Analysis of body fluids for forensic purposes: From laboratory testing to non-destructive rapid confirmatory identification at a crime scene

Forensic Science International

Volumn 188, Issue 1-3, 2009, Pages 1-17

  Virkler, Kelly ^a   Lednev, Igor K ^a  

^a STATE UNIVERSITY OF NEW YORK   (United States)

Author keywords

Biospectroscopy; Body fluid identification; Forensic biology; Non destructive analysis; Portable spectrometer; Raman spectroscopy

Indexed keywords

DNA;

BLOOD; BLOOD EXAMINATION; BODY FLUID; CRIME; FLUORESCENCE SPECTROSCOPY; FORENSIC IDENTIFICATION; HUMAN; LABORATORY TEST; LASER; PRIORITY JOURNAL; RAMAN SPECTROMETRY; REVIEW; SALIVA; SALIVA ANALYSIS; SCREENING TEST; SEMEN ANALYSIS; SPECTROSCOPY; SPERM; SWEAT; SYSTEMATIC REVIEW; URINALYSIS; URINE; VAGINA DISCHARGE; VICTIM;

BODILY SECRETIONS; BODY FLUIDS; DNA; FEMALE; FORENSIC MEDICINE; GENETIC TECHNIQUES; HUMANS; LABORATORY TECHNIQUES AND PROCEDURES; MALE; RNA, MESSENGER; VAGINA;

EID: 67349155553     PISSN: 03790738     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1016/j.forsciint.2009.02.013     Document Type: Review

References (123)

1. Best M.A. Statistical presentation of forensic data. In: Rapley R., and Whitehouse D. (Eds). Molecular Forensics (2007), John Wiley & Sons Ltd., West Sussex, England 185-195
2. Weber K. The use of chemiluminescence of Luminol in forensic medicine and toxicology. I. Identification of blood stains. Deut. Z. Gesamte Gerichtl. Med. 57 (1966) 410-423
3. Kirk P.L. Crime Investigation (1953), Interscience Publishers, New York
4. Allery J.P., Telmon N., Mieusset R., Blanc A., and Rouge D. Cytological detection of spermatozoa: comparison of three staining methods. J. Forensic Sci. 46 (2001) 349-351
5. Juusola J., and Ballantyne J. mRNA profiling for body fluid identification by multiplex quantitative RT-PCR. J. Forensic Sci. 52 (2007) 1252-1262
6. Haas C., Klesser B., Kratzer A., and Bar W. mRNA profiling for body fluid identification. Forensic Sci. Int. Gen. 1 (2008) 37-38
7. Nussbaumer C., Gharehbaghi-Schnell E., and Korschineck I. Messenger RNA profiling: a novel method for body fluid identification by real-time PCR. Forensic Sci. Int. 157 (2006) 181-186
8. Gaensslen R.E. Sourcebook in Forensic Serology, Immunology, and Biochemistry (1983), U.S. Department of Justice, Washington, DC
9. Spalding R.P. Identification and characterization of blood and bloodstains. In: James S.H., and Nordby J.J. (Eds). Forensic Science: an Introduction to Scientific and Investigative Techniques (2003), CRC Press, Boca Raton 181-201
10. Greenfield A., and Sloan M.A. Identification of biological fluids and stains. In: James S.H., and Nordby J.J. (Eds). Forensic Science: an Introduction to Scientific and Investigative Techniques (2003), CRC Press, Boca Raton 203-220
11. Shaler R.C. Modern forensic biology. In: Saferstein R. (Ed). Forensic Science Handbook (2002), Prentice Hall, Upper Saddle River, NJ 529-546
12. Jones Jr. E.L. The identification of semen and other body fluids. In: Saferstein R. (Ed). Forensic Science Handbook (2005), Prentice Hall, Upper Saddle River, NJ 329-382
13. Watson N. The Analysis of Body Fluids, Crime Scene to Court; the Essentials of Forensic Science (2004), Royal Society of Chemist, Cambridge, UK pp. 377-413
14. Li R. Forensic Biology (2008), CRC Press, Boca Raton
15. Virkler K., and Lednev I.K. Raman spectroscopy offers great potential for the nondestructive confirmatory identification of body fluids. Forensic Sci. Int. 181 (2008) e1-e5
16. L.S. Powers, C.R. Lloyd, Method and apparatus for detecting and imaging the presence of biological materials, 2004.
17. Altman P.L. Blood and Other Body Fluids (1961), Federation of American Societies for Experimental Biology, Washington, DC
18. Spinrad P. The RE/Search Guide to Body Fluids (1994), RE/Search Publications, San Francisco
19. Vandenberg N., and van Oorshot R.A.H. The use of Polilight in the detection of seminal fluid, saliva, and bloodstains and comparison with conventional chemical-based screening tests. J. Forensic Sci. 51 (2006) 361-370
20. Andersen J., and Bramble S. The effects of fingermark enhancement light sources on subsequent PCR-STR DNA analysis of fresh bloodstains. J. Forensic Sci. 42 (1997) 303-306
21. McNally L., Shaler R.C., Baird M., Balazs I., De Forest P., and Kobilinsky L. Evaluation of deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA) isolated from human bloodstains exposed to ultraviolet light, heat, humidity, and soil contamination. J. Forensic Sci. 34 (1989) 1059-1069
22. Barni F., Lewis S.W., Berti A., Miskelly G.M., and Lago G. Forensic application of the luminol reaction as a preumptive test for latent blood detection. Talanta 72 (2007) 896-913
23. Webb J.L., Creamer J.I., and Quickenden T.I. A comparison of the presumptive luminol test for blood with four non-chemiluminescent forensic techniques. Luminescence 21 (2006) 214-220
24. Quinones I., Sheppard D., Harbison S., and Elliot D. Comparative analysis of luminol formulations. Can. Soc. Forensic Sci. J. 40 (2006) 53-63
25. Luczak S., Wozniak M., Papuga M., Stopiniska K., and Sliwka K. A comparison of the Bluestar and luminol effectiveness in bloodstain detection. Arch. Med. Sadowej Kryminol. LVI (2006) 239-245
26. Castello A., Alvarez M., and Verdu F. Accuracy, reliability, and safety of luminol in bloodstain investigation. Can. Soc. Forensic Sci. J. 35 (2002) 113-121
27. Garofano L., Pizzamiglio M., Marino A., Brighenti A., and Romani F. A comparative study of the sensitivity and specifity of luminol and fluorescein on diluted and aged bloodstains and subsequent STRs typing. Int. Congress Ser. 1288 (2006) 657-659
28. Blum L.J., Esperanca P., and Rocquefelte S. A new high-performance reagent and procedure for latent bloodstain detection based on luminol chemiluminescence. Can. Soc. Forensic Sci. J. 39 (2006) 81-100
29. Sensabaugh G.F. Isozymes in forensic science. In: Rattazzi M.C., Scandalios J.G., and Whitt G.S. (Eds). Isozymes: Current Topics in Biological and Medical Research (1982), Alan R. Liss Inc., New York 247-260
30. Johnston E., Ames C.E., Dagnall K.E., Foster J., and Daniel B.E. Comparison of presumptive blood test kits including Hexagon OBTI. J. Forensic Sci. 53 (2008) 687-689
31. Dixon T.R., Samudra A.V., Stewart Jr. W.D., and Johari O. A scanning electron microscope study of dried blood. J. Forensic Sci. 21 (1976) 797-803
32. Sottolano S., and de Forest P.R. An improved technique for the preparation of Teichman and Takayama crystals from blood. Microscope 28 (1980) 41-46
33. Kotowski T.M., and Grieve M.C. The use of microspectrophotometry to characterize microscopic amounts of blood. J. Forensic Sci. 31 (1986) 1079-1085
34. Divall G.B., and Ismail M. Lactate dehydrogenase isozymes in vaginal swab extracts: a problem for the identification of menstrual blood. Forensic Sci. Int. 21 (1983) 139-147
35. Kashyap V.K. A simple immunosorbent assay for detection of human blood. J. Immunoassay 10 (1989) 315-324
36. Komuro T., Mukoyama R., and Mukoyama H. Application of enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA) to the medico-legal identification. Jpn. J. Clin. Med. 53 (1995) 2322-2329
37. Nucleic acids. In: Hutchins R.M. (Ed). Encyclopaedia Britannica (1970), Encyclopaedia Britannica Inc. pp. 707-712
38. Bauer M. RNA in forensic science. Forensic Sci. Int. Gen. 1 (2007) 69-74
39. Alvarez M., Juusola J., and Ballantyne J. An mRNA and DNA co-isolation method for forensic casework samples. Anal. Biochem. 335 (2004) 289-298
40. Juusola J., and Ballantyne J. Messenger RNA profiling: a prototype method to supplant conventional methods for body fluid identification. Forensic Sci. Int. 135 (2003) 85-96
41. Ballantyne J., and Juusola J. Messenger RNA Profiling: Body Fluid Identification using Muliplex Reverse Transcription-Polymerase Chain Reaction (RT-PCR) (2007), Research Foundation of The University of Central Florida Inc., USA
42. Juusola J., and Ballantyne J. Multiplex mRNA profiling for the identification of body fluids. Forensic Sci. Int. 152 (2005) 1-12
43. Bauer M., and Patzelt D. Evaluation of mRNA markers for the identification of menstrual blood. J. Forensic Sci. 47 (2002) 1278-1282
44. Bauer M., and Patzelt D. Identification of menstrual blood by real time RT-PCR: technical improvements and the practical value of negative test results. Forensic Sci. Int. 174 (2008) 54-58
45. Zubakov D., Hanekamp E., Kokshoorn M., van IJcken W., and Kayser M. Stable RNA markers for identification of blood and saliva stains revealed from whole genome expression analysis of time-wise degraded samples. Int. J. Legal Med. 122 (2008) 135-142
46. Reich K. Forensic Test for Human Blood (2008), Independent Forensics Inc., USA
47. Trombka J.I., Schweitzer J., Selavka C., Dale M., Gahn N., Floyd S., Marie J., Hobson M., Zeosky J., Martin K., McClannahan T., Solomon P., and Gottschang E. Crime scene investigations using portable, non-destructive space exploration technology. Forensic Sci. Int. 129 (2002) 1-9
48. Chun-Yen Lin A., Hsieh H.M., Tsai L.C., Linacre A., and Lee C.-I.##J. Forensic applications of infrared imaging for the detection and recording of latent evidence. J. Forensic Sci. 52 (2007) 1148-1150
49. Santucci K.A., Nelson D.G., McQuillen K.K., Duffy S.J., and Linakis J.G. Wood's lamp utility in the identification of semen. Pediatrics 104 (1999) 1342-1344
50. Nelson D.G., and Santucci K.A. An alternate light source to detect semen. Acad. Emerg. Med. 9 (2002) 1045-1048
51. Seiden H., and Duncan G.T. Presumptive screening test for seminal acid phosphatase using sodium thymolphthalein monophosphate. Assoc. Off. Anal. Chem. 66 (1983) 207-209
52. Banerjee P.K. Detection of acid phosphatase in seminal stains by a modified magneson II reagent. J. Inst. Chemists (India) 55 (1983) 23-25
53. Toates P. The forensic identification of semen by isoelectric focusing of seminal acid phosphatase. Forensic Sci. Int. 14 (1979) 191-214
54. Stolorow M., Hauncher J.D., and Stuver W.C. Identification of human seminal acid phosphstase by electrophoresis. J. AOAC 59 (1976) 1352-1356
55. Kido A., Oya M., Katsumata Y., Suzuki O., and Fujisawa K. Comparison of the specificity and the sensitivity between the leucine aminopeptidase (LAP) test and the acid phosphatase (ACP) test. Acta Crim. Jpn. 45 (1979) 127-130
56. Suzuki O., Hattori H., Katsumata Y., Oya M., and Mitzutani S. Limited usefulness of glycylproline dipeptidyl aminopeptidase as an indicator of seminal stains. Jpn. J. Legal Med. 35 (1981) 356-359
57. Kosa F., Rengei B., and Szendrenyi J. New criminalistic important method: study of cystine aminopeptidase activity for determination of sperm stain. Krim. Forens. Wiss. 67-68 (1987) 123-125
58. Suzuki O., Oya M., Kido A., Katsumata Y., and Asano M. γ-Glutamyltransferase test as a tool for identification of seminal stains. Z. Rechtsmed. 86 (1980) 35
59. Suzuki O., Asano M., Kido A., and Oya M. Zinc test as a new tool for identification of human seminal stains. Forensic Sci. Int. 22 (1983) 231-235
60. Hooft P.J., and van de Voorde H.P. Bayesian evaluation of the modified zinc test and the acid phosphatase spot test for forensic semen investigation. Am. J. Forens. Med. Pathol. 18 (1997) 45-49
61. Noppinger K., Morrison R., Jones N.H., and Hopkins H. An evaluation of an enzymatic choline determination for the identification of semen in casework samples. J. Forensic Sci. 32 (1987) 1069-1074
62. Suzuki O., Matsumoto T., Oya M., Matsumata Y., and Asano M. A new enzymatic method for the demonstration of choline in human seminal stains. J. Forensic Sci. 26 (1981) 410-415
63. Manabe F., Tsutsumi A., Yamamoto Y., Hashimoto Y., and Ishizu H. The identification of human semen by a chemiluminescent assay of choline. Jpn. J. Legal Med. 45 (1991) 205-215
64. Oki Y., Tsutsumi A., and Ishizu H. Medicolegal identification of semen by an isotachophoretic assay of choline. Jpn. J. Legal Med. 42 (1987) 1-12
65. Gonmori K., Yoshioka N., and Chattopadhyay P.K. Identification of human semen stains by thin-layer chromatography. Acta Crim. Jpn. 60 (1994) 149-154
66. Tsutsumi A. Assay of seminal spermine by isotachophoresis and its application to forensic science. Jpn. J. Legal Med. 41 (1987) 294-307
67. Suzuki O., Oya M., Katsumata Y., Matsumoto T., and Yada S. A new enzymatic method for the demonstration of spermine in human seminal stains. J. Forensic Sci. 25 (1980) 99
68. Sato S., Moriya F., Yamamoto Y., and Ishizu H. Assay of polyamine in semen and seminal stains by HPLC with fluorometric determination of o-phthalaldehyde-deivatives. Current Topics in Forensic Science: Proceedings of the 14th Meeting of the International Association of Forensic Sciences. Shunderson Communications, Tokyo, Japan (1996) 40-43
69. Seta S. Application of scanning electron microscopy and energy dispersive x-ray microanalysis to the criminal identification of body fluid stains. Int. Crim. Police Rev. 307 (1977) 119-123
70. Healy D.A., Hayes C.J., Leonard P., McKenna L., and O'Kennedy R. Biosensor developments: application to prostate-specific antigen detection. Trends Biotechnol. 25 (2007) 125-131
71. Tsuda R., Hara M., and Sagawa K. Demonstration of seminal stains by sandwich ELISA using monoclonal y-seminoprotein anitbody bound to acrylbutadienestyrene beads: forensic immunological studies on body fluids and secretion, report XXIII. Jpn. J. Legal Med. 38 (1984) 83-87
72. Rao D.V., and Kashyap V.K. Dot blot immonoassay for detection of human semen. J. Immunoassay 13 (1992) 537-544
73. Matsuzawa S., Itoh Y., Kimura H., Kobayashi R., Nakagawa T., and Ohno S. Rapid detection of human seminal plasma proteins by membrane aspiration test (MAT). Forensic Sci. Int. 64 (1994) 119-124
74. Masibay A.S., and Lappas N.T. The detection of protein p30 in seminal stains by means of thin-layer immunoassay. J. Forensic Sci. 29 (1984) 1173-1177
75. Maher J., Vintiner S., Elliot D., and Melia L. Evaluation of the BioSign PSA membrane test for the identification of semen stains in forensic casework. N. Z. Med. J. 115 (2002) 48-49
76. Hochmeister M.N., Budowle B., Rudin O., Gehrig C., Borer U., Thali M., and Dirnhofer R. Evaluation of prostate-specific antigen (PSA) membrane test assays for the forensic identification of seminal fluid. J. Forensic Sci. 44 (1999) 1057-1060
77. Kearsey J., Louie H., and Poon H. Validation study of the "OneStep ABAcard PSA test" kit for RCMP casework. Can. Soc. Forensic Sci. J. 34 (2001) 63-72
78. Denison S.J., Lopes E.M., D'costa L., and Newman J.C. Positive prostate-specific antigen (PSA) results in semen-free samples. Can. Soc. Forensic Sci. J. 37 (2004) 197-206
79. Sato I., Sagi M., Ishiwari A., Nishijima H., Ito E., and Mukai T. Use of the "SMITEST" PSA card to identify the presence of prostate-specific antigen in semen and male urine. Forensic Sci. Int. 127 (2002) 71-74
80. Yokota M., Mitani T., Tsujita H., Kobayashi T., Higuchi T., Akane A., and Nasu M. Evaluation of prostate-specific antigen (PSA) membrane test for forensic examination of semen. Legal Med. 3 (2001) 171-176
81. Simich J.P., Morris S.L., Klick R.L., and Rittenhouse-Diakun K. Validation of the use of a commercially available kit for the identification of prostate specific antigen (PSA) in semen stains. J. Forensic Sci. 44 (1999) 1229-1231
82. Herr J.C., Summers T.A., McGee R.S., Sutherland W.M., Sigman M., and Evans R.J. Characterization of a monoclonal antibody to a conserved epitope on human seminal vesicle-specific peptides: a novel probe/marker system for semen identification. Biol. Reprod. 35 (1986) 773-784
83. Sato I., Yoshiike M., Yamasaki T., Yoshida K., Takano S., Mukai T., and Iwamoto T. A dot-blot immunoassay for semen identification using a polyclonal antibody against semenogelin, a powerful seminal marker. Forensic Sci. Int. 122 (2001) 27-34
84. Sato I., Kojima K., Yamasaki T., Yoshida K., Yoshiike M., Takano S., Mukai T., and Iwamoto T. Rapid detection of semenogelin by one-step immunochromatographic assay for semen identification. J. Immunol. Methods 287 (2004) 137-145
85. King S.J., Sutton J.G., and Trewsdale L.A. Radioimmunoassay detection limits for 19-OH F1a/F2a prostaglandin in normal, infertile, and vastectomized semen stains. Analysis of saliva, sweat and urine for possible non-specific or matrix effects. Forensic Sci. Int. 40 (1989) 221-229
86. Lolov S.R., Yomtova V.M., Tsankov Y., Kehayov I.R., and Kyurkcheniev S.D. An express immunological method dor detection of human seminal plasma. Forensic Sci. Int. 54 (1992) 39-50
87. Allen S.M. An enzyme linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA) for detection of seminal fluid using a monoclonal antibody to prostatic acid phosphtase. J. Immunoassay 16 (1995) 297-308
88. Tsutsumi A., Yamamoto Y., Okamura K., Oki Y., Hamada K., and Ishizu H. LDH isoenzyme in human semen and seminal stains. Acta Crim. Jpn. 50 (1984) 1-8
89. Mokashi R.H., Malwankar A.G., and Madiwale M.S. Detection of semen in the presence of blood and vaginal secretion. J. Indian Acad. Forensic Sci. 14 (1975) 1-3
90. Pang B.C.M., and Cheung B.K.K. Identification of human semenogelin in membrane strip test as an alternative method for the detection of semen. Forensic Sci. Int. 169 (2007) 27-31
91. Sato I., Barni F., Yoshiiki M., Rapone C., Berti A., Nakaki S., Yamazaki K., Ishikawa F., and Iwamoto T. Applicability of Nanotrap Sg as a semen detection kit before male-specific DNA profiling in sexual assaults. Int. J. Legal Med. 121 (2007) 315-319
92. Fielder A., Rehdorf J., Hilbers F., Johrdan L., Stribl C., and Benecke M. Detection of semen (human and boar) and saliva on fabrics by a very high powered UV-/VIS-light source. Open Forensic Sci. J. 1 (2008) 12-15
93. Auvdel M.J. Comparison of laser and high-intensity quartz arc tubes in the detection of body secretions. J. Forensic Sci. 33 (1988) 929-945
94. Quarino L., Hess J., Shenouda M., Ristenbatt R.R., Gold J., and Shaler R.C. Differentiation of α-amylase from various sources: an approach using selective inhibitors. J. Forensic Sci. Soc. 33 (1993) 87-94
95. Martin N.C., Clayson N.J., and Scrimger D.G. The sensitivity and specificity of Red-Starch paper for the detection of saliva. Sci. Justice 46 (2006) 97-105
96. Troeger H.D., Schuck M., and Tutsch-Bauer E. Identification of saliva traces using a test strip. Forensic Sci. Int. 25 (1984) 143-146
97. Ohya I., Iwasa M., Komoriya H., Bunai Y., and Sagisaka K. Identification of human saliva by antisera to a-amylase in human salivary glands. Tohoku J. Exp. Med. 150 (1986) 309-315
98. Quarino L., Dang Q., Hartmann J., and Moynihan N. An ELISA method for the identification of salivary amylase. J. Forensic Sci. 50 (2005) 873-876
99. K. Reich, Forensic test for human saliva, USA, 2007.
100. Myers J.R., and Adkins W.K. Comparison of modern techniques for saliva screening. J. Forensic Sci. 53 (2008) 862-867
101. Pang B.C., and Cheung B.K.K. Applicability of two commercially available kits for forensic identification of saliva stains. J. Forensic Sci. 53 (2008) 1117-1122
102. Soukos N.S., Crowley K., Bamberg M.P., Gillies R., Doukas A.G., Evans R., and Kollias N. A rapid method to detect dried saliva stains swabbed from human skin using fluorescence spectroscopy. Forensic Sci. Int. 114 (2000) 133-138
103. Divall G.B. A new peptidase isozyme which may assist in the identification of vaginal debris. Forensic Sci. Int. 24 (1984) 239-246
104. Hausmann R., Baltzer M., and Schellmann B. The forensic value of the immunohistochemical detection of oestrogen receptors in vaginal epithelium. Int. J. Legal Med. 109 (1996) 10-13
105. Martin P.D., and Cheshire S.K. A comparative study of the citrate and lactate concentrations in stains from semen, vaginal secretion and mixtures of the two using isotachophoresis. Adv. Forensic Haemogen. 1 (1986) 299-303
106. Sakurada K., Motani H., Akutsu T., Ikegaya H., and Iwase H. Identification of vaginal stains by detection of 17β-estradiol. Can. Soc. Forensic Sci. J. 41 (2008) 13-19
107. Kozu T., Ichinose T., Komatsu Y., and Kakegawa K. Identification of urine stains by a urease spray reagent. Rep. Natl. Res. Inst. Police Sci. 30 (1977) 18-20
108. Bedrosian J.L., Stolorow M.D., and Tahir M.A. Development of a radial gel diffusion technique for the identification of urea in urine stains. J. Forensic Sci. 29 (1984) 601-606
109. Kimura A., Nakashima R., Yasuda S., Takata H., Ikemoto E., Nosaka M., and Tsuji T. Production of monocolonal antibodies to Tamm-Horsfall protein and their application to identification of human urine. Current Topics in Forensic Science: Proceedings of the 14th Meeting of the International Association of Forensic Sciences. Shunderson Communications, Tokyo, Japan (1996) 34-37
110. Tsutsumi H., Okajima H., Sato K., and Katsumata Y. Identification of human urine stains by enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay for human uromucoid. J. Forensic Sci. 33 (1988) 237-243
111. Taylor M.C., and Hunt J.S. Forensic identification of human urine by radioimmunoassay for Tamm-Horsfall urinary glycoprotein. J. Forensic Sci. Soc. 23 (1983) 67-72
112. Sato K., Tsutsumi H., Htay H.H., Tamaki K., Okajima H., and Katsumata Y. Identification of human urinary stains by the quotient uric acid/urea nitrogen. Forensic Sci. Int. 45 (1990) 27-38
113. Hayashiba Y., Kashimura S., Kageura M., Kimura K., and Nakazono T. Identification of conjugated 17-ketosteroids in urine stain by HPLC. In: Takatori T., and Takasu A. (Eds). Current Topics in Forensic Science: Proceedings of the Meeting of the International Association of forensic Sciences. Shunderson Communications, Tokyo, Japan (1996) 19-21
114. Nakazono T., Kashimura S., Hayashiba Y., Hisatomi T., and Hara K. Identification of human urine stains by HPLC analysis of 17-ketosteroid conjugates. J. Forensic Sci. 47 (2002) 568-572
115. Hisatomi T., Nakazono T., Hayashiba Y., and Fukushima S. Mass spectrometric analysis of 17-ketosteroid in urine stain. Nippon Iyo Masu Supekutoru Gakkai Koenshu 23 (1998) 145-146
116. Nakazono T., Kashimura S., Hayashiba Y., Hara K., Matsusue A., and Augustin C. Dual examinations for identification of urine as being of human origin and for DNA-typing from small stains of human urine. J. Forensic Sci. 53 (2008) 359-363
117. Sagawa K., Kimura A., Saito Y., Inoue H., Yasuda S., Nosaka M., and Tsuji T. Production and characterization of a monoclonal antibody for sweat-specific protein and its application for sweat identification. Int. J. Legal Med. 117 (2003) 90-95
118. Estes C., Duncan A., Wade B., Lloyd C., Ellis Jr. W., and Powers L. Reagentless detection of microorganisms by intrinsic fluorescence. Biosens. Bioelectron. 18 (2003) 511-519
119. Grasselli J. Chemical Applications of Raman Spectroscopy (1981), John Wiley & Sons, New York
120. Yan F., and Vo-Dinh T. Surface-enhanced Raman scattering detection of chemical and biological agents using a portable Raman integrated tunable sensor. Sens. Actuators, B (2007) 61-66
121. Eckenrode A., Bartick E.G., Harvey S., Vucelick M.E., Wright B.W., and Huff R.A. Portable Raman spectroscopy systems for field analysis. Forensic Sci. Commun. 3 (2001)
122. Jacoby M. Clues at the scene of a crime: advances in forensics push the limits of trace analysis and raise public interest in science. Chem. Eng. News 86 (2008) 59-60
123. De Wael K., Lepot L., Gason F., and Gilbert B. In search of blood-detection of minute particles using spectroscopic methods. Forensic Sci. Int. 180 (2008) 37-42