonsen V (2004) Persistence of antibody response to pneumococcal capsular polysaccharides in vaccinated long term-care residents in Brazil. Vaccine 23, 762-768.
29. Briggs DJ, Dreesen DW, Nicolay U, Chin JE, Davis R, Gordon C, Banzhoff A (2000) Purified Chick Embryo Cell Culture Rabies Vaccine: interchangeability with Human Diploid Cell Culture Rabies Vaccine and comparison of one versus two-dose post-exposure booster regimen for previously immunized persons. Vaccine 19, 1055-1060.
30. Butterworth M, McClellan B, Allansmith M (1967) Influence of sex in immunoglobulin levels. Nature 214, 1224-1225.
31. Calippe B, Douin-Echinard V, Laffargue M, Laurell H, Rana-Poussine V, Pipy B, Guery JC, Bayard F, Arnal JF, Gourdy P (2008) Chronic estradiol administration in vivo promotes the proinflammatory response of macrophages to TLR4 activation: involvement of the phosphatidylinositol 3-kinase pathway. J. Immunol. 180, 7980-7988.
32. Calzoari A (1898) Recherches experimentales sur un rapport probable entre la function du thymus et celle de testicules. Arch. Ital. Biol. 30, 71-77.
33. CDC (2003) Tetanus surveillance-United States, 1998-2000. MMWR 52, 1-8 (No. SS-3).
34. CDC (2011) Tetanus surveillance-United States, 2001-2008. MMWR 60, 365-369.
35. Chen XQ, Bulbul M, de Gast GC, van Loon AM, Nalin DR, van Hattum J (1997) Immunogenicity of two versus three injections of inactivated hepatitis A vaccine in adults. J. Hepatol. 26, 260-264.
36. Cherry JD (1984) The epidemiology of pertussis and pertussis immunization in the United Kingdom and the United States: a comparative study. Curr. Probl. Pediatr. 14, 1-78.
37. Chor JSY, Ngai KL, Goggins WB, Wong MCS, Wong SYS, Lee N, Leung T-f, Rainer TH, Griffiths S, Chan PKS (2009) Willingness of Hong Kong Healthcare Workers to Accept Pre-Pandemic Influenza Vaccination at Different WHO Alert Levels: Two Questionnaire Surveys. BMJ 339:b3391.
38. Clifton VL (2010) Review: Sex and the human placenta: mediating differential strategies of fetal growth and survival. Placenta 31(Suppl), S33-S39.
39. Cohn AC, MacNeil JR, Harrison LH, Hatcher C, Theodore J, Schmidt M, Pondo T, Arnold KE, Baumbach J, Bennett N, Craig AS, Farley M, Gershman K, Petit S, Lynfield R, Reingold A, Schaffner W, Shutt KA, Zell ER, Mayer LW, Clark T, Stephens D, Messonnier NE (2010) Changes in Neisseria meningitidis disease epidemiology in the United States, 1998-2007: implications for prevention of meningococcal disease. Clin. Infect. Dis. 50, 184-191.
40. Cook IF (2008) Sexual dimorphism of humoral immunity with human vaccines. Vaccine 26, 3551-3555.
41. Cook IF (2009) Sex differences in injection site reactions with human vaccines. Hum. Vaccines 5, 441-449.
42. Cook IF, Barr I, Hartel G, Pond D, Hampson AW (2006) Reactogenicity and immunogenicity of an inactivated influenza vaccine administered by intramuscular or subcutaneous injection in elderly adults. Vaccine 24, 2395-2402.
43. Cook IF, Pond D, Hartel G (2007) Comparative reactogenicity and immunogenicity of 23 valent pneumococcal vaccine administered by intramuscular or subcutaneous injection in elderly adults. Vaccine 25, 4767-4774.
44. Corbel MJ (2006) Brucellosis in humans and animals. WHO/CDS/EPR, ISBN 92 4 154713 8.
45. Corey L, Langenberg AG, Ashley R, Sekulovich RE, Izu AE, Douglas JM Jr, Handsfield HH, Warren T, Marr L, Tyring S, DiCarlo R, Adimora AA, Leone P, Dekker CL, Burke RL, Leong WP, Straus SE (1999) Recombinant glycoprotein vaccine for the prevention of genital HSV-2 infection: two randomized controlled trials. Chiron HSV Vaccine Study Group. JAMA 282, 331-340.
46. Couch RB, Winokur P, Brady R, Belshe R, Chen WH, Cate TR, Sigurdardottir B, Hoeper A, Graham IL, Edelman R, He F, Nino D, Capellan J, Ruben FL (2007) Safety and immunogenicity of a high dosage trivalent influenza vaccine among elderly subjects. Vaccine 25, 7656-7663.
47. Dauer C (1943) Reported whooping cough morbidity and mortality in the United States. Public Health Rep. 58, 661-676.
48. Deacon WJ (1924) A study of the incidence, mortality and fatality of diphtheria. Am. J. Public Health 14, 404-408.
49. Deguchi K, Kamada M, Irahara M, Maegawa M, Yamamoto S, Ohmoto Y, Murata K, Yasui T, Yamano S, Aono T (2001) Postmenopausal changes in production of type 1 and type 2 cytokines and the effects of hormone replacement therapy. Menopause 8, 266-273.
50. Dentico P, Buongiorno R, Volpe A, Zavoianni A, Pastore G, Schiraldi O (1992) Long-term immunogenicity safety and efficacy of a recombinant hepatitis B vaccine in healthy adults. Eur. J. Epidemiol. 8, 650-655.
51. Dittmann S, Wharton M, Vitek C, Ciotti M, Galazka A, Guichard S, Hardy I, Kartoglu U, Koyama S, Kreysler J, Martin B, Mercer D, Rønne T, Roure C, Steinglass R, Strebel P, Sutter R, Trostle M (2000) Successful control of epidemic diphtheria in the States of the Former Union of Soviet Socialist Republics: lessons learned. J. Infect. Dis. 181, S10-S22.
52. Dworkin MS, Park L, Borchardt SM (2007) The changing epidemiology of invasive Haemophilus influenzae Disease, Especially in Persons ≥65 Years Old. Clin. Infect. Dis. 44, 810-816.
53. Edwards KM, Burns VE, Adkins AE, Carroll D, Drayson M, Ring C (2008) Meningococcal A vaccination response is enhanced by acute stress in men. Psychosom. Med. 70, 147-151.
54. Engelmann F, Barron A, Urbanski H, Neuringer M, Kohama SG, Park B, Messaoudi I (2011) Accelerated immune senescence and reduced response to vaccination in ovariectomized female rhesus macaques. Age 33, 275-289.
55. Engler RJ, Nelson MR, Klote MM, VanRaden MJ, Huang CY, Cox NJ, Klimov A, Keitel WA, Nichol KL, Carr WW, Treanor JJ (2008) Half- vs full-dose trivalent inactivated influenza vaccine (2004-2005): age, dose, and sex effects on immune responses. Arch. Intern. Med. 168, 2405-2414.
56. Eshima N, Tokumaru O, Hara S, Bacal K, Korematsu S, Karukaya S, Uruma K, Okabe N, Matsuishi T (2012) Age-specific sex-related differences in infections: a statistical analysis of national surveillance data in Japan. PLoS ONE 7, e42261.
57. Falsey AR, Treanor JJ, Tornieporth N, Capellan J, Gorse GJ (2009) Randomized, double-blind controlled phase 3 trial comparing the immunogenicity of high-dose and standard-dose influenza vaccine in adults 65 years of age and older. J. Infect. Dis. 200, 172-180.
58. Filia A, Bella A, von Hunolstein C, Pinto A, Alfarone G, Declich S, Rota MC (2013) Tetanus in Italy 2001-2010: a continuing threat in older adults. Vaccine 32, 639-644.
59. Fish EN (2008) The X-files in immunity: sex-based differences predispose immune responses. Nat. Rev. Immunol. 8, 737-744.
60. Flanagan KL (2014) Sexual dimorphism in biomedical research: a call to analyse by sex. Trans. R. Soc. Trop. Med. Hyg. 108, 385-387.
61. Fleming DT, McQuillan GM, Johnson RE, Nahmias AJ, Aral SO, Lee FK, St Louis ME (1997) Herpes simplex virus type 2 in the United States, 1976 to 1994. N. Engl. J. Med. 337, 1105-1111.
62. Frank C, Werber D, Cramer JP, Askar M, Faber M, an der Heiden M, Bernard H, Fruth A, Prager R, Spode A, Wadl M, Zoufaly A, Jordan S, Kemper MJ, Follin P, Muller L, King LA, Rosner B, Buchholz U, Stark K, Krause G, Team HUSI (2011) Epidemic profile of Shiga-toxin-producing Escherichia coli O104:H4 outbreak in Germany. N. Engl. J. Med. 365, 1771-1780.
63. Furman D, Hejblum BP, Simon N, Jojic V, Dekker CL, Thiebaut R, Tibshirani RJ, Davis MM (2014) Systems analysis of sex differences reveals an immunosuppressive role for testosterone in the response to influenza vaccination. Proc. Natl Acad. Sci. USA 111, 869-874.
64. Gannon CJ, Pasquale M, Tracy JK, McCarter RJ, Napolitano LM (2004) Male gender is associated with increased risk for postinjury pneumonia. Shock 21, 410-414.
65. Garenne M (1994) Sex differences in measles mortality: a world review. Int. J. Epidemiol. 23, 632-642.
66. Gavazzi G, Krause KH (2002) Ageing and infection. Lancet Infect. Dis. 2, 659-666.
67. Geller SE, Koch A, Pellettieri B, Carnes M (2011) Inclusion, analysis, and reporting of sex and race/ethnicity in clinical trials: have we made progress? J. Womens Health (2002) 20, 315-320.
68. Gergen PJ, McQuillan GM, Kiely M, Ezzati-Rice TM, Sutter RW, Virella G (1995) A population-based serologic survey of immunity to tetanus in the United States. N. Engl. J. Med. 332, 761-766.
69. Giglio T, Imro MA, Filaci G, Scudeletti M, Puppo F, De Cecco L, Indiveri F, Costantini S (1994) Immune cell circulating subsets are affected by gonadal function. Life Sci. 54, 1305-1312.
70. Giron-Gonzalez JA, Moral FJ, Elvira J, Garcia-Gil D, Guerrero F, Gavilan I, Escobar L (2000) Consistent production of a higher TH1:TH2 cytokine ratio by stimulated T cells in men compared with women. Eur. J. Endocrinol. 143, 31-36.
71. Goetzl EJ, Huang MC, Kon J, Patel K, Schwartz JB, Fast K, Ferrucci L, Madara K, Taub DD, Longo DL (2010) Gender specificity of altered human immune cytokine profiles in aging. FASEB J. 24, 3580-3589.
72. Goldblatt D, Southern J, Andrews N, Ashton L, Burbidge P, Woodgate S, Pebody R, Miller E (2009) The immunogenicity of 7-valent pneumococcal conjugate vaccine versus 23-valent polysaccharide vaccine in adults aged 50-80 years. Clin. Infect. Dis. 49, 1318-1325.
73. Goldenberg RL, Andrews WW, Faye-Petersen OM, Goepfert AR, Cliver SP, Hauth JC (2006) The Alabama Preterm Birth Study: intrauterine infection and placental histologic findings in preterm births of males and females less than 32 weeks. Am. J. Obstet. Gynecol. 195, 1533-1537.
74. Gonzalez DA, Diaz BB, Rodriguez Perez Mdel C, Hernandez AG, Chico BN, de Leon AC (2010) Sex hormones and autoimmunity. Immunol. Lett. 133, 6-13.
75. Govaert TM, Dinant GJ, Aretz K, Masurel N, Sprenger MJ, Knottnerus JA (1993) Adverse reactions to influenza vaccine in elderly people: randomised double blind placebo controlled trial. BMJ 307, 988-990.
76. Green MS, Shohat T, Lerman Y, Cohen D, Slepon R, Duvdevani P, Varsano N, Dagan R, Mendelson E (1994) Sex differences in the humoral antibody response to live measles vaccine in young adults. Int. J. Epidemiol. 23, 1078-1081.
77. Greinacher A, Friesecke S, Abel P, Dressel A, Stracke S, Fiene M, Ernst F, Selleng K, Weissenborn K, Schmidt BMW, Schiffer M, Felix SB, Lerch MM, Kielstein JT, Mayerle J (2011) Treatment of severe neurological deficits with IgG depletion through immunoadsorption in patients with Escherichia coli O104:H4-associated haemolytic uraemic syndrome: a prospective trial. Lancet 378, 1166-1173.
78. Grubeck-Loebenstein B, Berger P, Saurwein-Teissl M, Zisterer K, Wick G (1998) No immunity for the elderly. Nat. Med. 4, 870.
79. Grundbacher FJ (1972) Human X chromosome carries quantitative genes for immunoglobulin M. Science 176, 311-312.
80. Guerra-Silveira F, Abad-Franch F (2013) Sex bias in infectious disease epidemiology: patterns and processes. PLoS ONE 8, e62390.
81. Gutierrez F, Masia M, Mirete C, Soldan B, Rodriguez JC, Padilla S, Hernandez I, Royo G, Martin-Hidalgo A (2006) The influence of age and gender on the population-based incidence of community-acquired pneumonia caused by different microbial pathogens. J. Infect. 53, 166-174.
82. Hainz U, Jenewein B, Asch E, Pfeiffer KP, Berger P, Grubeck-Loebenstein B (2005) Insufficient protection for healthy elderly adults by tetanus and TBE vaccines. Vaccine 23, 3232-3235.
83. Hao S, Zhao J, Zhou J, Zhao S, Hu Y, Hou Y (2007) Modulation of 17β-estradiol on the number and cytotoxicity of NK cells in vivo related to MCM and activating receptors. Int. Immunopharmacol. 7, 1765-1775.
84. Hasselhorn HM, Nubling M, Tiller FW, Hofmann F (1997) [Diphtheria booster immunization for adults]. Dtsch. Med. Wochenschr. (1946) 122, 281-286.
85. Hazeldine J, Arlt W, Lord JM (2010) Dehydroepiandrosterone as a regulator of immune cell function. J. Steroid Biochem. Mol. Biol. 120, 127-136.
86. Hellenbrand W, Beier D, Jensen E, Littmann M, Meyer C, Oppermann H, Wirsing von Konig C-H, Reiter S (2009) The epidemiology of pertussis in Germany: past and present. BMC Infect. Dis. 9, 22.
87. Hirokawa K, Utsuyama M, Hayashi Y, Kitagawa M, Makinodan T, Fulop T (2013) Slower immune system aging in women versus men in the Japanese population. Immun. Ageing 10, 19.
88. Höhler T, Groeger-Bicanic G, Hoet B, Stoffel M (2007) Antibody persistence and immune memory elicited by combined hepatitis A and B vaccination in older adults. Vaccine 25, 1503-1508.
89. Holmes CB, Hausler H, Nunn P (1998) A review of sex differences in the epidemiology of tuberculosis. Int. J. Tuberc. Lung Dis. 2, 96-104.
90. Hoschler K, Thompson C, Andrews N, Galiano M, Pebody R, Ellis J, Stanford E, Baguelin M, Miller E, Zambon M (2012) Seroprevalence of influenza A(H1N1)pdm09 virus antibody, England, 2010 and 2011. Emerg. Infect. Dis. 18, 1894-1897.
91. Hughes GC, Thomas S, Li C, Kaja M-K, Clark EA (2008) Cutting edge: progesterone regulates IFN-α production by plasmacytoid dendritic cells. J. Immunol. 180, 2029-2033.
92. Hui SL, Chu LW, Peiris JS, Chan KH, Chu D, Tsui W (2006) Immune response to influenza vaccination in community-dwelling Chinese elderly persons. Vaccine 24, 5371-5380.
93. Jackson LA, Austin G, Chen RT, Stout R, DeStefano F, Gorse GJ, Newman FK, Yu O, Weniger BG (2001) Safety and immunogenicity of varying dosages of trivalent inactivated influenza vaccine administered by needle-free jet injectors. Vaccine 19, 4703-4709.
94. Jacobson DL, Gange SJ, Rose NR, Graham NM (1997) Epidemiology and estimated population burden of selected autoimmune diseases in the United States. Clin. Immunol. Immunopathol. 84, 223-243.
95. Jasuja GK, Travison TG, Davda M, Murabito JM, Basaria S, Zhang A, Kushnir MM, Rockwood AL, Meikle W, Pencina MJ, Coviello A, Rose AJ, D'Agostino R, Vasan RS, Bhasin S (2013) Age trends in estradiol and estrone levels measured using liquid chromatography tandem mass spectrometry in community-dwelling men of the Framingham Heart Study. J. Gerontol. A Biol. Sci. Med. Sci. 68, 733-740.
96. Jentsch-Ullrich K, Koenigsmann M, Mohren M, Franke A (2005) Lymphocyte subsets' reference ranges in an age- and gender-balanced population of 100 healthy adults-A monocentric German study. Clin. Immunol. 116, 192-197.
97. Kamada M, Irahara M, Maegawa M, Yasui T, Takeji T, Yamada M, Tezuka M, Kasai Y, Aono T (2000) Effect of hormone replacement therapy on post-menopausal changes of lymphocytes and T cell subsets. J. Endocrinol. Invest. 23, 376-382.
98. Kamada M, Irahara M, Maegawa M, Ohmoto Y, Takeji T, Yasui T, Aono T (2001a) Postmenopausal changes in serum cytokine levels and hormone replacement therapy. Am. J. Obstet. Gynecol. 184, 309-314.
99. Kamada M, Irahara M, Maegawa M, Yasui T, Yamano S, Yamada M, Tezuka M, Kasai Y, Deguchi K, Ohmoto Y, Aono T (2001b) B cell subsets in postmenopausal women and the effect of hormone replacement therapy. Maturitas 37, 173-179.
100. Kennedy RB, Ovsyannikova IG, Pankratz VS, Vierkant RA, Jacobson RM, Ryan MA, Poland GA (2009) Gender effects on humoral immune responses to smallpox vaccine. Vaccine 27, 3319-3323.
101. Khattab MA, Eslam M (2012) The impact of host factors on management of hepatitis C virus. Hepat. Mon. 12, 235-241.
102. Khurana S, Verma N, Talaat KR, Karron RA, Golding H (2012) Immune response following H1N1pdm09 vaccination: differences in antibody repertoire and avidity in young adults and elderly populations stratified by age and gender. J. Infect. Dis. 205, 610-620.
103. Klein SL (2004) Hormonal and immunological mechanisms mediating sex differences in parasite infection. Parasite Immunol. 26, 247-264.
104. Klein SL, Pekosz A (2014) Sex-based biology and the rational design of influenza vaccination strategies. J. Infect. Dis. 209, S114-S119.
105. Klein SL, Jedlicka A, Pekosz A (2010a) The Xs and Y of immune responses to viral vaccines. Lancet Infect. Dis 10, 338-349.
106. Klein SL, Passaretti C, Anker M, Olukoya P, Pekosz A (2010b) The impact of sex, gender and pregnancy on 2009 H1N1 disease. Biol. Sex Differ. 1, 5.
107. Klein SL, Pekosz A, Passaretti C, Anker M, Olukoya P (2010c) Sex, Gender and Influenza. Geneva: World Health Organization, pp. 1-58.
108. Klein SL, Marks MA, Li W, Glass GE, Fang LQ, Ma JQ, Cao WC (2011) Sex differences in the incidence and case fatality rates from hemorrhagic fever with renal syndrome in China, 2004-2008. Clin. Infect. Dis. 52, 1414-1421.
109. Klein SL, Hodgson A, Robinson DP (2012) Mechanisms of sex disparities in influenza pathogenesis. J. Leukoc. Biol. 92, 67-73.
110. Klismanic Z, Juretic KB, Tripkovic I (2013) Epidemiological characteristics of invasive meningococcal disease in the Split-Dalmatia County 1996-2010. Acta Clin. Croat. 52, 485-491.
111. Kozlowski PA, Williams SB, Lynch RM, Flanigan TP, Patterson RR, Cu-Uvin S, Neutra MR (2002) Differential induction of mucosal and systemic antibody responses in women after nasal, rectal, or vaginal immunization: influence of the menstrual cycle. J. Immunol. 169, 566-574.
112. Kramer PR, Kramer SF, Guan G (2004) 17 beta-estradiol regulates cytokine release through modulation of CD16 expression in monocytes and monocyte-derived macrophages. Arthritis Rheum. 50, 1967-1975.
113. Krasnicka B (2010) Evaluation of the Immunogenicity, Safety, Reactogenicity, Effectiveness and Lot Consistency of Menveo. Food and Drug Administration, pp. 1-42. URL http://www.fda.gov/downloads/BiologicsBloodVaccines/Vaccines/ApprovedProducts/UCM210777.pdf [accessed on 7 October 2014].
114. Kumru S, Godekmerdan A, Yilmaz B (2004) Immune effects of surgical menopause and estrogen replacement therapy in peri-menopausal women. J. Reprod. Immunol. 63, 31-38.
115. Kumru S, Yildiz FM, Godekmerdan A, Kutlu S, Yilmaz B, Gurates B (2008) Effects of raloxifene and hormone replacement therapy on serum Th2 and Th3 type cytokine concentrations in healthy postmenopausal women: a randomised controlled trial. Arch. Gynecol. Obstet. 277, 489-493.
116. Leimkugel J, Hodgson A, Forgor AA, Pfluger V, Dangy JP, Smith T, Achtman M, Gagneux S, Pluschke G (2007) Clonal waves of Neisseria colonisation and disease in the African meningitis belt: eight- year longitudinal study in northern Ghana. PLoS Med. 4, e101.
117. Lewis HC, Boisson S, Ijaz S, Hewitt K, Ngui SL, Boxall E, Teo CG, Morgan D (2008) Hepatitis E in England and Wales. Emerg. Infect. Dis. 14, 165-167.
118. Libert C, Dejager L, Pinheiro I (2010) The X chromosome in immune functions: when a chromosome makes the difference. Nat. Rev. Immunol. 10, 594-604.
119. Lozano R, Naghavi M, Foreman K, Lim S, Shibuya K, Aboyans V, Abraham J, Adair T, Aggarwal R, Ahn SY, Alvarado M, Anderson HR, Anderson LM, Andrews KG, Atkinson C, Baddour LM, Barker-Collo S, Bartels DH, Bell ML, Benjamin EJ, Bennett D, Bhalla K, Bikbov B, Bin Abdulhak A, Birbeck G, Blyth F, Bolliger I, Boufous S, Bucello C, Burch M, Burney P, Carapetis J, Chen H, Chou D, Chugh SS, Coffeng LE, Colan SD, Colquhoun S, Colson KE, Condon J, Connor MD, Cooper LT, Corriere M, Cortinovis M, de Vaccaro KC, Couser W, Cowie BC, Criqui MH, Cross M, Dabhadkar KC, Dahodwala N, De Leo D, Degenhardt L, Delossantos A, Denenberg J, Des Jarlais DC, Dharmaratne SD, Dorsey ER, Driscoll T, Duber H, Ebel B, Erwin PJ, Espindola P, Ezzati M, Feigin V, Flaxman AD, Forouzanfar MH, Fowkes FG, Franklin R, Fransen M, Freeman MK, Gabriel SE, Gakidou E, Gaspari F, Gillum RF, Gonzalez-Medina D, Halasa YA, Haring D, Harrison JE, Havmoeller R, Hay RJ, Hoen B, Hotez PJ, Hoy D, Jacobsen KH, James SL, Jasrasaria R, Jayaraman S, Johns N, Karthikeyan G, Kassebaum N, Keren A, Khoo JP, Knowlton LM, Kobusingye O, Koranteng A, Krishnamurthi R, Lipnick M, Lipshultz SE, Ohno SL, Mabweijano J, MacIntyre MF, Mallinger L, March L, Marks GB, Marks R, Matsumori A, Matzopoulos R, Mayosi BM, McAnulty JH, McDermott MM, McGrath J, Mensah GA, Merriman TR, Michaud C, Miller M, Miller TR, Mock C, Mocumbi AO, Mokdad AA, Moran A, Mulholland K, Nair MN, Naldi L, Narayan KM, Nasseri K, Norman P, O'Donnell M, Omer SB, Ortblad K, Osborne R, Ozgediz D, Pahari B, Pandian JD, Rivero AP, Padilla RP, Perez-Ruiz F, Perico N, Phillips D, Pierce K, Pope CA 3rd, Porrini E, Pourmalek F, Raju M, Ranganathan D, Rehm JT, Rein DB, Remuzzi G, Rivara FP, Roberts T, De Leon FR, Rosenfeld LC, Rushton L, Sacco RL, Salomon JA, Sampson U, Sanman E, Schwebel DC, Segui-Gomez M, Shepard DS, Singh D, Singleton J, Sliwa K, Smith E, Steer A, Taylor JA, Thomas B, Tleyjeh IM, Towbin JA, Truelsen T, Undurraga EA, Venketasubramanian N, Vijayakumar L, Vos T, Wagner GR, Wang M, Wang W, Watt K, Weinstock MA, Weintraub R, Wilkinson JD, Woolf AD, Wulf S, Yeh PH, Yip P, Zabetian A, Zheng ZJ, Lopez AD, Murray CJ, AlMazroa MA, Memish ZA (2012) Global and regional mortality from 235 causes of death for 20 age groups in 1990 and 2010: a systematic analysis for the Global Burden of Disease Study 2010. Lancet 380, 2095-2128.
120. Magdei M, Melnic A, Benes O, Bukova V, Chicu V, Sohotski V, Bass A (2000) Epidemiology and control of diphtheria in the Republic of Moldova, 1946-1996. J. Infect. Dis. 181(Suppl 1), S47-S54.
121. Mahbub S, Brubaker AL, Kovacs EJ (2011) Aging of the innate immune system: an update. Curr. Immunol. Rev. 7, 104-115.
122. Marlovits S, Stocker R, Efstratiou A, Broughton K, Kaider A, Vecsei V, Kollaritsch H (2000) Effect on diphtheria immunity of combined tetanus and diphtheria booster vaccination in adults. Eur. J. Clin. Microbiol. Infect. Dis. 19, 506-513.
123. Marttila S, Jylhävä J, Nevalainen T, Nykter M, Jylhä M, Hervonen A, Tserel L, Peterson P, Hurme M (2013) Transcriptional analysis reveals gender-specific changes in the aging of the human immune system. PLoS ONE 8, e66229.
124. Marvell DM, Parish HJ (1940) Tetanus prophylaxis and circulating antitoxin in men and women. Br. Med. J. 2, 891-895.
125. McCartney G, Mahmood L, Leyland AH, Batty GD, Hunt K (2011) Contribution of smoking-related and alcohol-related deaths to the gender gap in mortality: evidence from 30 European countries. Tob. Control 20, 166-168.
126. McGuiness CB, Hill J, Fonseca E, Hess G, Hitchcock W, Krishnarajah G (2013) The disease burden of pertussis in adults 50 years old and older in the United States: a retrospective study. BMC Infect. Dis. 13, 32.
127. Meier A, Chang JJ, Chan ES, Pollard RB, Sidhu HK, Kulkarni S, Wen TF, Lindsay RJ, Orellana L, Mildvan D, Bazner S, Streeck H, Alter G, Lifson JD, Carrington M, Bosch RJ, Robbins GK, Altfeld M (2009) Sex differences in the Toll-like receptor-mediated response of plasmacytoid dendritic cells to HIV-1. Nat. Med. 15, 955-959.
128. Mo R, Chen J, Grolleau-Julius A, Murphy HS, Richardson BC, Yung RL (2005) Estrogen regulates CCR gene expression and function in T lymphocytes. J. Immunol. 174, 6023-6029.
129. Mohllajee AP, Curtis KM, Martins SL, Peterson HB (2006) Hormonal contraceptive use and risk of sexually transmitted infections: a systematic review. Contraception 73, 154-165.
130. Monath TP, Nichols R, Archambault WT, Moore L, Marchesani R, Tian J, Shope RE, Thomas N, Schrader R, Furby D, Bedford P (2002) Comparative safety and immunogenicity of two yellow fever 17D vaccines (ARILVAX and YF-VAX) in a phase III multicenter, double-blind clinical trial. Am. J. Trop. Med. Hyg. 66, 533-541.
131. Morley JE, Kaiser FE, Perry Iii HM, Patrick P, Morley PMK, Stauber PM, Vellas B, Baumgartner RN, Garry PJ (1997) Longitudinal changes in testosterone, luteinizing hormone, and follicle-stimulating hormone in healthy older men. Metabolism 46, 410-413.
132. Morris CA, Oliver PR, Reynolds F, Selkon JB (1989) Intradermal hepatitis B immunization with yeast-derived vaccine: serological response by sex and age. Epidemiol. Infect. 103, 387-394.
133. Nekrassova LS, Chudnaya LM, Marievski VF, Oksiuk VG, Gladkaya E, Bortnitska II, Mercer DJ, Kreysler JV, Golaz A (2000) Epidemic diphtheria in Ukraine, 1991-1997. J. Infect. Dis. 181(Suppl 1), S35-S40.
134. Neyrolles O, Quintana-Murci L (2009) Sexual inequality in tuberculosis. PLoS Med. 6, e1000199.
135. Nguyen DC, Masseoud F, Lu X, Scinicariello F, Sambhara S, Attanasio R (2011) 17beta-Estradiol restores antibody responses to an influenza vaccine in a postmenopausal mouse model. Vaccine 29, 2515-2518.
136. Nhamoyebonde S, Leslie A (2014) Biological differences between the sexes and susceptibility to tuberculosis. J. Infect. Dis. 209, S100-S106.
137. Nichol KL, Margolis KL, Lind A, Murdoch M, McFadden R, Hauge M, Magnan S, Drake M (1996) Side effects associated with influenza vaccination in healthy working adults: a randomized, placebo-controlled trial. Arch. Intern. Med. 156, 1546-1550.
138. Nichol KL, Nordin JD, Nelson DB, Mullooly JP, Hak E (2007) Effectiveness of influenza vaccine in the community-dwelling elderly. N. Engl. J. Med. 357, 1373-1381.
139. Oertelt-Prigione S (2012) The influence of sex and gender on the immune response. Autoimmun. Rev. 11, A479-A485.
140. Oksuzyan A, Juel K, Vaupel JW, Christensen K (2008) Men: good health and high mortality. Sex differences in health and aging. Aging Clin. Exp. Res. 20, 91-102.
141. Olsen NJ, Kovacs WJ (2011) Evidence that androgens modulate human thymic T cell output. J. Investig. Med. 59, 32-35.
142. Panda A, Arjona A, Sapey E, Bai F, Fikrig E, Montgomery RR, Lord JM, Shaw AC (2009) Human innate immunosenescence: causes and consequences for immunity in old age. Trends Immunol. 30, 325-333.
143. Pazos M, Sperling RS, Moran TM, Kraus TA (2012) The influence of pregnancy on systemic immunity. Immunol. Res. 54, 254-261.
144. Pennock JW, Stegall R, Bell B, Vargas G, Motamedi M, Milligan G, Bourne N (2009) Estradiol improves genital herpes vaccine efficacy in mice. Vaccine 27, 5830-5836.
145. Pfister M, Kursteiner O, Hilfiker H, Favre D, Durrer P, Ennaji A, L'Age-Stehr J, Kaufhold A, Herzog C (2005) Immunogenicity and safety of BERNA-YF compared with two other 17D yellow fever vaccines in a phase 3 clinical trial. Am. J. Trop. Med. Hyg. 72, 339-346.
146. Pichichero ME, Rennels MB, Edwards KM, Blatter MM, Marshall GS, Bologa M, Wang E, Mills E (2005) Combined tetanus, diphtheria, and 5-component pertussis vaccine for use in adolescents and adults. JAMA 293, 3003-3011.
147. Pietschmann P, Gollob E, Brosch S, Hahn P, Kudlacek S, Willheim M, Woloszczuk W, Peterlik M, Tragl KH (2003) The effect of age and gender on cytokine production by human peripheral blood mononuclear cells and markers of bone metabolism. Exp. Gerontol. 38, 1119-1127.
148. Pittman PR, Makuch RS, Mangiafico JA, Cannon TL, Gibbs PH, Peters CJ (1996) Long-term duration of detectable neutralizing antibodies after administration of live-attenuated VEE vaccine and following booster vaccination with inactivated VEE vaccine. Vaccine 14, 337-343.
149. Poethko-Müller C, Schmitz R (2013) Vaccination coverage in German adults: results of the German Health Interview and Examination Survey for Adults (DEGS1). Bundesgesundheitsblatt Gesundheitsforschung Gesundheitsschutz 56, 845-857.
150. Porter VR, Greendale GA, Schocken M, Zhu X, Effros RB (2001) Immune effects of hormone replacement therapy in post-menopausal women. Exp. Gerontol. 36, 311-326.
151. Quandelacy TM, Viboud C, Charu V, Lipsitch M, Goldstein E (2014) Age- and sex-related risk factors for influenza-associated mortality in the United States between 1997-2007. Am. J. Epidemiol. 179, 156-167.
152. Quinn TC, Overbaugh J (2005) HIV/AIDS in women: an expanding epidemic. Science 308, 1582-1583.
153. Rakasz E, Lynch RG (2002) Female sex hormones as regulatory factors in the vaginal immune compartment. Int. Rev. Immunol. 21, 497-513.
154. Regan JC, Partridge L (2013) Gender and longevity: why do men die earlier than women? Comparative and experimental evidence. Best Pract. Res. Clin. Endocrinol. Metab. 27, 467-479.
155. Rettew JA, Huet-Hudson YM, Marriott I (2008) Testosterone reduces macrophage expression in the mouse of toll-like receptor 4, a trigger for inflammation and innate immunity. Biol. Reprod. 78, 432-437.
156. Rettew JA, Huet YM, Marriott I (2009) Estrogens augment cell surface TLR4 expression on murine macrophages and regulate sepsis susceptibility in vivo. Endocrinology 150, 3877-3884.
157. Reutter J, Bart PA, Francioli P, Safary A, Frei PC (1998) Production of antibody to hepatitis A virus and hepatitis B surface antigen measured after combined hepatitis A/hepatitis B vaccination in 242 adult volunteers. J. Viral Hepatitis 5, 205-211.
158. Rhodes K, Scott A, Markham RL, Monk-Jones ME (1969) Immunological sex differences. A study of patients with rheumatoid arthritis, their relatives, and controls. Ann. Rheum. Dis. 28, 104-120.
159. Roberts CW, Walker W, Alexander J (2001) Sex-associated hormones and immunity to protozoan parasites. Clin. Microbiol. Rev. 14, 476-488.
160. Rosenstein NE, Perkins BA, Stephens DS, Lefkowitz L, Cartter ML, Danila R, Cieslak P, Shutt KA, Popovic T, Schuchat A, Harrison LH, Reingold AL (1999) The changing epidemiology of meningococcal disease in the United States, 1992-1996. J. Infect. Dis. 180, 1894-1901.
161. Sakiani S, Olsen NJ, Kovacs WJ (2013) Gonadal steroids and humoral immunity. Nat. Rev. Endocrinol. 9, 56-62.
162. Sandman L, Davidson M, Krugman S (1995) Inactivated hepatitis A vaccine: a safety and immunogenicity study in health professionals. J. Infect. Dis. 171(Suppl 1), S50-S52.
163. Sankilampi U, Honkanen PO, Bloigu A, Herva E, Leinonen M (1996) Antibody response to pneumococcal capsular polysaccharide vaccine in the elderly. J. Infect. Dis. 173, 387-393.
164. Saucedo R, Rico G, Basurto L, Ochoa R, Zarate A (2002) Transdermal estradiol in menopausal women depresses interleukin-6 without affecting other markers of immune response. Gynecol. Obstet. Invest. 53, 114-117.
165. Scholz JL, Diaz A, Riley RL, Cancro MP, Frasca D (2013) A comparative review of aging and B cell function in mice and humans. Curr. Opin. Immunol. 25, 504-510.
166. Schwarzinger M, Flicoteaux R, Cortarenoda S, Obadia Y, Moatti J-P (2010) Low acceptability of A/H1N1 pandemic vaccination in French adult population: did public health policy fuel public dissonance? PLoS ONE 5, e10199.
167. Scott JA, Hall AJ, Dagan R, Dixon JM, Eykyn SJ, Fenoll A, Hortal M, Jette LP, Jorgensen JH, Lamothe F, Latorre C, Macfarlane JT, Shlaes DM, Smart LE, Taunay A (1996) Serogroup-specific epidemiology of Streptococcus pneumoniae: associations with age, sex, and geography in 7, 000 episodes of invasive disease. Clin. Infect. Dis. 22, 973-981.
168. Seillet C, Laffont S, Tremollieres F, Rouquie N, Ribot C, Arnal JF, Douin-Echinard V, Gourdy P, Guery JC (2012) The TLR-mediated response of plasmacytoid dendritic cells is positively regulated by estradiol in vivo through cell-intrinsic estrogen receptor alpha signaling. Blood 119, 454-464.
169. Seillet C, Rouquie N, Foulon E, Douin-Echinard V, Krust A, Chambon P, Arnal JF, Guery JC, Laffont S (2013) Estradiol promotes functional responses in inflammatory and steady-state dendritic cells through differential requirement for activation function-1 of estrogen receptor alpha. J. Immunol. 190, 5459-5470.
170. Seli E, Arici A (2002) Sex steroids and the immune system. Immunol. Allergy Clin. North Am. 22, 407-433.
171. Serfung RE, Sherman IL, Houseworth WJ (1967) Excess pneumonia-influenza mortality by age and sex in three major influenza A2 epidemics, United States, 1957-58, 1960 and 1963. Am. J. Epidemiol. 86, 433-441.
172. Shohat T, Marva E, Sivan Y, Lerman I, Mates A, Cohen A (2000) Immunologic response to a single dose of tetanus toxoid in older people. J. Am. Geriatr. Soc. 48, 949-951.
173. Simell B, Lahdenkari M, Reunanen A, Kayhty H, Vakevainen M (2008) Effects of ageing and gender on naturally acquired antibodies to pneumococcal capsular polysaccharides and virulence-associated proteins. Clin. Vaccine Immunol. 15, 1391-1397.
174. Simon V (2005) Wanted: women in clinical trials. Science 308, 1517.
175. Sleeman K, Knox K, George R, Miller E, Waight P, Griffiths D, Efstratiou A, Broughton K, Mayon-White RT, Moxon ER, Crook DW (2001) Invasive pneumococcal disease in England and Wales: vaccination implications. J. Infect. Dis. 183, 239-246.
176. Sočan M, Frelih T, Janet E, Petraš T, Peternelj B (2004) Reactions after pneumococcal vaccine alone or in combination with influenza vaccine. Vaccine 22, 3087-3091.
177. Soneji S, Metlay J (2011) Mortality reductions for older adults differ by race/ethnicity and gender since the introduction of adult and pediatric pneumococcal vaccines. Public Health Rep. 126, 259-269.
178. Song M, Tang Q, Rayner S, Tao XY, Li H, Guo ZY, Shen XX, Jiao WT, Fang W, Wang J, Liang GD (2014) Human rabies surveillance and control in China, 2005-2012. BMC Infect. Dis. 14, 212.
179. Spitzer M, Huang G, Basaria S, Travison TG, Bhasin S (2013) Risks and benefits of testosterone therapy in older men. Nat. Rev. Endocrinol. 9, 414-424.
180. Spolarics Z (2007) The X-files of inflammation: cellular mosaicism of X-linked polymorphic genes and the female advantage in the host response to injury and infection. Shock 27, 597-604.
181. Stanberry LR, Spruance SL, Cunningham AL, Bernstein DI, Mindel A, Sacks S, Tyring S, Aoki FY, Slaoui M, Denis M, Vandepapeliere P, Dubin G (2002) Glycoprotein-D-adjuvant vaccine to prevent genital herpes. N. Engl. J. Med. 347, 1652-1661.
182. Stark K, Schonfeld C, Barg J, Molz B, Vornwald A, Bienzle U (1999) Seroprevalence and determinants of diphtheria, tetanus and poliomyelitis antibodies among adults in Berlin, Germany. Vaccine 17, 844-850.
183. Straub RH (2007) The complex role of estrogens in inflammation. Endocr. Rev. 28, 521-574.
184. Talaat KR, Greenberg ME, Lai MH, Hartel GF, Wichems CH, Rockman S, Jeanfreau RJ, Ghosh MR, Kabongo ML, Gittleson C, Karron RA (2010) A single dose of unadjuvanted novel 2009 H1N1 vaccine is immunogenic and well tolerated in young and elderly adults. J. Infect. Dis. 202, 1327-1337.
185. Tanaka E, Sata M, Nakano H, Suzuki H, Tanikawa K (1997) Antibody response to inactivated hepatitis A vaccine. Hepatol. Res. 9, 103-112.
186. Tanriverdi F, Silveira LF, MacColl GS, Bouloux PM (2003) The hypothalamic-pituitary-gonadal axis: immune function and autoimmunity. J. Endocrinol. 176, 293-304.
187. Thomas SL, Hall AJ (2004) What does epidemiology tell us about risk factors for herpes zoster? Lancet Infect. Dis 4, 26-33.
188. Van Oyen H, Nusselder W, Jagger C, Kolip P, Cambois E, Robine JM (2013) Gender differences in healthy life years within the EU: an exploration of the "health-survival" paradox. Int. J. Public Health 58, 143-155.
189. Veit O, Niedrig M, Chapuis-Taillard C, Cavassini M, Mossdorf E, Schmid P, Bae H-G, Litzba N, Staub T, Hatz C, Furrer H, Study tSHC (2009) Immunogenicity and safety of yellow fever vaccination for 102 HIV-infected patients. Clin. Infect. Dis. 48, 659-666.
190. Vermeiren AP, Hoebe CJ, Dukers-Muijrers NH (2013) High non-responsiveness of males and the elderly to standard hepatitis B vaccination among a large cohort of healthy employees. J. Clin. Virol. 58, 262-264.
191. Villa E, Karampatou A, Camma C, Di Leo A, Luongo M, Ferrari A, Petta S, Losi L, Taliani G, Trande P, Lei B, Graziosi A, Bernabucci V, Critelli R, Pazienza P, Rendina M, Antonelli A, Francavilla A (2011) Early menopause is associated with lack of response to antiviral therapy in women with chronic hepatitis C. Gastroenterology 140, 818-829.
192. Vina J, Borras C, Gambini J, Sastre J, Pallardo FV (2005) Why females live longer than males: control of longevity by sex hormones. Sci. Ageing Knowl. Environ. 2005, pe17.
193. Vitek CR, Brisgalov SP, Bragina VY, Zhilyakov AM, Bisgard KM, Brennan M, Kravtsova ON, Lushniak BD, Lyerla R, Markina SS, Strebel PM (1999) Epidemiology of epidemic diphtheria in three regions, Russia, 1994-1996. Eur. J. Epidemiol. 15, 75-83.
194. Volzke H, Kloker KM, Kramer A, Guertler L, Doren M, Baumeister SE, Hoffmann W, John U (2006) Susceptibility to diphtheria in adults: prevalence and relationship to gender and social variables. Clin. Microbiol. Infect. 12, 961-967.
195. Vural P, Akgul C, Canbaz M (2006) Effects of hormone replacement therapy on plasma pro-inflammatory and anti-inflammatory cytokines and some bone turnover markers in postmenopausal women. Pharmacol. Res. 54, 298-302.
196. Wagner C, Popp W, Posch M, Vlasich C, Rosenberger-Spitzy A (2003) Impact of pneumococcal vaccination on morbidity and mortality of geriatric patients: a case-controlled study. Gerontology 49, 246-250.
197. Wagner KS, White JM, Lucenko I, Mercer D, Crowcroft NS, Neal S, Efstratiou A (2012) Diphtheria in the postepidemic period, Europe, 2000-2009. Emerg. Infect. Dis. 18, 217-225.
198. Wang C-S, Wang S-T, Chou P (2002) Efficacy and cost-effectiveness of influenza vaccination of the elderly in a densely populated and unvaccinated community. Vaccine 20, 2494-2499.
199. Webster M, Libranda-Ramirez BD, Aligui GD, Olveda RM, Ouma JH, Kariuki HC, Kimani G, Olds GR, Fulford AJ, Butterworth AE, Dunne DW (1997) The influence of sex and age on antibody isotype responses to Schistosoma mansoni and Schistosoma japonicum in human populations in Kenya and the Philippines. Parasitology 114(Pt 4), 383-393.
200. Weinberger B, Grubeck-Loebenstein B (2012) Vaccines for the elderly. Clin. Microbiol. Infect. 18(Suppl 5), 100-108.
201. Weinberger B, Schirmer M, Matteucci Gothe R, Siebert U, Fuchs D, Grubeck-Loebenstein B (2013) Recall responses to tetanus and diphtheria vaccination are frequently insufficient in elderly persons. PLoS ONE 8, e82967.
202. Whitacre CC, Reingold SC, O'Looney PA (1999) A gender gap in autoimmunity. Science 283, 1277-1278.
203. White WG, Barnes GM, Barker E, Gall D, Knight P, Griffith AH, Morris-Owen RM, Smith JW (1973) Reactions to tetanus toxoid. J. Hyg. 71, 283-297.
204. WHO (2003) HIV and Gender. Geneva: World Health Organization, pp 1-4.
205. WHO (2007) Adressing Sex and Gender in Epidemic-Prone Infectious Diseases. Geneva: World Health Organization, pp 1-40.
206. Wiemken TL, Carrico RM, Klein SL, Jonsson CB, Peyrani P, Kelley RR, Aliberti S, Blasi F, Fernandez-Gonzalez R, Lopardo G, Ramirez JA (2014) The effectiveness of the polysaccharide pneumococcal vaccine for the prevention of hospitalizations due to Streptococcus pneumoniae community-acquired pneumonia in the elderly differs between the sexes: results from the Community-Acquired Pneumonia Organization (CAPO) international cohort study. Vaccine 32, 2198-2203.
207. Wolters B, Junge U, Dziuba S, Roggendorf M (2003) Immunogenicity of combined hepatitis A and B vaccine in elderly persons. Vaccine 21, 3623-3628.
208. Xia X, Zhang S, Yu Y, Zhao N, Liu R, Liu K, Chen X (2009) Effects of estrogen replacement therapy on estrogen receptor expression and immunoregulatory cytokine secretion in surgically induced menopausal women. J. Reprod. Immunol. 81, 89-96.
209. Yasui T, Maegawa M, Tomita J, Miyatani Y, Yamada M, Uemura H, Matsuzaki T, Kuwahara A, Kamada M, Tsuchiya N, Yuzurihara M, Takeda S, Irahara M (2007) Changes in serum cytokine concentrations during the menopausal transition. Maturitas 56, 396-403.
210. Yawn BP, Gilden D (2013) The global epidemiology of herpes zoster. Neurology 81, 928-930.
211. Yung R, Williams R, Johnson K, Phillips C, Stoolman L, Chang S, Richardson B (1997) Mechanisms of drug-induced lupus. III. Sex-specific differences in T cell homing may explain increased disease severity in female mice. Arthritis Rheum. 40, 1334-1343.
212. Zhang MA, Rego D, Moshkova M, Kebir H, Chruscinski A, Nguyen H, Akkermann R, Stanczyk FZ, Prat A, Steinman L, Dunn SE (2012) Peroxisome proliferator-activated receptor (PPAR)alpha and -gamma regulate IFNgamma and IL-17A production by human T cells in a sex-specific way. Proc. Natl Acad. Sci. USA 109, 9505-9510.
213. Zhu F-C, Huang S-J, Wu T, Zhang X-F, Wang Z-Z, Ai X, Yan Q, Yang C-L, Cai J-P, Jiang H-M, Wang Y-J, Ng M-H, Zhang J, Xia N-S (2014) Epidemiology of zoonotic hepatitis E: a community-based surveillance study in a rural population in China. PLoS ONE 9, e87154.
214. Zhuang H, Cao XY, Liu CB, Wang GM (1991) Epidemiology of hepatitis E in China. Gastroenterol. Jpn. 26(Suppl 3), 135-138.