DNA methylation and application in forensic sciences

Forensic Science International

Volumn 249, Issue , 2015, Pages 255-265

  Kader, Farzeen ^a   Ghai, Meenu ^a  

^a UNIVERSITY OF KWAZULU NATAL   (South Africa)

Author keywords

Body fluid identification; DNA methylation; Forensic science; TDMRs

Indexed keywords

EDAR ASSOCIATED DEATH DOMAIN PROTEIN; MESSENGER RNA; PARATHYROID HORMONE RECEPTOR 1; PLECKSTRIN;

AGE DETERMINATION; AGING; ALCOHOL CONSUMPTION; ANCESTRY GROUP; BLOOD ANALYSIS; BLOOD SAMPLING; BODY FLUID; CD4+ T LYMPHOCYTE; CELL DIFFERENTIATION; CELL FUNCTION; CPG ISLAND; CRIME; DIET; DNA DETERMINATION; DNA FINGERPRINTING; DNA METHYLATION; DNA SEQUENCE; ENVIRONMENTAL FACTOR; EPIGENETICS; FORENSIC IDENTIFICATION; FORENSIC SCIENCE; GENE EXPRESSION; GENE FUNCTION; HIGH THROUGHPUT SCREENING; HISTONE MODIFICATION; HUMAN; LIFESTYLE; LYMPHOBLASTOID CELL LINE; MATRIX ASSISTED LASER DESORPTION IONIZATION TIME OF FLIGHT MASS SPECTROMETRY; MONOZYGOTIC TWINS; NONHUMAN; NUTRITION; PASSIVE SMOKING; PERSONAL EXPERIENCE; PHENOTYPE; POLYMERASE CHAIN REACTION; PRIORITY JOURNAL; REVIEW; RISK FACTOR; SALIVA ANALYSIS; SEMEN ANALYSIS; SEX DETERMINATION; SMOKING; SOCIAL ENVIRONMENT; SOCIAL STATUS; SRY GENE; STEM CELL; VAGINAL SECRETION; BODILY SECRETIONS; CHEMISTRY; FORENSIC GENETICS; GENETICS; PEDIGREE; SEX DETERMINATION PROCESS;

AGING; BODILY SECRETIONS; BODY FLUIDS; CPG ISLANDS; DIET; DNA FINGERPRINTING; DNA METHYLATION; EPIGENOMICS; FORENSIC GENETICS; GENE EXPRESSION; HUMANS; PEDIGREE; RISK FACTORS; SEX DETERMINATION PROCESSES; TWINS, MONOZYGOTIC;

EID: 84923621442     PISSN: 03790738     EISSN: 18726283     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1016/j.forsciint.2015.01.037     Document Type: Review

References (104)

1. Altmann S., Murani E., Schwerin M., Metges C.C., Wimmers K., Ponsuksili S. Maternal dietary protein restriction and excess affects offspring gene expression and methylation of non-SMC subunits of condensin I in liver and skeletal muscle. Epigenetics 2012, 7:239-252. 10.4161/epi.7.3.19183.
2. An J.H., Choi A., Shin K.J., Yang W.I., Lee H.Y. DNA methylation-specific multiplex assays for body fluid identification. Int. J. Legal Med. 2013, 127:35-43. 10.1007/s00414-012-0719-1.
3. Antunes J.P., Madi T., Balamurugan K., Bombardi R., Duncan G., McCord B. DNA methylation markers as a powerful technique to discriminate body fluids present in crime scenes 2013, Available: http://au.promega.com/~/media/files/resources/conference%20proceedings/ishi%2024/oral%20presentations/antunes-manuscript.pdf (accessed 25.05.14).
4. Anway M.D., Cupp A.S., Umzusu M., Skinner M.K. Epigenetic transgenerational actions of endocrine disruptors and male fertility. Science 2005, 308:1466-1469. 10.1126/science.1108190.
5. Bell J.T., Pai A.A., Pickrell J.K., Gaffney D.J., Pique-Regi R., Degner J.F., Gilad Y., Pritchard J.K. DNA methylation patterns associate with genetic and gene expression variation in HapMap cell lines. Genome Biol. 2011, 12:1-13. 10.1186/gb-2011-12-1-r10.
6. Bjornsson H.T., Sigurdsson M.I., Fallin M.D., Irrizary R.A., Aspelund T., Yu W., Rongione M.A., Ekstrom T.J., Harris T.B., Launer L.J., Eiriksdottir G., Leppert M.F., Sapienza C., Gudnason V., Feinberg A.P. Intra-individual change over time in DNA methylation with familial clustering. J. Am. Med. Assoc. 2008, 299:2877-2883. 10.1001/jama.299.24.2877.
7. Bartolomei M.S., Webber A.L., Brunkow M.E., Tilghman S.M. Epigenetic mechanisms underlying the imprinting of the mouse H19 gene. Genes Dev. 1993, 7:1663-1673. 10.1101/gad.7.9.1663.
8. Bockland S., Lin W., Sehl M.E., Sanchez F.J., Sinsheimer J.S., Horvath S., Vilain E. Epigenetic predictor of age. PLoS ONE 2011, 6:1-6.
9. Boks M.P., Derks E.M., Weisenberger D.J., Strengman E., Janson E., Sommer I.E., Khan R.S., Ophoff R.A. The relationship of DNA methylation with age, gender and genotype in twins and healthy controls. PLoS ONE 2009, 4:1-8. 10.1371/journal.pone.0006767.
10. Brannan C.I., Dees E.C., Ingram R.S., Tilghman S.M. The product of the H19 gene may function as RNA. Mol. Cell. Biol. 1990, 10:28-36. 10.1128/MCB.10.1.28.
11. Calvanese V., Lara E., Kahn A., Fraga M.F. The role of epigenetics in ageing and age-related diseases. Ageing Res. Rev. 2009, 8:268-276. 10.1016/j.arr.2009.03.004.
12. Cho J.H., Kimura H., Minami T., Ohgane J., Hattori N., Tanaka S., Shiota K. DNA methylation regulates placental lactogen 1 gene expression. Endocrinology 2001, 142:3389-3396. 10.1210/endo.142.8.8347.
13. Choi A., Shin K.J., Yang W.I., Lee H.Y. Body fluid identification by integrated analysis of DNA methylation and body fluid-specific microbial DNA. Int. J. Legal Med. 2014, 128:33-41. 10.1007/s00414-013-0918-4.
14. Christensen B.C., Houseman E.A., Marsit C.J., Zheng S., Wrensch M.R., Wiemels J.L., Nelson H.H., Karagas M.R., Padbury J.F., Bueno R., Sugarbaker D.J., Yeh R., Wiencke J.K., Kelsey K.T. Ageing and environmental exposures alter tissue-specific DNA methylation dependent on CpG island context. PLoS Genet. 2009, 5:1-13. 10.1371/journal.pgen.1000602.
15. Cohen N.M., Kenigsberg E., Tanay A. Primate CpG islands are maintained by heterogeneous evolutionary regimes involving minimal selection. Cell 2011, 145:773-786. 10.1016/j.cell.2011.04.024.
16. Day K., Waite L.L., Mercer A.T., West A., Bamman M.M., Brooks J.D., Myers R.M., Absher D. Differential DNA methylation with age displays both common and dynamic features across human tissues that are influenced by CpG landscape. Genome Biol. 2013, 14:1-19. 10.1186/gb-2013-14-9-r102.
17. Eckhardt F., Lewin J., Cortese R., Rakyan V.K., Attwood J., Burger M., Burton J., Cox T.V., Davies R., Down T.A., Haefliger C., Horton R., Howe K., Jackson D.K., Kunde J., Koenig C., Liddle J., Niblett D., Otto T., Pettett R., Seemann S., Thompson C., West T., Rogers J., Olek A., Berlin K., Beck S. DNA methylation profiling of human chromosomes 6, 20 and 22. Nat. Genet. 2006, 38:1378-1385. 10.1038/ng1909.
18. Edwards C.A., Ferguson-Smith A.C. Mechanisms regulating imprinted genes in clusters. Curr. Opin. Cell Biol. 2007, 19:281-289. 10.1016/j.ceb.2007.04.013.
19. Ehrlich M. DNA methylation in cancer: too much, but also too little. Oncogene 2002, 21:5400-5413. 10.1038/sj.onc.1205651.
20. El-Maarri O., Becker T., Junen J., Manzoor S.S., Diaz-Lacava A., Schwaab R., Wienker T., Oldenburg J. Gender specific differences in levels of DNA methylation at selected loci from human total blood: a tendency toward higher methylation levels in males. Hum. Genet. 2007, 122:505-514. 10.1007/s00439-007-0430-30.
21. Fang M.Z., Wang Y., Ai N., Hou Z., Sun Y., Lu H., Welsh W., Yang C.S. Tea polyphenol (-)-epigallocatechin-3-gallate inhibits DNA methyltransferase and reactivates methylation-silenced genes in cancer cell lines. Cancer Res. 2003, 63:7563-7570. PMID: 14633667.
22. Fraga M.F., Ballestar E., Paz M.F., Ropero S., Setien F., Ballestar M.L., Heine-Suner D., Cigudosa J.C., Urioste M., Benitez J., Boix-Chornet M., Sanchez-Aguilera A., Ling C., Carlsson E., Poulsen P., Vaag A., Stephan Z., Spector T.D., Wu Y., Plass C., Esteller M. Epigenetic differences arise during the lifetime of monozygotic twins. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. U. S. A. 2005, 102:10604-10609. 10.1073/pnas.0500398102.
23. Fraser H.B., Lam L.L., Nuemann S.M., Kobor M.S. Population-specificity of human DNA methylation. Genome Biol. 2012, 13:1-13. 10.1186/gb-2012-13-2-r8.
24. Friso S., Choi S.W., Girelli D., Mason J.B., Dolnikowski G.G., Bagley P.J., Olivieri O., Jacques P.F., Rodenburg I.H., Corrocher R., Selhub J. A common mutation in the 5,10-methylenetetrahydrofolate reductase gene affects genomic DNA methylation through an interaction with folate status. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. U. S. A. 2002, 99:5606-5611. 10.1073/PNAS.062066299.
25. Frumkin D., Wasserstrom A., Davidson A., Grafit A. Authentication of forensic DNA samples. Forensic Sci. Int.: Genet. 2010, 4:95-103. 10.1016/j.fsigen.2009.06.009.
26. Frumkin D., Wasserstrom A., Budowle B., Davidson A. DNA methylation-based forensic tissue identification. Forensic Sci. Int.: Genet. 2011, 5:517-524. 10.1016/j.fsigen.2010.12.001.
27. Gao Z.H., Suppola S., Liu J., Heikkila P., Janne J., Voutilainen R. Association of H19 promoter methylation with the expression of H19 and IGF-II genes in adrenocortical tumors. J. Endocrinol. Metab. 2002, 87:1170-1176. 10.1210/JC.87.3.1170.
28. Goyal R., Reinhardt R., Jeltsch A. Accuracy of DNA methylation patterns preservation by the DNMT1 methyltransferase. Nucleic Acids Res. 2006, 34:1182-1188. 10.1093/nar/gkl002.
29. Gunn P., Walsh S., Roux C. The nucleic acid revolution continues - will forensic biology becomes forensic molecular biology?. Front. Genet. 2014, 5:1-4. 10.3389/fgene.2014.00044.
30. Haas C., Klesser B., Maake C., Bar W., Kratzer A. mRNA profiling for body fluid identification by reverse transcription endpoint PCR and realtime PCR. Forensic Sci. Int.: Genet. 2009, 3:80-88. 10.1016/j.fsigen.2008.11.003.
31. Hardy T.M., Tollefsbol T.O. Epigenetic diet: impact on epigenome and cancer. Epigenomics 2011, 3:503-518. 10.2217/epi.11.71.
32. Heyn H., Moran S., Herraez I.H., Sayols S., Gomez A., Sandovel J., Monk D., Hata K., Bonet T.M., Wang L., Esteller M. DNA methylation contributes to natural human variation. Genome Res. 2013, 23:1363-1372. 10.1101/gr.154187.112.
33. Hsiung D.T., Marsit C.J., Houseman E.A., Eddy K., Furniss C.S., McClean M.D., Kelse K.T. Global DNA methylation in whole blood as a biomarker in head and neck squamous cell carcinoma. Cancer Epidemiol. Biomarkers Prev. 2007, 16:108-114. 10.1158/1055-9965.EPI-06-0636.
34. Huh I., Zeng J., Park T., Yi S.V. DNA methylation and transcriptional noise. Epigenet. Chromatin 2013, 6:1-10. 10.1186/1756-8935-6-9.
35. Igarashi J., Muroi S., Kawashima H., Wang X., Shinojima Y., Kitamura E., Oinuma T., Nemoto N., Song F., Ghosh S., Held W.A., Nagase H. Quantitative analysis of human tissue-specific differences in methylation. Biochem. Biophys. Res. Commun. 2008, 376:658-664. 10.1016/j.bbrc.2008.09.044.
36. Illingworth R.S., Bird A. CpG islands - a rough guide. Fed. Eur. Biochem. Soc. Lett. 2009, 583:1713-1720. 10.1016/j.febslet.2009.04.012.
37. Illingworth R., Kerr A., DeSousa D., Jorgensen H., Ellis P., Stalker J., Jackson D., Clee C., Plumb R., Rogers J., Humphray S., Cox T., Langford C., Bird A. A novel CpG island set identifies tissue-specific methylation at developmental gene loci. PLoS Biol. 2008, 6:e22. 10.1371/journal.pbio.0060022.
38. Jacob S. The role of micronutrients in DNA synthesis and maintenance. Adv. Exp. Med. Biol. 1999, 472:101-113. 10.1007/978-1-4757-3230-6_10.
39. Jaenisch R., Bird A. Epigenetic regulation of gene expression: how the genome integrates intrinsic and environmental signals. Nat. Genet. 2003, 33:245-254. 10.1186/gb-2013-14-9-r102.
40. Jimenez-Chillaron J.C., Diaz R., Martinez D., Pentinat T., Ramon-Krauel M., Ribo S., Plosch T. The role of nutrition on epigenetic modifications and their implications on health. Biochimie 2012, 94:2242-2263. 10.1016/j.biochi.2012.06.012.
41. Jobling M.A. Double trouble. Investig. Genet. 2013, 4:1-2. 10.1186/2041-2223-4-12.
42. Jones P.A. Functions of DNA methylation: islands, start sites, gene bodies and beyond. Nat. Rev. Genet. 2012, 41:484-492. 10.1038/nrg3230.
43. Jones P.A., Takai D. The role of DNA methylation in mammalian epigenetics. Science 2001, 293:1067-1070. 10.1126/science.1063852.
44. Kato K., Long N., Makita H., Tolda M., Yamashita T., Htayakema D., Mori H., Shibata T. Effects of green tea polyphenol on methylation status of RECK gene and cancer cell invasion in oral squamous cell carcinoma cells. Br. J. Cancer 2008, 99:647-654. 10.1038/SJ.BJC.6604521.
45. King-Batoon A., Leszczynska J.M., Klein C.B. Modulation of gene methylation by genistein or lycopene in breast cancer cells. Environ. Mol. Mutagen. 2008, 49:36-45. 10.1002/EM.20363.
46. Koch C.M., Wagner W. Epigenetic-ageing-signature to determine age in different tissues. Ageing 2011, 3:1-10. 10.1371/journal.pone.0016679.
47. Koops B.J., Maurice S. Forensic DNA phenotyping: regulatory issues. Columbia Sci. Technol. Law Rev. 2008, 9:158-202. 10.2139/ssrn.975032.
48. Kriaucionis S., Heintz N. The nuclear DNA base 5-hydroxymethylcytosine is present in Purkinje neurons and the brain. Science 2009, 324:929-930. 10.1126/science.1169786.
49. Lam L.L., Emberly E., Fraser H.B., Neumann S.M., Chen E., Miller G.E., Kobor M.S. Factors underlying variable DNA methylation in a human community cohort. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. U. S. A. 2012, 109:17253-17260. 10.1073/pnas.1121249109.
50. Lee H.W., Park M.J., Choi A., An J.H., Yang W.I., Shin K.J. Potential forensic application of DNA methylation profiling to body fluid identification. Int. J. Legal Med. 2012, 126:55-62. 10.1007/s00414-011-0569-2.
51. Li C., Zhao S., Zhang N., Zhang S., Hou Y. Differences of DNA methylation profiles between monozygotic twins' blood samples. Mol. Biol. Rep. 2013, 40:5275-5280. 10.1007/s11033-013-2627-y.
52. Lieb J.D., Beck S., Bulyk M.L., Farnham P., Hattori N., Henikoff S., Liu Z.S., Okumura K., Shiota K., Ushijima T., Greally J.M. Applying whole-genome studies of epigenetic regulation to study human disease. Cytogenet. Genome Res. 2006, 114:1-15. 10.1159/000091922.
53. Lillycrop K.A., Phillips E.S., Torrens C., Hanson M.A., Jackson A.A., Burdge G.C. Feeding pregnant rats a protein-restricted diet persistently alters the methylation of specific cytosines in the hepatic PPAR alpha promoter of the offspring. Br. J. Nutr. 2008, 100:278-282. 10.1017/S0007114507894438.
54. Lister R., Pelizzola M., Dowen R.H., Hawkins R.D., Hon G., Tonti-Filippini J., Nery J.R., Lee L., Ye Z., Ngo Q.M. Human DNA methylomes at base resolution show widespread epigenomic differences. Nature 2009, 462:315-322. 10.1038/nature08514.
55. Liu D., Diorio J., Tannenbaum B., Caldji C., Francis D., Freedman A., Sharma S., Pearson D., Plotsky P.M., Meaney M.J. Maternal care, hippocampal glucocorticoid receptors, and hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal responses to stress. Science 1997, 277:1659-1662. 10.1126/science.277.5332.1659.
56. Madi T., Balamurugan K., Bombardi R., Duncan G., McCord B. The determination of tissue-specific DNA methylation patterns in forensic biofluids using bisulfite modification and pyrosequencing. Electrophoresis 2012, 33:1736-1745. 10.1002/elps.201100711.
57. Mason J.B., Choi S.W. Effects of alcohol on folate metabolism: implications for carcinogenesis. Alcohol 2005, 35:235-241. 10.1016/j.alcohol.2005.03.012.
58. M'charek A., Toom V., Prainsack B. Bracketing off population does not advance ethical reflection on EVCs: a reply to Kayser and Schneider. Forensic Sci. Int.: Genet. 2012, 6:e16-e17. 10.1016/j.fsigen.2010.12.012.
59. Melnikov A.A., Gartenhaus R.B., Levenson A.S., Motchoulskaia N.A., Levenson V.V. MSRE-PCR for analysis of gene-specific DNA methylation. Nucleic Acids Res. 2005, 33:1-7. 10.1093/nar/gni092.
60. Munzel M., Globisch D., Carell T. 5-Hydroxymethylcytosine, the sixth base of the genome. Angew. Chem. Int. Ed. 2011, 29:6460-6468. 10.1002/anie.201101547.
61. Naito E., Dewa K., Yamanouchi H., Takagi S., Kominami R. Sex determination using the hypomethylation of a human macro-satellite DXZ4 in female cells. Nucleic Acids Res. 1993, 21:2533-2534. 10.3389/fgene.2014.00044.
62. Nakazono T., Kashimura S., Hayashiba Y., Hara K., Matsusu A., Augustin C. Dual examinations for urine as being of human origin and for DNA-typing from small stains of human origin. J. Forensic Sci. 2008, 53:359-363.
63. Niculescu M.D., Zeisel S.H. Diet, methyl-donors and DNA methylation: interactions between dietary folate, methionine and choline. J. Nutr. 2002, 132:2333S-2335S. PMID: 12163687.
64. Nishino K., Hattori N., Tanaka S., Shiota K. DNA methylation-mediated control of Sry gene expression in mouse gonadal development. J. Biol. Chem. 2004, 279:22306-22313. 10.1074/jbc.M309513200.
65. Ohgane J., Yagi S., Shiota K. Epigenetics: the DNA methylation profile of tissue-dependent and differentially methylated regions in cells. Placenta 2008, 22:29-35. 10.1016/j.placenta.2007.09.011.
66. Park L., Friso S., Choi S. Nutritional influences on epigenetics and age-related disease. Proc. Nutr. Soc. 2011, 1:75-83. 10.1017/S0029665111003302.
67. Pirazzini C., Giulana C., Bacalini M.G., Boattini A., Capri M., Fontanesi E., Marasco E., Mantovani V., Pierini M., Pini E., Luiselli D., Franchesci C., Garagnani P. Space/population and time/age in DNA methylation variability in humans: a study on IGF2/H19 locus in different Italian populations and in mono- and di-zygotic twins of different age. Ageing 2012, 4:509-520. PMID: 22879348, PMCID: PMC3433936.
68. Prokhortchouk E., Defossez P.A. The cell biology of DNA methylation in mammals. Biochim. Biophys. Acta 2008, 1783:2167-2173. 10.1016/j.bbamcr.2008.07.015.
69. Quinones I., Daniels B. Cell free DNA as a component of forensic evidence recovered from touched surfaces. Forensic Sci. Int.: Genet. 2011, 6:26-30. 10.1016/j.fsigen.2011.01.004.
70. Rakyan V.K., Down T.A., Thorne N.P., Flicek P., Kulesha E., Graf S., Tomazou E.M., Backdahl L., Johnson N., Herberth M., Howe K.L., Jackson D.K., Miretti M., Fiegler H., Marioni J.C., Birney E., Hubbard T.J., Carter N.P., Tavare S., Beck S. An integrated resource for genome-wide identification and analysis of human tissue-specific differentially methylated regions (tDMRs). Genome Res. 2008, 18:1518-1529. 10.1101/gr.077479.108.
71. Rauch T.A., Wu X., Zhong X., Riggs A.D., Pfeifer G.P. A human B cell methylome at 100bp resolution. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. U. S. A. 2009, 106:671-678. 10.1093/hmg/9.18.2651.
72. Riggs A.D., Martienssen R., Russo U. Epigenetic Mechanisms of Gene Regulation 1996, 1-4. Cold Spring Harbor Laboratory Press.
73. Rinn J.L., Kertesz M., Wang J.K., Squazzo S.L., Xu X., Brugmann S.A., Goodnough L.H., Helms J.A., Farnham P.J., Segal E., Chang H.Y. Functional demarcation of active and silent chromatin domains in human HOX loci by noncoding RNAs. Cell 2007, 129:1311-1323. 10.1016/j.cell.2007.05.022.
74. Romeika J.M., Yan F. Recent advances in forensic DNA analysis. J. Forensic Res. 2013, 12:1-13. 10.4172/2157-7145.S12-001.
75. Sakatani T., Kaneda A., Iacobuzio-Donahue C.A., Carter M.G., de Boom Witzel S., Okano H., Ko M.S.H., Ohlsson R., Longo D.L., Feinberg A.P. Loss of imprinting of Igf2 alters intestinal maturation and tumorigenesis in mice. Science 2005, 307:1976-1978. 10.1126/science.1108080.
76. Schaukowitch K., Kim T.K. Emerging epigenetic mechanisms of long non-coding RNAs. Neuroscience 2014, 264:25-38. 10.1016/j.neuroscience.2013.12.009.
77. Schilling E., Rehli M. Global, comparative analysis of tissue-specific promoter CpG methylation. Genomics 2008, 90:314-323. 10.1016/j.ygeno.2007.04.011.
78. Shen L., Kondo Y., Guo Y., Zhang J., Zhang L., Ahmed A., Shu J., Chen X., Waterland R.A., Issa J.J. Genome-wide profiling of DNA methylation reveals a class of normally methylated CpG island promoters. PLoS Genet. 2007, 3:2023-2036. 10.1371/journal.pgen.0030181.
79. Shen Y., Mutsino Y., Fouse S.D., Rao N., Root S., Xu R., Pellegrini M., Riggs A.D., Fan G. X-inactivation in female human embryonic stem cells is in a non-random pattern and prone to epigenetic alterations. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. U. S. A. 2008, 105:4709-4717. 10.1073/pnas.0712018105.
80. Sleutels F., Zwart R., Barlow D.P. The non-coding Air RNA is required for silencing autosomal imprinted genes. Nature 2002, 415:810-813. 10.1038/415810a.
81. Schneider E., Pliushch G., El Hajj N., Galetzka D., Puhl A., Schorsch M., Frauenknecht K., Riepert T., Tresch A., Muller A.M., Coerdt W., Zechner U., Haaf T. Spatial, temporal and interindividual epigenetic variation of functionally important DNA methylation patterns. Nucleic Acids Res. 2010, 38:3880-3890. 10.1093/nar/gkq126.
82. Song F., Smith J.F., Kimura M.T., Morrow A.D., Matsuyama T., Nagase H., Held W.A. Association of tissue-specific differentially methylated regions (TDMs) with differential gene expression. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. U. S. A. 2005, 102:3336-3341. 10.1073/pnas.0408436102.
83. Straussman R., Nejman D., Roberts D., Steinfeld I., Blum B., Benvisty N., Simon I., Yakhini Z., Cedar H. Developmental programming of CpG island methylation profiles in the human genome. Nat. Struct. Mol. Biol. 2009, 16:564-571. 10.1101/gr.096685.109.
84. Sugimoto K., Koh E., Sin H.S., Maeda Y., Narimoto K., Izumi K., Kobori Y., Kitamura E., Nagase H., Yoshida A., Namiki M. Tissue-specific differentially methylated regions of the human VASA gene are potentially associated with maturation arrest phenotype in the testis. J. Hum. Genet. 2009, 54:450-456. 10.1038/jhg.2009.59.
85. Tahiliani M., Koh K.P., Shen Y., Pastor W.A., Bandukwala H., Brudno Y., Agarwal S., Iyer L.M., Liu D.R., Aravind L., Rao A. Conversion of 5-methylcytosine to 5-hydroxymethylcytosine in mammalian DNA by MLL partner TET1. Science 2009, 24:930-935. 10.1126/science.1170116.
86. Tammen S.A., Friso S., Choi S.W. Epigenetics: the link between nature and nurture. Mol. Aspects Med. 2013, 34:753-764. 10.1016/j.mam.2012.07.018.
87. Terry M.B., Ferris J.S., Pilsner R., Flom J.D., Tehranifar P., Sentellar R.M., Gamble M.V., Susser E. Genomic DNA methylation among women in a multiethnic New York city birth cohort. Cancer Epidemiol. Biomarkers Prev. 2008, 17:2306-2310. 10.1158/1055-9965.EPI-08-0312.
88. Tost J. DNA methylation: an introduction to the biology and the disease-associated changes of a promising biomarker. Mol. Biotechnol. 2010, 44:71-81. 10.1007/s12033-009-9216-2.
89. Vidaki A., Daniel B., Court D.S. Forensic DNA methylation profiling - potential opportunities and challenges. Forensic Sci. Int.: Genet. 2013, 7:499-507. 10.1016/j.fsigen.2013.05.004.
90. Virkler K., Lednev I.K. Analysis of body fluids for forensic purposes: from laboratory testing to non-destructive rapid confirmatory identification at a crime scene. Forensic Sci. Int. 2009, 188:1-17. 10.1016/j.forsciint.2009.02.013.
91. Waddington C.H. The epigenotype. Endeavour 1942, 1:18-20. 10.1016/0160-9327(77)90005-9.
92. Waddington C.H. Towards a theoretical biology. The Basic Ideas of Biology 1968, 1-32. Edinburgh University Press, Edinburgh, Scotland. 10.2307/1296147.
93. Walsh C.P., Bestor T.H. Cytosine methylation and mammalian development. Genes Dev. 1999, 13:26-34. 10.1101/gad.13.1.26.
94. Wang S.C., Oelze B., Schumacher A. Age-specific epigenetic drift in late-onset Alzheimer's disease. PLoS ONE 2008, 3:e2698. 10.1371/journal.pone.0002698.
95. Warnecke P.M., Clark S.J. DNA methylation profile of the mouse skeletal α-actin promoter during development and differentiation. Mol. Cell. Biol. 1999, 19:164-172. 10.1016/j.molcel.2012.11.001.
96. Wasserstrom A., Frumkin D., Davidson A., Schpitzen M., Herman Y., Gafny R. Demonstration of DSI-semen - a novel DNA methylation-based forensic semen identification assay. Forensic Sci. Int.: Genet. 2013, 7:136-142. 10.1016/j.fsigen.2012.08.009.
97. Waterland R.A., Jirtle R.L. Transposable elements: targets for early nutritional effects on epigenetic gene regulation. Mol. Cell. Biol. 2003, 23:5293-5300. 10.1128/MCB.23.15.5293-5300.2003.
98. Wickenheiser R.A. Trace DNA: a review, discussion of theory, and application of the transfer of trace quantities of DNA through skin contact. J. Forensic Sci. 2011, 47:442-450. PMID: 12051321.
99. Woodfine K., Huddleston J.E., Murrell A. Quantitative analysis of DNA methylation at all human imprinted regions reveals preservation of epigenetic stability in adult somatic tissue. Epigenet. Chromatin 2011, 4:1. 10.1186/1756-8935-4-1.
100. Yan J., Zierath J.R., Barres R. Evidence for non-CpG methylation in mammals. Exp. Cell Res. 2011, 317:2555-2561. 10.1016/j.yexcr.2011.08.019.
101. Zhang F.F., Carderelli R., Carroll J., Fulda K.G., Kaur M., Gonzalez K., Vishwantha J.K., Santella R.M., Morabia A. Significant differences in global genomic DNA methylation by gender and race/ethnicity in peripheral blood. Epigenetics 2011, 6:623-629. 10.4161/epi.6.5.15335.
102. Zhu Z.Z., Hou L., Bollati V., Tarantini L., Marinelli B., Cantone L., Yang A.S., Vokanas P., Lissowska J., Fustinoni S., Pesatori A.C., Bonzini M., Apostili P., Costa G., Bertazzi P.A., Chow W.H., Schwartz J., Baccarelli A. Predictors of global methylation levels in blood DNA of healthy subjects: a combined analysis. Int. J. Epidemiol. 2012, 41:126-139. 10.1093/ije/dyq154.
103. Xiang N., Zhao R., Song G., Zhong W. Selenite reactivates silenced genes by modifying DNA methylation and histones in prostate cancer cells. Carcinogenesis 2008, 29:2175-2181. 10.1093/carcin/bgn179.
104. Zubakov D., Hanekamp E., Kokshoorn M., van IJcken W., Kayser M. Stable RNA markers for identification of blood and saliva stains revealed from whole genome expression analysis of time-wise degraded samples. Int. J. Legal Med. 2008, 122:135-142. 10.1007/s00414-007-0182-6.