Diet-induced obesity in animal models and what they tell us about human obesity

Neurobiology of Obesity

Volumn , Issue , 2008, Pages 164-195

  Levin, Barry E ^a   Strack, Alison M ^a  

^a VETERANS AFFAIRS MEDICAL CENTER   (United States)

Author keywords

[No Author keywords available]

Indexed keywords

EID: 84923167979     PISSN: None     EISSN: None     Source Type: Book    
DOI: 10.1017/CBO9780511541643.007     Document Type: Chapter

References (200)

1. Abou, M. J., Yakubu, F., Lin, D., Peters, J. C., Atkinson, J. B. & Hill, J. O. (1992). Skeletal muscle composition in dietary obesity-susceptible and dietary obesity-resistant rats. Am. J. Physiol.262, 1–8.
2. Adachi, A., Shimizu, N., Oomura, Y. & Kobashi, M. (1984). Convergence of heptoportal glucose-sensitive afferent signals to glucose-sensitive units within the nucleus of the solitary tract. Neurosci. Lett.46, 215–18.
3. Altmann, J., Schoeller, D., Altmann, S. A., Muruthi, P. & Sapolsky, R. M. (1993). Body size and fatness of free-living baboons reflect food availability and activity levels. Am. J. Primatol.30, 149–61.
4. Anand, B. K., Chhina, G. S., Sharma, K. N., Dua, S. & Singh, B. (1964). Activity of single neurons in the hypothalamus feeding centers: effect of glucose. Am. J. Physiol.207, 1146–54.
5. Archer, Z. A., Rayner, D. V., Rozman, J., Klingenspor, M. & Mercer, J. G. (2003). Normal distribution of body weight gain in male Sprague–Dawley rats fed a high-energy diet. Obes. Res.11, 1376–83.
6. Bai, F., Sozen, M. A., Lukiw, W. J. & Argyropoulos, G. (2005). Expression of AgRP, NPY, POMC and CART in human fetal and adult hippocampus. Neuropeptides39, 439–43.
7. Balkan, B., Strubbe, J. H., Bruggink, J. E. & Steffens, A. B. (1993). Overfeeding-induced obesity in rats: insulin sensitivity and autonomic regulation of metabolism Metabolism. 42, 1509–18.
8. Banks, W. A. & Farrell, C. L. (2003). Impaired transport of leptin across the blood-brain barrier in obesity is acquired and reversible. Am. J. Physiol.285, E10–15.
9. Banks, W. A., DiPalma, C. R. & Farrell, C. L. (1999). Impaired transport of leptin across the blood–brain barrier in obesity. Peptides20, 1341–5.
10. Banks, W. A., Altmann, J., Sapolsky, R. M., Phillips-Conroy, J. E. & Morley, J. E. (2003). Serum leptin levels as a marker for a syndrome X-like condition in wild baboons. J. Clin. Endocrinol. Metab.88, 1234–40.
11. Bellinger, L. L. & Bernardis, L. L. (2002). The dorsomedial hypothalamic nucleus and its role in ingestive behavior and body weight regulation: lessons learned from lesioning studies. Physiol Behav. 76, 431–42.
12. Bergman, R. N. & Ader, M. (2000). Free fatty acids and pathogenesis of type 2 diabetes mellitus. TEM11, 351–6.
13. Berthoud, H. -R. (1985). Cephalic phase insulin response as a predictor of body weight gain and obesity induced by a palatable cafeteria diet. J. Obes. Weight Reg.4, 120–8.
14. Bickel, P. E. (2002). Lipid rafts and insulin signaling. Am. J. Physiol. Endocrinol. Metab.282, E1–10.
15. Bjorntorp, P. (1991). Metabolic implications of body fat distribution. Diabetes Care14, 1132–43.
16. Bodkin, N. L., Hannah, J. S., Ortmeyer, H. K. & Hansen, B. C. (1993). Central obesity in rhesus monkeys: association with hyperinsulinemia, insulin resistance and hypertriglyceridemia? Int. J. Obes. Relat. Metab. Disord.17, 53–61.
17. Boozer, C. N. & Lauterio, T. J. (1998). High initial levels of plasma leptin predict dietinduced obesity in rats. Int. J. Ob.22, S166.
18. Bouchard, C. & Perusse, L. (1993). Genetics of obesity. Ann. Rev. Nutr.13, 337–54.
19. Burcelin, R., Crivelli, V., Dacosta, A., Roy-Tirelli, A. & Thorens, B. (2002). Heterogeneous metabolic adaptation of C57BL/6J mice to high-fat diet. Am. J. Physiol.282, E834–42.
20. Butterwick, R. F. & Hawthorne, A. J. (1998). Advances in dietary management of obesity in dogs and cats. J. Nutr.128, 2771s–5s.
21. Cai, G., Cole, S. A., Tejero, M. E. et al. (2004). Pleiotropic effects of genes for insulin resistance on adiposity in baboons. Obes. Res.12, 1766–72.
22. Camacho, R. E., Forrest, M. J., MacIntyre, D. E. & Strack, A. M. (1999). Increased sensitivity to dexfenfluramine in rats on high fat diet. FASEB J. 13, A751.
23. Caro, J. F., Kolaczynski, J. W., Nyce, M. R. et al. (1996). Decreased cerebrospinal-fluid/serum leptin ratio in obesity: a possible mechanism for leptin resistance. Lancet348, 159–61.
24. Chandler, P., Viana, J., Oswald, K., Wauford, P. & Boggiano, M. (2005). Feeding response to melanocortin agonist predicts preference for and obesity from a high-fat diet. Physiol. Behav.85, 221–30.
25. Chang, S., Graham, B., Yakubu, F., Lin, D., Peters, J. C. & Hill, J. O. (1990). Metabolic differences between obesity-prone and obesity-resistant rats. Am. J. Physiol. Regul. Integr. Comp. Physiol.259, R1103–10.
26. Clark, F. M., Yeomans, D. C. & Proudfit, H. K. (1991). The noradrenergic innervation of the spinal cord: differences between two substrains of Sprague-Dawley rats determined using retrograde tracers combined with immunocytochemistry. Neurosci. Lett.125, 155–8.
27. Clegg, D. J., Riedy, C. A., Smith, K. A., Benoit, S. C. & Woods, S. C. (2003). Differential sensitivity to central leptin and insulin in male and female rats. Diabetes52, 682–7.
28. Clegg, D. J., Benoit, S. C., Reed, J. A., Woods, S. C. & Levin, B. E. (2005). Reduced anorexic effects of insulin in obesity-prone rats and rats fed a moderate fat diet. Am. J. Physiol.288, R981–6.
29. Cohn, C., Joseph, D. & Shrago, E. (1957). Effect of diet on body composition. I. The production of increased body fat without overweight (nonobese obesity) by force feeding the normal rat. Metabolism6, 381–7.
30. Cole, S. A., Martin, L. J., Peebles, K. W. et al. (2003). Genetics of leptin expression in baboons. Int. J. Obes.27, 778–83.
31. Commerford, S. R., Pagliassotti, M. J., Melby, C. L., Wei, Y., Gayles, E. C. & Hill, J. O. (2000). Fat oxidation, lipolysis, and free fatty acid cycling in obesity-prone and obesity-resistant rats. Am. J. Physiol.279, E875–85.
32. Comuzzie, A. G., Cole, S. A., Martin, L. et al. (2003). The baboon as a nonhuman primate model for the study of the genetics of obesity. Obes. Res.11, 75–80.
33. Corbett, S. W., Stern, J. S. & Keesey, R. E. (1986). Energy expenditure in rats with dietinduced obesity. Am. J. Clin. Nutr.44, 173–80.
34. Dallaporta, M., Himmi, T., Perrin, J. & Orsini, J. C. (1999). Solitary tract nucleus sensitivity to moderate changes in glucose level. NeuroReport10, 2657–60.
35. Davies, A. D., Dobrian, R. L., Prewitt, R. L. & Lauterio, J. L. (1999). Metabolic syndrome in a diet-induced obesity model. Obes. Res.7, 127S.
36. Davis, J. D. & Wirtshafter, D. (1978). Set points or settling points for body weight?: A reply to Mrosovsky and Powley. Behav. Biol.24, 405–11.
37. Drewnowski, A., Cohen, A. E., Faust, I. M. & Grinker, J. A. (1984). Meal-taking behavior is related to predisposition to dietary obesity in the rat. Physiol. Behav.32, 61–7.
38. Dunn-Meynell, A. A., Routh, V. H., Kang, L., Gaspers, L. & Levin, B. E. (2002). Glucokinase is the likely mediator of glucosensing in both glucose excited and glucose inhibited central neurons. Diabetes51, 2056–65.
39. El-Haschimi, K., Pierroz, D. D., Hileman, S. M., Bjorbaek, C. & Flier, J. S. (2000). Two defects contribute to hypothalamic leptin resistance in mice with diet-induced obesity. J. Clin. Invest.105, 1827–32.
40. Farley, C., Cook, J. A., Spar, B. D., Austin, T. M. & Kowalski, T. J. (2003). Meal pattern analysis of diet-induced obesity in susceptible and resistant rats. Obes. Res.11, 845–51.
41. Foster, D. O. & Frydman, M. L. (1978). Nonshivering thermogenesis in the rat. II. Measurement of blood flow with microspheres points to brown adipose tissue as the dominant site of calorigenesis induced by noradrenaline. Can. J. Physiol. Pharmacol.56, 110–22.
42. Gayles, E. C., Pagliassotti, M. J., Prach, P. A., Koppenhafer, T. A. & Hill, J. O. (1997). Contribution of energy intake and tissue enzymatic profile to body weight in high-fat-fed rats. Am. J. Physiol.272, R188–94.
43. Grill, H. J., Schwartz, M. W., Kaplan, J. M., Foxhall, J. S., Breininger, J. & Baskin, D. G. (2002). Evidence that the caudal brainstem is a target for the inhibitory effect of leptin on food intake. Endocrinology143, 239–46.
44. Grinker, J. A. & Block, W. D. (1991). Sensory responses, dietary-induced obesity and biochemical values in Sprague–Dawley rats. Brain Res. Bull.27, 535–40.
45. Guo, F. & Jen, K. -L. (1995). High-fat feeding during pregnancy and lactation affects offspring metabolism in rats. Physiol. Behav.57, 681–6.
46. Hales, C. N. & Barker, D. J. (1992). Type 2 (non-insulin-dependent) diabetes mellitus: the thrifty phenotype hypothesis. Diabetologia35, 595–601.
47. Hall, J. E., Brands, M. W., Hildebrandt, D. A., Kuo, J. & Fitzgerald, S. (2000). Role of sympathetic nervous system and neuropeptides in obesity hypertension. Braz. J. Med. Biol. Res.33, 605–18.
48. Hamilton, C. L., Kuo, P. T. & Fenge, L. Y. (1972). Experimental production of syndrome of obesity, hyperinsulinemia and hyperlipidemia in monkeys. Proc. Soc. Exp. Biol. Med.140, 1005–8.
49. Hansen, B. C., Bodkin, N. L. & Ortmeyer, H. K. (1999). Calorie restriction in nonhuman primates: mechanisms of reduced morbidity and mortality. Toxicol. Sci.52, 56–60.
50. Harrold, J. A., Williams, G. & Widdowson, P. S. (2000). Early leptin response to a palatable diet predicts dietary obesity in rats: key role of melanocortin-4 receptors in the ventromedial hypothalamic nucleus. J. Neurochem.74, 1224–8.
51. Hassanain, M. & Levin, B. E. (2002). Dysregulation of hypothalamic serotonin turnover in diet-induced obese rats. Brain Res. 929, 175–80.
52. Helies, J. M., Diane, A., Langlois, A. et al. (2005). Comparison of fat storage between Fischer 344 and obesity-resistant Lou/C rats fed different diets. Obes. Res.13, 3–10.
53. Hill, J. O., Fried, S. K. & Digirolamo, M. (1983). Effects of a high-fat diet on energy intake and expenditure in rats. Life Sci. 33, 141–9.
54. Hill, J. O., Dorton, J., Sykes, M. N. & Digirolamo, M. (1989). Reversal of dietary obesity is influenced by its duration and severity. Int. J. Obes.13, 711–22.
55. Hollifield, G. & Parson, W. (1962). Metabolic adaptations to a “stuff and starve” feeding program. II. Obesity and the persistence of adaptive changes in adipose tissue and liver occurring in rats limited to a short daily feeding period. J. Clin. Invest.41, 250–3.
56. Ingle, D. J. (1949). A simple means of producing obesity in the rat. Proc. Soc. Exp. Biol. Med.72, 604.
57. Jeusette, I. C., Detilleux, J., Shibata, H. et al. (2005). Effects of chronic obesity and weight loss on plasma ghrelin and leptin concentrations in dogs. Res. Vet. Sci.79, 169–75.
58. Jones, A. P., Simson, E. L. & Friedman, M. I. (1984). Gestational undernutrition and the development of obesity in rats. J. Nutr.114, 1484–92.
59. Kaiyala, K. J., Prigeon, R. L., Kahn, S. E., Woods, S. C., Porte, D. & Schwartz, M. W. (1999). Reduced b-cell function contributes to impaired glucose tolerance in dogs made obese by high-fat feeding. Am. J. Physiol.277, E659–67.
60. Kaiyala, K. J., Prigeon, R. L., Kahn, S. E., Woods, S. C. & Schwartz, M. W. (2000). Obesity induced by a high-fat diet is associated with reduced brain insulin transport in dogs. Diabetes49, 1525–33.
61. Kang, L., Routh, V. H., Kuzhikandathil, E. V., Gaspers, L. & Levin, B. E. (2004). Physiological and molecular characteristics of rat hypothalamic ventromedial nucleus glucosensing neurons. Diabetes53, 549–59.
62. Keesey, R. E., Mitchel, J. S. & Kemnitz, J. W. (1979). Body weight and body composition of male rats following hypothalamic lesions. Am. J. Physiol.237, R68–73.
63. Kemnitz, J. W., Goy, R. W., Flitsch, T. J., Lohmiller, J. J. & Robinson, J. A. (1989). Obesity in male and female rhesus monkeys: fat distribution, glucoregulation, and serum androgen levels. J. Clin. Endocrinol. Metab.69, 287–93.
64. Kennedy, G. C. (1953). The role of depot fat in the hypothalamic control of food intake in the rat. Proc. R. Soc. Lond. B. Biol. Sci.611, 221–35.
65. Kennedy, G. C. (1957). The development with age of hypothalamic restraint upon the appetite of the rat. J. Endocrinol.16, 9–17.
66. King, B. M., Kass, J. M., Neville, K. L., Sam, H., Tatford, A. C. I. & Zansler, A. C. (1993). Abnormal weight gain in rats with amygdaloid lesions. Physiol. Behav.54, 467–70.
67. Kowalski, T. J., Houpt, T. A., Jahng, J., Okada, N., Chua Jr., S. C. & Smith, G. P. (1998). Ontogeny of neuropeptide Y expression in response to deprivation in lean Zucker rat pups. Am. J. Physiol.275, R466–70.
68. Kramer, F. M., Jeffery, R. W., Forster, J. L. & Snell, M. K. (1989). Long-term follow-up of behavioral treatment for obesity: patterns of weight regain among men and women. Int. J. Obes.13, 123–36.
69. Landerholm, T. E. & Stern, J. S. (1992). Adipose tissue lipolysis in vitro: a predictor of diet-induced obesity in female rats. Am. J. Physiol. Regul. Integr. Comp. Physiol.263, R1248–53.
70. Lane, M. A., Ingram, D. K. & Roth, G. S. (1999). Calorie restriction in nonhuman primates: effects on diabetes and cardiovascular disease risk. Toxicol. Sci.52, 41–8.
71. Lauterio, T. J. & Perez, F. M. (1997). Growth hormone secretion and synthesis are depressed in obesity-susceptible compared with obesity-resistant rats. Metabolism46, 210–16.
72. Leibel, R. L. & Hirsch, J. (1984). Diminished energy requirements in reduced-obese patients. Metabolism33, 164–70.
73. Levin, B. E. (1990a). Obesity-prone and -resistant rats differ in their brain 3H paraminoclonidine binding. Brain Res. 512, 54–9.
74. Levin, B. E. (1990b). Increased brain 3H paraminoclonidine (a2-adrenoceptor) binding associated with perpetuation of diet-induced obesity in rats. Int. J. Obes.14, 689–700.
75. Levin, B. E. (1991a). Defective cerebral glucose utilization in diet-induced obese rats. Am. J. Physiol.261, R787–92.
76. Levin, B. E. (1991b). Spontaneous motor activity during the development and maintenance of diet-induced obesity in the rat. Physiol. Behav.50, 573–81.
77. Levin, B. E. (1992). Intracarotid glucose-induced norepinephrine response and the development of diet-induced obesity. Int. J. Obesity.16, 451–7.
78. Levin, B. E. (1994). Diet cycling and age alter weight gain and insulin levels in rats. Am. J. Physiol.267, R527–35.
79. Levin, B. E. (1995). Reduced norepinephrine turnover in organs and brains of obesity-prone rats. Am. J. Physiol.268, R389–94.
80. Levin, B. E. (1996). Reduced paraventricular nucleus norepinephrine responsiveness in obesity-prone rats. Am. J. Physiol.270, R456–61.
81. Levin, B. E. (1999). Arcuate NPY neurons and energy homeostasis in diet-induced obese and resistant rats. Am. J. Physiol.276, R382–7.
82. Levin, B. E. (2000). Metabolic imprinting on genetically predisposed neural circuits perpetuates obesity. Nutrition.16, 909–15.
83. Levin, B. E. (2001). Glucosensing neurons do more than just sense glucose. Int. J. Obes. Relat. Metab. Disord.25, S68–72.
84. Levin, B. E. (2002a). Glucosensing neurons: the metabolic sensors of the brain? Diab. Nutr. Metab.15, 274–80.
85. Levin, B. E. (2002b). Metabolic sensors: viewing glucosensing neurons from a broader perspective. Physiol. Behav.76, 397–401.
86. Levin, B. E. (2004). The drive to regain is mainly in the brain. Am. J. Physiol.287, R1297–300.
87. Levin, B. E. & Dunn-Meynell, A. A. (1997a). In vivo and in vitro regulation of [3H]glyburide binding to brain sulfonylurea receptors in obesity-prone and resistant rats by glucose. Brain Res. 776, 146–53.
88. Levin, B. E. & Dunn-Meynell, A. A. (1997b). Dysregulation of arcuate nucleus preproneuropeptide Y mRNA in diet-induced obese rats. Am. J. Physiol.272, R1365–70.
89. Levin, B.E. & Dunn-Meynell, A. A. (2000). Defense of body weight against chronic caloric restriction in obesity-prone and -resistant rats. Am. J. Physiol.278, R231–7.
90. Levin, B. E. & Dunn-Meynell, A. A. (2002a). Reduced central leptin sensitivity in rats with diet-induced obesity. Am. J. Physiol.283, R941–8.
91. Levin, B. E. & Dunn-Meynell, A. A. (2002b). Defense of body weight depends on dietary composition and palatability in rats with diet-induced obesity. Am. J. Physiol.282, R46–54.
92. Levin, B. E. & Dunn-Meynell, A. A. (2002c) Maternal obesity alters adiposity and monoamine function in genetically predisposed offspring. Am. J. Physiol.283, R1087–93.
93. Levin, B. E. & Dunn-Meynell, A. A. (2005). Differential effects of exercise on body weight gain in obesity-prone and -resistant rats. Int. J. Obes.30, 722–7.
94. Levin, B. E. & Govek, E. (1998). Gestational obesity accentuates obesity in obesityprone progeny. Am. J. Physiol.275, R1374–9.
95. Levin, B. E. & Hamm, M. W. (1994). Plasticity of brain a-adrenoceptors during the development of diet-induced obesity in the rat. Obes Res. 2, 230–8.
96. Levin, B. E. & Keesey, R. E. (1998). Defense of differing body weight set-points in dietinduced obese and resistant rats. Am. J. Physiol.274, R412–19.
97. Levin, B. E. & Planas, B. (1993). Defective glucoregulation of brain a2-adrenoceptors in obesity-prone rats. Am. J. Physiol.264, R305–11.
98. Levin, B. E. & Sullivan, A. C. (1987). Glucose-induced norepinephrine levels and obesity resistance. Am. J. Physiol.253, R475–81.
99. Levin, B. E. & Sullivan, A. C. (1989a). Glucose-induced sympathetic activation in obesity-prone and resistant rats. Int. J. Obesity.13, 235–46.
100. Levin, B.E. & Sullivan, A.C. (1989b). Differences in saccharin-induced cerebral glucose utilization between obesity-prone and resistant rats. Brain Res. 488, 221–32.
101. Levin, B. E., Triscari, J. & Sullivan, A. C. (1982). Sympathetic activity in thyroid–treated Zucker rats. Am. J. Physiol.243, R170–8.
102. Levin, B. E., Triscari, J. & Sullivan, A. C. (1983). Relationship between sympathetic activity and diet-induced obesity in two rat strains. Am. J. Physiol.245, R367–71.
103. Levin, B. E., Finnegan, M., Triscari, J. & Sullivan, A. C. (1985). Brown adipose and metabolic features of chronic diet-induced obesity. Am. J. Physiol.248, R717–23.
104. Levin, B. E., Triscari, J. & Sullivan, A. C. (1986). The effect of diet and chronic obesity on brain catecholamine turnover in the rat. Pharmacol. Biochem. Behav.24, 299–304.
105. Levin, B. E., Brown, K. L. & Vincent, D. G. (1994). Increased potency and binding of mazindol to putative brain anorectic receptors in obesity-prone rats. Brain Res. 668, 171–9.
106. Levin, B. E., Brown, K. L. & Dunn-Meynell, A. A. (1996). Differential effects of diet and obesity on high and low affinity sulfonylurea binding sites in the rat brain. Brain Res. 739, 293–300.
107. Levin, B. E., Dunn-Meynell, A. A., Balkan, B. & Keesey, R. E. (1997). Selective breeding for diet-induced obesity and resistance in Sprague–Dawley rats. Am. J. Physiol.273, R725–30.
108. Levin, B. E., Govek, E. K. & Dunn-Meynell, A. A. (1998). Reduced glucose-induced neuronal activation in the hypothalamus of diet-induced obese rats. Brain Res. 808, 317–19.
109. Levin, B. E., Richard, D., Michel, C. & Servatius, R. (2000). Differential stress responsivity in diet-induced obese and resistant rats. Am. J. Physiol.279, R1357–64.
110. Levin, B. E., Dunn-Meynell, A. A. & Banks, W. A. (2003a). Obesity-prone rats have normal blood-brain barrier transport but defective central leptin signaling prior to obesity onset. Am. J. Physiol.286, R143–50.
111. Levin, B. E., Dunn-Meynell, A. A., McMinn, J. E., Cunningham-Bussel, A. & Chua, S. C. Jr. (2003b). A new obesity-prone, glucose intolerant rat strain (F.DIO). Am. J. Physiol.285, R1184–91.
112. Levin, B. E., Dunn-Meynell, A. A., Ricci, M. R. & Cummings, D. E. (2003c). Abnormalities of leptin and ghrelin regulation in obesity-prone juvenile rats. Am. J. Physiol.285, E949–57.
113. Levin, B.E., Routh, V.H., Kang, L., Sanders, K. L. & Dunn-Meynell, A. A. (2004). Neuronal glucosensing: what do we know after 50 years? Diabetes53, 2521–8.
114. Levin, B. E., Magnan, C., Migrenne, S., Chua, S. C. Jr. & Dunn-Meynell, A. A. (2005). The F-DIO obesity-prone rat is insulin resistant prior to obesity onset. Am. J. Physiol.289, R704–11.
115. Lewis, D. S., Coelho, A. M. J. & Jackson, E. M. (1991). Maternal weight and sire group, not caloric intake, influence adipocyte volume in infant female baboons. Pediatr. Res.30, 534–40.
116. Lewis, D. S., Jackson, E. M. & Mott, G. E. (1992). Effect of energy intake on postprandial plasma hormones and triglyceride concentrations in infant female baboons (Papio species). J. Clin. Endocrinol. Metab.74, 920–6.
117. Li, A. J. & Ritter, S. (2004). Glucoprivation increases expression of neuropeptide Y mRNA in hindbrain neurons that innervate the hypothalamus. Eur. J. Neurosci.19, 2147–54.
118. Lin, X., Chavez, M. R., Bruch, R. C. et al. (1998). The effects of a high fat diet on leptin mRNA, serum leptin and the response to leptin are not altered in a rat strain susceptible to high fat diet–induced obesity. J. Nutr.128, 1606–13.
119. Lindblad-Toh, T. K., Wade, C. M., Mikkelsen, T. S. et al. (2005). Genome sequence, comparative analysis and haplotype structure of the domestic dog. Nature438, 803–19.
120. MacLean, P. S., Higgins, J. A., Johnson, G. C. et al. (2004). Enhanced metabolic efficiency contributes to weight regain after weight loss in obesity-prone rats. Am. J. Physiol.287, R1306–15.
121. Mahankali, S., Liu, Y., Pu, Y. et al. (2000). In vivo fMRI demonstration of hypothalamic function following intraperitoneal glucose administration in a rat model. Magn. Reson. Med.43, 155–9.
122. Marriott, B. M., Roemer, J. & Sultana, C. (1989). An overview of the food intake patterns of the Cayo Santiago rhesus monkeys (Macaca mulatta): report of a pilot study. P R Health Sci. J.8, 87–94.
123. Matsuda, M., Liu, Y., Mahankali, S. et al. (1999). Altered hypothalamic function in response to glucose ingestion in obese humans. Diabetes48, 1801–6.
124. Mayer, J., Marshall, N. B., Vitale, J. J., Christensen, J. H., Mashayekhi, M. B. & Stare, F. J. (1954). Exercise, food intake and body weight in normal rats and genetically obese adult mice. Am. J. Physiol.177, 544–8.
125. Michel, C., Levin, B. E. & Dunn-Meynell, A. A. (2003). Stress facilitates body weight gain in genetically predisposed rats on medium fat diet. Am. J. Physiol.285, R791–9.
126. Michel, C., Dunn-Meynell, A. A. & Levin, B. E. (2004). Reduced brain CRH and GR mRNA expression precedes obesity in juvenile rats bred for diet-induced obesity. Behav. Brain Res.154, 511–17.
127. Minami, T., Shimizu, N., Duan, S. & Oomura, Y. (1990). Hypothalamic neuronal activity responses to 3-hydroxybutyric acid, an endogenous organic acid. Brain Res. 509, 351–4.
128. Mittelman, S. D., Van Citters, V. W., Kirkman, E. L. & Bergman, R. N. (2002). Extreme insulin resistance of the central adipose depot in vivo. Diabetes51, 755–61.
129. Mohan, P. F., Ihnen, J. S., Levin, B. E. & Cleary, M. P. (1990). Effects of dehydroepiandrosterone treatment in rats with diet-induced obesity. J. Nutr.120, 1103–14.
130. Mrad, J. A., Yakubu, F., Lin, D., Peters, J. C., Atkinson, J. B. & Hill, J. O. (1992). Skeletal muscle composition in dietary obesity-susceptible and dietary obesity-resistant rats. Am. J. Physiol.262, R684–8.
131. Nagase, H., Bray, G. A. & York, D. A. (1996). Pyruvate and hepatic pyruvate dehydrogenase levels in rat strains sensitive and resistant to dietary obesity. Am. J. Physiol.270, R485–95.
132. Neel, V. (1962). In diabetes mellitus: a “thrifty” genotype rendered detrimental by progress. Am. J. Hum. Genet.14, 353–62.
133. Niijima, A. (1969). Afferent impulse discharges from glucoreceptors in the liver of the guinea pig. Ann. N.Y. Acad. Sci.157, 690–700.
134. Oomura, Y., Kimura, K., Ooyama, H., Maeo, T., Iki, M. & Kuniyoshi, N. (1964). Reciprocal activities of the ventromedial and lateral hypothalamic area of cats. Science143, 484–5.
135. Oomura, Y., Nakamura, T., Sugimori, M. & Yamada, Y. (1975). Effect of free fatty acid on the rat lateral hypothalamic neurons. Physiol. Behav.14, 483–6.
136. Pagliassotti, M. J., Shahrokhi, K. A. & Hill, J. O. (1993). Skeletal muscle glucose metabolism in obesity-prone and obesity-resistant rats. Am. J. Physiol.264, R1224–8.
137. Pagliassotti, M. J., Knobel, S. M., Shahrokhi, K. A., Manzo, A. M. & Hill, J. O. (1994). Time course adaptation to a high-fat diet in obesity-resistant and obesity-prone rats. Am. J. Physiol.267, R659–64.
138. Pagliassotti, M. J., Pan, D. A., Prach, P. A., Koppenhafer, T. A., Storlien, L. H. & Hill, J. O. (1995). Tissue oxidative capacity, fuel stores and skeletal muscle fatty acid composition in obesity-prone and obesity-resistant rats. Obes. Res.3, 459–64.
139. Pagliassotti, M. J., Horton, T. J., Gayles, E. C., Koppenhafer, T. A., Rosenzweig, T. D. & Hill, J. O. (1997). Reduced insulin suppression of glucose appearance is related to susceptibility to dietary obesity in rats. Am. J. Physiol.272, R1264–70.
140. Pelat, M., Verwaerde, P., Tran, M. -A., Montastruc, J. -L. & Senard, J. M. (2002). Alpha2-adrenoceptor function in arterial hypertension associated with obesity in dogs fed a high-fat diet. J Hypertens. 20, 957–64.
141. Philip-Couderc, P., Smih, F., Hall, J. E. et al. (2004). Kinetic analysis of cardiac transcriptome regulation during chronic high-fat diet in dogs. Physiol. Genomics.19, 32–40.
142. Plagemann, A., Heidrich, I., Gotz, F., Rohde, W. & Dorner, G. (1992). Lifelong enhanced diabetes susceptibility and obesity after temporary intrahypothalamic hyperinsulinism during brain organization. Exp. Clin. Endocrinol.99, 91–5.
143. Popkin, B. M. & Doak, C. M. (1999). The obesity epidemic is a worldwide phenomenon. Nutr. Rev.56, 106–14.
144. Porte, D. Jr. (1969). Sympathetic regulation of insulin secretion. Its relation to diabetes mellitus. Arch. Intern. Med.123, 252–60.
145. Ramirez, I. (1987). Feeding a liquid diet increases energy intake, weight gain and body fat in rats. J. Nutr.117, 2127–34.
146. Reaven, G. M. (1988). Banting Lecture 1988: role of insulin resistance in human disease. Diabetes37, 1595–607.
147. Reifsnyder, P. C., Churchill, G. & Leiter, E. H. (2000). Maternal environment and genotype interact to establish diabesity in mice. Genome Res. 10, 1568–78.
148. Ricardo, J. A. & Koh, E. T. (1978). Anatomical evidence of direct projections from the nucleus of the solitary tract to the hypothalamus, amygdala, and other forebrain structures in the rat. Brain Res. 153, 1–26.
149. Ricci, M. M. & Levin, B. E. (2003). Ontogeny of diet-induced obesity in selectively-bred Sprague–Dawley rats. Am. J. Physiol.285, R610–18.
150. Ritter, S., Dinh, T. T. & Zhang, Y. (2000). Localization of hindbrain glucoreceptive sites controlling food intake and blood glucose. Brain Res. 856, 37–47.
151. Ritter, S., Bugarith, K. & Dinh, T. T. (2001). Immunotoxic destruction of distinct catecholamine subgroups produces selective impairment of glucoregulatory responses and neuronal activation. J. Comp. Neurol.432, 197–216.
152. Rolls, B. A. & Rowe, E. A. (1979). Exercise and the development and persistence of dietary obesity in male and female rats. Physiol. Behav.23, 241–7.
153. Rolls, B. A., Rowe, E. A. & Turner, R. C. (1980). Persistent obesity in rats following a period of consumption of a mixed, high energy diet. J. Physiol.298, 415–27.
154. Routh, V. H., Levin, B. E. & McArdle, J. J. (1998). Defective ATP-sensitive Kþ (KATP) channel in ventromedial hypothalamic nucleus (VMN) of obesity-prone (DIO) rats. FASEB J. 12, A864.
155. Rowland, N. E. & Carlton, J. (1986). Tolerance to fenfluramine anorexia: fact or fiction?. Appetite. 7, Suppl. 71-83.
156. Sanders, N. M., Dunn-Meynell, A. A. & Levin, B. E. (2004). Third ventricular alloxan reversibly impairs glucose counterregulatory responses. Diabetes53, 1230–6.
157. Schemmel, R., Mickelsen, O. & Tolgay, Z. (1969). Dietary obesity in rats: influence of diet, weight, age, and sex on body composition. Am. J. Physiol.216, 373–9.
158. Schemmel, R., Mickelsen, O. & Gill, J. L. (1970). Dietary obesity in rats: body weight and body fat accretion in seven strains of rats. J. Nutr.100, 1041–8.
159. Schwartz, M. W., Baskin, D. G., Bukowski, T. R. et al. (1996). Specificity of leptin action on elevated blood glucose levels and hypothalamic neuropeptide Y gene expression in ob/ob mice. Diabetes45, 531–5.
160. Schwartz, S. M. (1989). Characteristics of spontaneous obesity in the Cayo Santiago rhesus macaque: preliminary report. P. R. Health Sci. J.8, 103–6.
161. Schwartz, S. M., Kemnitz, J. W. & Howard, C. F. J. (1993). Obesity in free–ranging rhesus macaques. Int. J. Obes.17, 1–9.
162. Sclafani, A. & Springer, D. (1976). Dietary obesity in adult rats: similarities to hypothalamic and human obesity syndromes. Physiol. Behav.17, 461–71.
163. Shor-Posner, G., Ian, C., Brennan, G. et al. (1991). Self-selecting albino rats exhibit differential preferences for pure macronutrient diets: characterization of three subpopulations. Physiol. Behav.50, 1187–95.
164. Sims, E. A. H., Danforth, E., Jr., Bray, G. A., Glennon, J. A. & Salans, L. B. (1973). Endocrine and metabolic effects of experimental obesity in man. Recent Progr. Horm. Res.29, 457–87.
165. Smith, B. K., Kelly, L. A., Pina, R., York, D. A. & Bray, G. A. (1998). Preferential fat intake increases adiposity but not body weight in Sprague–Dawley rats. Appetite31, 127–39.
166. Song, Z. & Routh, V. H. (2005). Differential effects of glucose and lactate on glucosensing neurons in the ventromedial hypothalamic nucleus. Diabetes54, 15–22.
167. Song, Z., Levin, B. E., McArdle, J. J., Bakhos, N. & Routh, V. H. (2001). Convergence of pre- and postsynaptic influences on glucosensing neurons in the ventromedial hypothalamic nucleus (VMN). Diabetes50, 2673–81.
168. Spanswick, D., Smith, M. A., Groppi, V. E., Logan, S. D. & Ashford, M. L. (1997). Leptin inhibits hypothalamic neurons by activation of ATP- sensitive potassium channels. Nature390, 521–5.
169. Stunkard, A. J. (1982). Anorectic agents lower a body weight set point. Life Sci. 30, 2043–55.
170. Stunkard, A. J., Harris, J. R., Pedersen, N. L. & McClearn, G. E. (1990). The body-mass index of twins who have been reared apart. N. Engl. J. Med.322, 1483–7.
171. Surwit, R. S., Petro, A. E., Parekh, P. & Collins, S. (1997). Low plasma leptin in response to dietary fat in diabetes- and obesity-prone mice. Diabetes46, 1516–20.
172. Taghibiglou, C., Bradley, C. A., Wang, Y. & Wang, Y. (2004). High cholesterol levels in neuronal cells impair the insulin signaling pathway and interfere with insulin’s neuromodulatory action. Soc. Neurosci. Abst.24, 633.13.
173. Tang-Christensen, M., Larsen, P. J., Thulesen, J., Romer, J. & Vrang, N. (2000). The proglucagon-derived peptide, glucagon-like peptide-2, is a neurotransmitter involved in the regulation of food intake. Nat. Med.6, 802–7.
174. Tkacs, N. C. & Levin, B. E. (2004). Obesity-prone rats have pre-existing defects in their counterregulatory response to insulin-induced hypoglycemia. Am. J. Physiol.287, R1110–15.
175. Triscari, J., Nauss-Karol, C., Levin, B. E. & Sullivan, A. C. (1985). Changes in lipid metabolism in diet-induced obesity. Metabolism34, 580–7.
176. Truett, A. A., Borne, A. T., Monteiro, M. P. & West, D. B. (1998). Composition of dietary fat affects blood pressure and insulin responses to dietary obesity in the dog. Obes. Res.6, 137–46.
177. Tschop, M., Weyer, C., Tataranni, P. A., Devanarayan, V., Ravussin, E. & Heiman, M. L. (2001). Circulating ghrelin levels are decreased in human obesity. Diabetes50, 707–9.
178. Vainio, S., Heino, S., Mansson, J. E. et al. (2002). Dynamic association of human insulin receptor with lipid rafts in cells lacking caveolae. EMBO Rep. 3, 95–100.
179. VandeBerg, J. L. & Williams-Blangero, S. (1997). Advantages and limitations of nonhuman primates as animal models in genetic resesarch on complex diseases. J. Med. Primatol.26, 113–19.
180. Van Heek, M., Compton, D. S., France, C. F. et al. (1997). Diet-induced obese mice develop peripheral, but not central, resistance to leptin. J. Clin. Invest.99, 385–90.
181. Van Vliet, B. N., Hall, J. E., Mizelle, H. L., Montani, J. P. & Smith, M. J., Jr. (1995). Reduced parasympathetic control of heart rate in obese dogs. Am. J. Physiol.269, H629–37.
182. Verwaerde, P., Senard, J. M., Galinier, M. et al. (1999). Changes in short-term variability of blood pressure and heart rate during the development of obesityassociated hypertension in high-fat fed dogs. J. Hypertens.17, 1135–43.
183. Vilberg, T. R. & Keesey, R. E. (1990). Ventromedial hypothalamic lesions abolish compensatory reduction in energy expenditure to weight loss. Am. J. Physiol.258, R476–80.
184. Wang, R., Liu, X., Hentges, S. T. et al. (2004). The regulation of glucose-excited neurons in the hypothalamic arcuate nucleus by glucose and feeding-relevant peptides. Diabetes53, 1959–65.
185. Wang, R., Cruciani-Guglielmacci, C., Migrenne, S., Magnan, C., Cotero, V. & Routh, V. H. (2005). The effects of oleic-acid (OA) on distinct populations of neurons in the hypothalamic arcuate nucleus (ARC) are dependent on extracellular glucose levels. J. Neurophysiol.95, 1491–8.
186. Weigle, D. S. & Levin, B. E. (2000). Defective dietary induction of uncoupling protein 3 in skeletal muscle of obesity-prone rats. Obes. Res. 8, 385–91.
187. Weinsier, R. L., Nelson, K. M., Hensrud, K. M., Darnell, B. E., Hunter, G. R. & Schutz, Y. (1995). Metabolic predictors of obesity: contribution of resting energy expenditure, thermic effect of food, and fuel utilization to four-year weight gain of post-obese and never-obese women. J. Clin. Invest.95, 980–5.
188. West, D. B., Moody, D. L., Boozer, C. N., Atkinson, R. L. & Levin, B. E. (1991). Differential catecholamine response to intraperitoneal glucose injection in inbred mice susceptible or resistant to dietary obesity. Int. J. Obes.15, 16.
189. West, D. B., Boozer, C. N., Moody, D. L. & Atkinson, R. L. (1992). Dietary obesity in nine inbred mouse strains. Am. J. Physiol.262, R1025–32.
190. West, D. B., Goudey-Lefevre, J., York, B. & Truett, G. E. (1994). Dietary obesity linked to genetic loci on chromosomes 9 and 15 in a polygenic mouse model. J. Clin. Invest.94, 1410–16.
191. Will, M. J., Franzblau, E. B. & Kelley, A. E. (2003). Nucleus accumbens mu-opioids regulate intake of a high-fat diet via activation of a distributed brain network. J. Neurosci.23, 2882–8.
192. Williams, T., Berelowitz, M., Joffe, S. N. et al. (1984). Impaired growth hormone responses to growth hormone-releasing factor in obesity. N. Engl. J. Med.311, 1403–7.
193. Wilmot, C. A., Sullivan, A. C. & Levin, B. E. (1988). Effects of diet and obesity on brain a1- and a2-noradrenergic receptors in the rat. Brain Res. 453, 157–66.
194. Wolden-Hanson, T., Davis, G. A., Baum, S. T. & Kemnitz, J. W. (1993). Insulin levels, physical activity, and urinary catecholamine excretion of obese and non-obese rhesus monkeys. Obes. Res.1, 5–17.
195. Woods, S. C., Seeley, R. J., Rushing, P. A., D’Alessio, D. & Tso, P. (2003). A controlled high-fat diet induces an obese syndrome in rats. J. Nutr.133, 1081–7.
196. Yang, X., Kow, L. M., Funabashi, T. & Mobbs, C. V. (1999). Hypothalamic glucose sensor. Similarities to and differences from pancreatic b-cell mechanisms. Diabetes48, 1763–72.
197. Yang, X. J., Kow, L. M., Pfaff, D. W. & Mobbs, C. V. (2004). Metabolic pathways that mediate inhibition of hypothalamic neurons by glucose. Diabetes53, 67–73.
198. Yoshida, T., Fisler, J. S., Fukushima, M., Bray, G. A. & Schemmel, R. A. (1987). Diet, lighting, and food intake affect norepinephrine turnover in dietary obesity. Am. J. Physiol.252, R402–8.
199. Zamboni, M., Armellini, F., Turcato, E. et al. (1994). Relationship between visceral fat, steroid hormones and insulin sensitivity in premenopausal obese women. J. Intern. Med.236, 521–7.
200. Zierath, J. R., Livingston, J., Thorne, A., Bolinder, J. & Reynisdottir, S. (1998). Regional difference in insulin inhibition of non-esterified fatty acid release from human adipocytes: relation to insulin receptor phosphorylation and intracellular signalling through the insulin receptor substrate-1 pathway. Diabetologia41, 1343–54.