New routes to recruiting and retaining women in STEM: Policy implications of a communal goal congruity perspective

Social Issues and Policy Review

Volumn 9, Issue 1, 2015, Pages 52-88

  Diekman, Amanda B ^a   Weisgram, Erica S ^b   Belanger, Aimee L ^a  

^a MIAMI UNIVERSITY   (United States)

^b UNIVERSITY OF WISCONSIN STEVENS POINT   (United States)

Author keywords

[No Author keywords available]

Indexed keywords

EID: 84920570966     PISSN: 17512395     EISSN: 17512409     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1111/sipr.12010     Document Type: Article

References (164)

1. Abele, A. E., & Bruckmüller, S. (2011). The bigger one of the "Big Two"? Preferential processing of communal information. Journal of Experimental Social Psychology, 47(5), 935-948. doi:10.1016/j.jesp.2011.03.028
2. Abele, A. E., & Wojciszke, B. (2007). Agency and communion from the perspective of self versus others. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 93, 751-763. doi:10.1037/0022-3514.93.5.751
3. Agars, M. D. (2004). Reconsidering the impact of gender stereotypes on the advancement of women in organizations. Psychology of Women Quarterly, 28, 103-111.
4. Alexander, J. M., Johnson, K. E., & Kelley, K. (2012). Longitudinal analysis of the relations between opportunities to learn about science and the development of interests related to science. Science Education, 96(5), 763-786. doi:10.1002/sce.21018
5. Andre, T., Whigham, M., Hendrickson, A., & Chambers, S. (1999). Competency beliefs, positive affect, and gender stereotypes of elementary students and their parents about science versus other school subjects. Journal of Research in Science Teaching, 36(6), 719-747. doi:10.1002/(SICI)1098-2736(199908)36:6<719::AID-TEA8>3.0.CO;2-R
6. Bailyn, L. (2003). Academic careers and gender equity: Lessons learned from MIT. Gender, Work & Organization, 10, 137-153.
7. Bakan, D. (1966). The duality of human existence: An essay on psychology and religion. Chicago, IL: Rand McNally.
8. Baumeister, R. F., & Leary, M. R. (1995). The need to belong: Desire for interpersonal attachments as a fundamental human motivation. Psychological Bulletin, 117, 497-529.
9. Beede, D., Julian, T., Langdon, D., McKittrick, G., Khan, B., & Doms, M. (2011). Women in STEM: A gender gap to innovation (ESA Issue Brief No. #04-11). U.S. Department of Commerce, Economics and Statistics Administration. (Downloaded from http://www.esa.doc.gov/sites/default/files/reports/documents/womeninstemagaptoinnovation8311.pdf, accessed February 21, 2012)
10. Beilock, S. L., Gunderson, E. A., Ramirez, G., & Levine, S. C. (2010). Female teachers' math anxiety affects girls' math achievement. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, 107(5), 1860-1863. doi:10.1073/pnas.0910967107
11. Belanger, A., Diekman, A. B, & Steinberg, M. (in review). Leveraging communal experiences in the curriculum: Increasing positivity toward engineering by changing stereotypic expectations.
12. Benbow, C. P. (2012). Identifying and nurturing future innovators in science, technology, engineering, and mathematics: A review of findings from the study of mathematically precocious youth. Peabody Journal of Education, 87(1), 16-25. doi:10.1080/0161956X.2012.642236
13. Benbow, C. P., Lubinski, D., Shea, D. L., & Eftekhari-Sanjani, H. (2000). Sex differences in mathematical reasoning ability at age 13: Their status 20 years later. Psychological Science, 11, 474-480.
14. Betz, D. E., & Sekaquaptewa, D. (2012). My fair physicist? Feminine math and science role models demotivate young girls. Social Psychological and Personality Science, 3. doi:10.1177/1948550612440735.
15. Bigler, R. S. (1999). Psychological interventions designed to counter sexism in children: Empirical limitations and theoretical foundations. In W. B. Swann Jr., J. H. Langlois, & L. A. Gilbert (Eds.), Sexism and stereotypes in modern society: The gender science of Janet Taylor Spence (pp. 129-151). Washington, DC: American Psychological Association.
16. Bigler, R. S., & Weisgram, E. S. (2005). Striking similarity: Model femininity and girls' interest in scientific fields. Presented at the 113th Annual Convention of the American Psychological Association, Washington, DC.
17. Bleeker, M. M., & Jacobs, J. E. (2004). Achievement in math and science: Do mothers' beliefs matter 12 years later? Journal of Educational Psychology, 96(1), 97-109.
18. Brown, C. S., Weisgram, E. S., & Bigler, R. S. (2003). How counterstereotypic models impact girls' interest in math and science. Presented at the 111th annual convention of the American Psychological Association, Toronto, Ontario.
19. Brown, E. R., Thoman, D. B., Smith, J. L., & Diekman, A. B. (in review). Closing the communal goal gap: The Importance of Communal Affordances in Science Career Motivation.
20. Buck, G. A., Clark, V. L. P., Leslie-Pelecky, D., Lu, Y., & Cerda-Lizarraga, P. (2008). Examining the cognitive processes used by adolescent girls and women scientists in identifying science role models: A feminist approach. Science Education, 92, 688-707. doi:10.1002/sce.20257
21. Business Europe. (2011). Plugging the skills gap-The clock is ticking. Brussels, Belgium: Business Europe (Downloaded from http://www.businesseurope.eu/Content/Default.asp?pageid=568&docid=28659, accessed June 24, 2013).
22. Bussey, K., & Bandura, A. (1999). Social cognitive theory of gender development and differentiation. Psychological Review, 106, 676-713. doi:10.1037/0033-295X.106.4.676
23. Cantor, N. (1994). Life task problem solving: Situational affordances and personal needs. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, 20, 235-243.
24. Ceci, S. J., Williams, W. M., & Barnett, S. M. (2009). Women's underrepresentation in science: Sociocultural and biological considerations. Psychological Bulletin, 135, 218-261.
25. Cejka, M. A., & Eagly, A. H. (1999). Gender-stereotypic images of occupations correspond to the sex segregation of employment. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, 25, 413-423.
26. Chambers, D. W. (1983). Stereotypic images of the scientist: The draw-a-scientist test. Science Education, 67(2), 255-265. doi:10.1002/sce.3730670213
27. Chen, X., & Weko, T. (2009). Students who study science, technology, engineering, and mathematics (STEM) in postsecondary education. U.S. Department of Education, National Center for Education Statistics.
28. Cheryan, S. (2011). Understanding the paradox in math-related fields: Why do some gender gaps remain while others do not? Sex Roles, 66. doi:10.1007/s11199-011-0060-z.
29. Cheryan, S., Siy, J. O., Vichayapai, M., Drury, B. J., & Kim, S. (2011). Do female and male role models who embody STEM stereotypes hinder women's anticipated success in STEM? Social Psychological and Personality Science, 2(6), 656-664. doi:10.1177/1948550611405218
30. Chow, A., Eccles, J. S., & Salmela-Aro, K. (2012). Task value profiles across subjects and aspirations to physical and IT-related sciences in the United States and Finland. Developmental Psychology, 48(6), 1612-1628. doi:10.1037/a0030194
31. Clark, E. K., & Diekman, A. B. (in review). Signaling communal goals: Female-prototypic role models elicit positivity toward science.
32. Clark, E. K., Diekman, A. B., & Belanger, A. L. (in preparation). Social-psychological interventions to cultivate women's STEM interest.
33. Colvin, W., Lyden, S., & León de la Barra, B. (2013). Attracting girls to civil engineering through hands-on activities that reveal the communal goals and values of the profession. Leadership and Management in Engineering, 13(1), 35-41. doi:10.1061/(ASCE)LM.1943-5630.0000208
34. Costa, P. T., Terracciano, A., & McCrae, R. R. (2001). Gender differences in personality traits across cultures: Robust and surprising findings. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 81, 322-331.
35. Crowley, K., Callanan, M. A., Tenenbaum, H. R., & Allen, E. (2001). Parents explain more often to boys than to girls during shared scientific thinking. Psychological Science, 12, 258-261.
36. Cvencek, D., Meltzoff, A. N., & Greenwald, A. G. (2011). Math-gender stereotypes in elementary school children. Child Development, 82(3), 766-779. doi:10.1111/j.1467-8624.2010.01529.x
37. Cvencek, D., Meltzoff, A. N., & Kapur, M. (2014). Cognitive consistency and math-gender stereotypes in Singaporean children. Journal of Experimental Child Psychology, 117, 73-91. doi:10.1016/j.jecp.2013.07.018
38. Davies, P. G., Spencer, S. J., Quinn, D. M., & Gerhardstein, R. (2002). Consuming images: How television commercials that elicit stereotype threat can restrain women academically and professionally. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, 28, 1615-1628.
39. Diekman, A. B. (2007). Negotiating the double bind: Interpersonal and instrumental evaluations of dominance. Sex Roles, 22, 551-561. doi:10.1007/s11199-007-9198-0
40. Diekman, A. B., Brown, E. R., Johnston, A. M., & Clark, E. K. (2010). Seeking congruity between goals and roles: A new look at why women opt out of science, technology, engineering, and mathematics careers. Psychological Science, 21, 1051-1057.
41. Diekman, A. B., Clark, E. K., Johnston, A. M., Brown, E. R., & Steinberg, M. (2011). Malleability in communal goals and beliefs influences attraction to STEM careers. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 101, 902-918.
42. Diekman, A. B., & Eagly, A. H. (2008). Of men, women, and motivation: A role congruity account. In J. Y. Shah & W. L. Gardner (Eds.), Handbook of motivation science (pp. 434-447). New York: Guilford.
43. Diekman, A. B., & Goodfriend, W. (2006). Rolling with the changes: A role congruity perspective on gender norms. Psychology of Women Quarterly, 30, 369-383. doi:10.1111/j.1471-6402.2006.00312.x
44. Diekman, A. B., & Steinberg, M. (2013). Navigating social roles in pursuit of important goals: A communal goal congruity account of STEM pursuits. Social and Personality Psychology Compass, 7, 487-501. doi:10.1111/spc3.12042
45. Eagly, A. H. (1987). Sex differences in social behavior: A social-role interpretation. Hillsdale, NJ: Erlbaum.
46. Eagly, A. H., & Carli, L. L. (2007). Through the Labyrinth: The truth about how women become leaders. Boston, MA: Harvard Business Press.
47. Eagly, A. H., & Diekman, A. B. (2003). The malleability of sex differences in response to changing social roles. In L. G. Aspinwall & U. M. Staudinger (Eds.), A psychology of human strengths (pp. 103-115). Washington, DC: American Psychological Association.
48. Eagly, A. H., & Karau, S. J. (2002). Role congruity theory of prejudice toward female leaders. Psychological Review, 109, 573-598. doi:10.1037/0033-295X.109.3.573
49. Eagly, A. H., & Wood, W. (2011). Social role theory. In P. A. M. Van Lange, A. W. Kruglanski, & E. T. Higgins (Eds.), Handbook of theories in social psychology (Vol. 2, pp. 458-476). London: Sage.
50. Eagly, A. H., Wood, W., & Diekman, A. B. (2000). Social role theory of sex differences and similarities: A current appraisal. In T. Eckes & H. M. Trautner (Eds.), The developmental social psychology of gender (pp. 123-174). Mahwah, NJ: Erlbaum.
51. Eccles, J. S. (1994). Understanding women's educational and occupational choices: Applying the Eccles et al. model of achievement-related choices. Psychology of Women Quarterly, 18, 585-609. doi:10.1111/j.1471-6402.1994.tb01049.x
52. Eccles, J. S. (2009). Who am I and what am I going to do with my life? Personal and collective identities as motivators of action. Educational Psychologist, 44(2), 78-89. doi:10.1080/00461520902832368
53. Ecklund, E. H., & Lincoln, A. E. (2011). Scientists want more children. PLoS ONE, 6(8), e22590. doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0022590
54. Evans, C. D., & Diekman, A. B. (2009). On motivated role selection: Gender beliefs, distant goals, and career preferences. Psychology of Women Quarterly, 33, 235-249.
55. Feingold, A. (1994). Gender differences in personality: A meta-analysis. Psychological Bulletin, 116, 429-456.
56. Ferriman, K., Lubinski, D., & Benbow, C. P. (2009). Work preferences, life values, and personal views of top math/science graduate students and the profoundly gifted: Developmental changes and gender differences during emerging adulthood and parenthood. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 97(3), 517-532. doi:10.1037/a0016030
57. Finson, K. D. (2002). Drawing a scientist: What we do and do not know after fifty years of drawings. School Science and Mathematics, 102(7), 335-345. doi:10.1111/j.1949-8594.2002.tb18217.x
58. Fiske, S. T. (2004). Social beings: A core motives approach to social psychology. Hoboken, NJ: Wiley.
59. Fiske, S. T., Cuddy, A. J. C., & Glick, P. (2007). Universal dimensions of social cognition: Warmth and competence. Trends in Cognitive Sciences, 11(2), 77-83. doi:10.1016/j.tics.2006.11.005
60. Frenzel, A. C., Goetz, T., Pekrun, R., & Watt, H. M. G. (2010). Development of mathematics interest in adolescence: Influences of gender, family, and school context. Journal of Research on Adolescence, 20(2), 507-537. doi:10.1111/j.1532-7795.2010.00645.x
61. Frome, P. M., Alfeld, C. J., Eccles, J. S., & Barber, B. L. (2008). Is the desire for a family-flexible job keeping young women out of male-dominated occupations? In Gender and occupational outcomes: Longitudinal assessments of individual, social, and cultural influences (pp. 195-214). Washington, DC: American Psychological Association.
62. Ginther, D. K. (2003). Is MIT an exception? Gender pay differences in academic science. Bulletin of Science, Technology & Society, 23(1), 21-26. doi:10.1177/0270467602239767
63. Good, C., Rattan, A., & Dweck, C. S. (2012). Why do women opt out? Sense of belonging and women's representation in mathematics. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 102, 700-717. doi:10.1037/a0026659
64. Grace, D. M., David, B. J., & Ryan, M. K. (2008). Investigating preschoolers' categorical thinking about gender through imitation, attention, and the use of self-categories. Child Development, 79(6), 1928-1941. doi:10.1111/j.1467-8624.2008.01234.x
65. Grant, A. M. (2007). Relational job design and the motivation to make a prosocial difference. The Academy of Management Review ARCHIVE, 32, 393-417.
66. Grant, A. M. (2012). Leading with meaning: Beneficiary contact, prosocial impact, and the performance effects of transformational leadership. Academy of Management Journal, 55(2), 458-476. doi:10.5465/amj.2010.0588
67. Grant, A. M., Campbell, E. M., Chen, G., Cottone, K., Lapedis, D., & Lee, K. (2007). Impact and the art of motivation maintenance: The effects of contact with beneficiaries on persistence behavior. Organizational Behavior and Human Decision Processes, 103(1), 53-67. doi:10.1016/j.obhdp.2006.05.004
68. Greenhaus, J. H., & Powell, G. N. (2006). When work and family are allies: A theory of work-family enrichment. The Academy of Management Review Archive, 31(1), 72-92.
69. Greenwald, A. G., Poehlman, T. A., Uhlmann, E. L., & Banaji, M. R. (2009). Understanding and using the Implicit Association Test. III. Meta-analysis of predictive validity. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 97, 17-41.
70. Gunderson, E. A., Ramirez, G., Levine, S. C., & Beilock, S. L. (2012). The role of parents and teachers in the development of gender-related math attitudes. Sex Roles, 66(3-4), 153-166. doi:10.1007/s11199-011-9996-2
71. Halpern, D. F., Benbow, C. P., Geary, D. C., Gur, R. C., Hyde, J. S., & Gernsbache, M. A. (2007). The science of sex differences in science and mathematics. Psychological Science in the Public Interest, 8, 1-51.
72. Hammrich, P. L. (1998). Sisters in science: An intergenerational science program for elementary school girls. School Community Journal, 8(2), 21-35.
73. Harackiewicz, J. M., & Hulleman, C. S. (2010). The importance of interest: The role of achievement goals and task values in promoting the development of interest. Social and Personality Psychology Compass, 4(1), 42-52. doi:10.1111/j.1751-9004.2009.00207.x
74. Haussler, P., & Hoffmann, L. (2002). An intervention study to enhance girls' interest, self-concept, and achievement in physics classes. Journal of Research in Science Teaching, 39, 870-888.
75. Hazari, Z., Sonnert, G., Sadler, P. M., & Shanahan, M.-C. (2010). Connecting high school physics experiences, outcome expectations, physics identity, and physics career choice: A gender study. Journal of Research in Science Teaching, 47(8), 978-1003. doi:10.1002/tea.20363
76. Heilman, M. E. (1983). Sex bias in work settings: The lack of fit model. Research in Organizational Behavior, 5, 269-298.
77. Hewstone, M., Macrae, C. N., Griffiths, R., Milne, A. B., & Brown, R. (1994). Cognitive models of stereotype change. (5) Measurement, development, and consequences of subtyping. Journal of Experimental Social Psychology, 30(6), 505-526. doi:10.1006/jesp.1994.1024
78. Holleran, S. E., Whitehead, J., Schmader, T., & Mehl, M. R. (2011). Talking shop and shooting the breeze: A study of workplace conversation and job disengagement among STEM faculty. Social Psychological and Personality Science, 2(1), 65-71. doi:10.1177/1948550610379921
79. Holmes, S., Redmond, A., Thomas, J., & High, K. (2012). Girls helping girls: Assessing the influence of college student mentors in an afterschool engineering program. Mentoring & Tutoring: Partnership in Learning, 20(1), 137-150. doi:10.1080/13611267.2012.645604
80. Hulleman, C. S., Durik, A. M., Schweigert, S. B., & Harackiewicz, J. M. (2008). Task values, achievement goals, and interest: An integrative analysis. Journal of Educational Psychology, 100(2), 398-416. doi:10.1037/0022-0663.100.2.398
81. Hulleman, C. S., & Harackiewicz, J. M. (2009). Promoting interest and performance in high school science classes. Science, 326(5958), 1410-1412. doi:10.1126/science.1177067
82. Hyde, J. S., Fennema, E., & Lamon, S. J. (1990). Gender differences in mathematics performance: A meta-analysis. Psychological Bulletin, 107, 139-155.
83. Jarvis, T., & Pell, A. (2004). Primary teachers' changing attitudes and cognition during a two-year science in-service programme and their effect on pupils. International Journal of Science Education, 26(14), 1787-1811. doi:10.1080/0950069042000243763
84. Jayaratne, T. E., Thomas, N. G., & Trautmann, M. (2003). Intervention program to keep girls in the science pipeline: Outcome differences by ethnic status. Journal of Research in Science Teaching, 40(4), 393-414. doi:10.1002/tea.10082
85. Jolliff, L., Leadley, J., Coakley, E., & Sloane, R. A. (2012). Women in U.S. academic medicine and science: Statistics and benchmarking report. Washington, DC: Association of American Medical Colleges.
86. Jones, G. (1991). Gender differences in science competitions. Science Education, 75(2), 159-167. doi:10.1002/sce.3730750202
87. Jones, M. G., Howe, A., & Rua, M. J. (2000). Gender differences in students' experiences, interests, and attitudes toward science and scientists. Science Education, 84(2), 180-192. doi:10.1002/(SICI)1098-237X(200003)84:2<180::AID-SCE3>3.0.CO;2-X
88. Judd, C. M., James-Hawkins, L., Yzerbyt, V., & Kashima, Y. (2005). Fundamental dimensions of social judgment: Understanding the relations between judgments of competence and warmth. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 89, 899-913.
89. Kaminski, D., & Geisler, C. (2012). Survival analysis of faculty retention in science and engineering by gender. Science, 335(6070), 864-866. doi:10.1126/science.1214844
90. Kenrick, D. T., Griskevicius, V., Neuberg, S. L., & Schaller, M. (2010). Renovating the pyramid of needs: Contemporary extensions built upon ancient foundations. Perspectives on Psychological Science, 5(3), 292-314. doi:10.1177/1745691610369469
91. Knobloch-Westerwick, S., Glynn, C. J., & Huge, M. (2013). The matilda effect in science communication: An experiment on gender bias in publication quality perceptions and collaboration interest. Science Communication, 35. doi:10.1177/1075547012472684
92. Konrad, A. M., Ritchie, J. E. J., Lieb, P., & Corrigall, E. (2000). Sex differences and similarities in job attribute preferences: A meta-analysis. Psychological Bulletin, 126, 593-641.
93. Kopesky, J. W., Veach, P. M., Lian, F., & LeRoy, B. S. (2011). Where are the males? Gender differences in undergraduates' interest in and perceptions of the genetic counseling profession. Journal of Genetic Counseling, 20, 341-354.
94. Lane, K., Goh, J., & Driver-Linn, E. (2012). Implicit science stereotypes mediate the relationship between gender and academic participation. Sex Roles, 66(3-4), 220-234.
95. Langdon, D., McKittrick, G., Khan, B., & Doms, M. (2011). STEM: Good jobs now and for the future. U.S. Department of Commerce, Economics and Statistics Administration (Downloaded from http://www.esa.doc.gov/sites/default/files/reports/documents/stemfinalyjuly14_1.pdf, accessed May 28, 2013).
96. Liben, L. S., & Bigler, R. S. (2002). The developmental course of gender differentiation: Conceptualizing, measuring, and evaluating constructs and pathways. Monographs of the Society for Research in Child Development, 67, i-viii, 1-147. doi:10.1111/1540-5834.t01-1-00187
97. Lindberg, S. M., Hyde, J. S., Petersen, J. L., & Linn, M. C. (2010). New trends in gender and mathematics performance: A meta-analysis. Psychological Bulletin, 136(6), 1123-1135. doi:10.1037/a0021276
98. Logel, C., Walton, G. M., Spencer, S. J., Iserman, E. C., von Hippel, W., & Bell, A. E. (2009). Interacting with sexist men triggers social identity threat among female engineers. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 96(6), 1089-1103. doi:10.1037/a0015703
99. Martin, C. L., & Ruble, D. (2004). Children's search for gender cues cognitive perspectives on gender development. Current Directions in Psychological Science, 13(2), 67-70. doi:10.1111/j.0963-7214.2004.00276.x
100. Marx, D. M., & Roman, J. S. (2002). Female Role Models: Protecting Women's Math Test Performance. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, 28(9), 1183-1193. doi:10.1177/01461672022812004
101. Maslow, A. H. (1943). A theory of human motivation. Psychological Review, 50(4), 370-396. doi:10.1037/h0054346
102. Mason, M. A. (2012, February 13). The next step for female scientists. The Chronicle of Higher Education (Downloaded from http://chronicle.com/article/The-Next-Step-for-Female/130717/, accessed June 24, 2013).
103. Mason, M. A. (2014, March 3). How to level the playing field for women in science. The Chronicle of Higher Education (Downloaded from http://chronicle.com/article/How-to-Level-the-Playing-Field/145037/?cid=at&utm_source=at&utm_medium=en, accessed April 8, 2014).
104. McNeil, L., & Sher, M. (1999). The dual-career-couple problem. Physics Today, 52(7), 32-37. doi:10.1063/1.882719
105. MIT. (1999). A study on the status of women faculty in science at MIT. Cambridge, MA: Massachusetts Institute of Technology (Downloaded from http://web.mit.edu/fnl/women/women.html, accessed June 24, 2013).
106. Morgan, C., Isaac, J. D., & Sansone, C. (2001). The role of interest in understanding the career choices of female and male college students. Sex Roles, 44, 295-320.
107. Moss-Racusin, C. A., Dovidio, J. F., Brescoll, V. L., Graham, M. J., & Handelsman, J. (2012). Science faculty's subtle gender biases favor male students. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, 109. doi:10.1073/pnas.1211286109
108. Murphy, M. C., Steele, C. M., & Garcia, J. A. (in review). The Fragility of Fit: Cues Affect the Concerns, Belonging, and Performance of Women and Men in STEM Settings.
109. Murphy, M. C., Steele, C. M., & Gross, J. J. (2007). Signaling threat: How situational cues affect women in math, science, and engineering settings. Psychological Science, 18(10), 879-885. doi:10.1111/j.1467-9280.2007.01995.x
110. National Research Council. (2010). Gender differences at critical transitions in the careers of science, engineering, and mathematics faculty. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press.
111. National Science Board. (2012). Science and engineering indicators 2012. Arlington, VA: National Science Foundation (NSB 12-01).
112. Newcombe, N. S., Ambady, N., Eccles, J. S., Gomez, D., Linn, M., Miller, K., & Mix, K. (2009). Psychology's role in mathematics and science education. American Psychologist, 64, 538-550.
113. Niemeier, D. A., & González, C. (2004). Breaking into the guildmasters' club: What we know about women science and engineering department chairs at AAU universities. NWSA Journal, 16(1), 157-171.
114. Nosek, B. A., Banaji, M. R., & Greenwald, A. G. (2002). Math = male, me = female, therefore math not = me. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 83, 44-59.
115. Paris, S. G., Yambor, K. M., & Packard, B. W.-L. (1998). Hands-on biology: A museum-school-university partnership for enhancing students' interest and learning in science. The Elementary School Journal, 98(3), 267-288. doi:10.2307/1002260
116. Pohlmann, K. (2001). Agency- and communion-orientation in life goals: Impacts on goal pursuit strategies and psychological well-being. In P. Schmuck & K. M. Sheldon (Eds.), Life goals and well-being: Towards a positive psychology of human striving (pp. 68-84). Seattle, WA: Hogrefe and Huber.
117. Prentice, D. A., & Carranza, E. (2002). What women should be, shouldn't be, are allowed to be, and don't have to be: The contents of prescriptive gender stereotypes. Psychology of Women Quarterly, 26, 269-281.
118. Reid, P. T., & Roberts, S. K. (2006). Gaining options: A mathematics program for potentially talented at-risk adolescent girls. Merrill-Palmer Quarterly, 52(2), 288-304. doi:10.1353/mpq.2006.0019
119. Reuben, E., Sapienza, P., & Zingales, L. (2014). How stereotypes impair women's careers in science. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, 111(12), 4403-4408. doi:10.1073/pnas.1314788111
120. Riegle-Crumb, C., King, B., Grodsky, E., & Muller, C. (2012). The more things change, the more they stay the same? Prior achievement fails to explain gender inequality in entry into stem college majors over time. American Educational Research Journal, 49(6), 1048-1073. doi:10.3102/0002831211435229
121. Riegle-Crumb, C., Moore, C., & Ramos-Wada, A. (2011). Who wants to have a career in science or math? Exploring adolescents' future aspirations by gender and race/ethnicity. Science Education, 95(3), 458-476. doi:10.1002/sce.20431
122. Robertson, K. F., Smeets, S., Lubinski, D., & Benbow, C. P. (2010). Beyond the threshold hypothesis even among the gifted and top math/science graduate students, cognitive abilities, vocational interests, and lifestyle preferences matter for career choice, performance, and persistence. Current Directions in Psychological Science, 19(6), 346-351. doi:10.1177/0963721410391442
123. Ryan, R. M., & Deci, E. L. (2000). Self-determination theory and the facilitation of intrinsic motivation, social development, and well-being. American Psychologist, 55, 68-78.
124. Rydell, R. J., Shiffrin, R. M., Boucher, K. L., Loo, K. V., & Rydell, M. T. (2010). Stereotype threat prevents perceptual learning. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, 107(32), 14042-14047. doi:10.1073/pnas.1002815107
125. Sadler, P. M., Sonnert, G., Hazari, Z., & Tai, R. (2012). Stability and volatility of STEM career interest in high school: A gender study. Science Education, 96(3), 411-427. doi:10.1002/sce.21007
126. Sansone, C., & Harackiewicz, J. M. (2000). Intrinsic and extrinsic motivation: The search for optimal motivation and performance. San Diego, CA: Academic Press.
127. Schmader, T., Johns, M., & Forbes, C. (2008). An integrated process model of stereotype threat effects on performance. Psychological Review, 115(2), 336-356. doi:10.1037/0033-295X.115.2.336
128. Seymour, E., & Hewitt, N. M. (2000). Talking about leaving: Why undergraduates leave the sciences. Boulder, CO: Westview Press.
129. Sharp, L., Carey, N., Frechtling, J. A., Burgdorf, K., & Westat Inc. (1994). Short-term impact study of the National Science Foundation's Young Scholars Program. Washington, DC: National Science Foundation, Directorate for Education and Human Resources (Downloaded from http://nsf.gov/pubs/1996/nsf9551/nsf9551.pdf, accessed June 17, 2013).
130. Signorella, M. L., Bigler, R. S., & Liben, L. S. (1993). Developmental differences in children's gender schemata about others: A meta-analytic review. Developmental Review, 13(2), 147-183. doi:10.1006/drev.1993.1007
131. Spelke, E. S. (2005). Sex differences in intrinsic aptitude for mathematics and science? A critical review. American Psychologist, 60, 950-958.
132. Spencer, S. J., Steele, C. M., & Quinn, D. M. (1999). Stereotype threat and women's math performance. Journal of Experimental Social Psychology, 35(1), 4-28. doi:10.1006/jesp.1998.1373
133. Stake, J. E., & Mares, K. R. (2001). Science enrichment programs for gifted high school girls and boys: Predictors of program impact on science confidence and motivation*. Journal of Research in Science Teaching, 38(10), 1065-1088. doi:10.1002/tea.10001
134. Stake, J. E., & Mares, K. R. (2005). Evaluating the impact of science-enrichment programs on adolescents' science motivation and confidence: The splashdown effect. Journal of Research in Science Teaching, 42(4), 359-375. doi:10.1002/tea.20052
135. Steele, C. M., & Aronson, J. (1995). Stereotype threat and the intellectual test performance of African Americans. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 69(5), 797-811. doi:10.1037/0022-3514.69.5.797
136. Steele, C. M., Spencer, S. J., & Aronson, J. (2002). Contending with group image: The psychology of stereotype and social identity threat. Advances in Experimental Social Psychology, 34, 379-440.
137. Steele, J. (2003). Children's gender stereotypes about Math: The role of stereotype stratification. Journal of Applied Social Psychology, 33(12), 2587-2606. doi:10.1111/j.1559-1816.2003.tb02782.x
138. Steinberg, M., & Diekman, A. B. (in review). Working together to increase STEM interest: Communal experience predicts STEM positivity.
139. Steinberg, M., & Diekman, A. B. (2013). Increasing interest in STEM among high school students: A test of the goal congruity model. Poster presented at the annual meeting of the Society for Personality and Social Psychology, New Orleans, LA.
140. Stout, J. G., Dasgupta, N., Hunsinger, M., & McManus, M. A. (2011). STEMing the tide: Using in-group experts to inoculate women's self-concept in science, technology, engineering, and mathematics (STEM). Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 100(2), 255-270. doi:10.1037/a0021385
141. ten Brummelhuis, L. L., & Bakker, A. B. (2012). A resource perspective on the work-home interface: The work-home resources model. American Psychologist, 67. doi:10.1037/a0027974
142. Thomas, M. D., Henley, T. B., & Snell, C. M. (2006). The draw a scientist test: A different population and a somewhat different story. College Student Journal, 40(1), 140-148.
143. Tomasetto, C., Alparone, F. R., & Cadinu, M. (2011). Girls' math performance under stereotype threat: The moderating role of mothers' gender stereotypes. Developmental Psychology, 47(4), 943-949.
144. Twenge, J. M. (1997). Changes in masculine and feminine traits over time: A meta-analysis. Sex Roles, 36, 305-325.
145. Tyler-Wood, T., Ellison, A., Lim, O., & Periathiruvadi, S. (2012). Bringing up girls in science (BUGS): The effectiveness of an afterschool environmental science program for increasing female students' interest in science careers. Journal of Science, 21, 46-55.
146. U.S. Congress Joint Economic Committee. (2012). STEM education: Preparing for the jobs of the future. Washington, DC.
147. U.S. Department of Labor. (2013). Labor force statistics from the current population survey. Bureau of Labor Statistics database (Table 11) (Downloaded from http://www.bls.gov/cps/cpsaat11.pdf, accessed June 25, 2013).
148. Walton, G. M., & Cohen, G. L. (2007). A question of belonging: Race, social fit, and achievement. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 92(1), 82-96. doi:10.1037/0022-3514.92.1.82
149. Walton, G. M., Cohen, G. L., Cwir, D., & Spencer, S. J. (2012). Mere belonging: The power of social connections. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 102(3), 513-532. doi:10.1037/a0025731
150. Wang, M.-T., Eccles, J. S., & Kenny, S. (2013). Not lack of ability but more choice individual and gender differences in choice of careers in science, technology, engineering, and mathematics. Psychological Science, 24(5), 770-775. doi:10.1177/0956797612458937
151. Watt, H. M. G., Shapka, J. D., Morris, Z. A., Durik, A. M., Keating, D. P., & Eccles, J. S. (2012). Gendered motivational processes affecting high school mathematics participation, educational aspirations, and career plans: A comparison of samples from Australia, Canada, and the United States. Developmental Psychology, 48(6), 1594-1611. doi:10.1037/a0027838
152. Weisgram, E. S., & Bigler, R. S. (2006a). Girls and science careers: The role of altruistic values and attitudes about scientific tasks. Journal of Applied Developmental Psychology, 27, 326-348.
153. Weisgram, E. S., & Bigler, R. S. (2006b). The role of attitudes and intervention in high school girls' interest in computer science. Journal of Women and Minorities in Science and Engineering, 12, 325-336. doi:10.1615/JWomenMinorScienEng.v12.i4.40
154. Weisgram, E. S., & Bigler, R. S. (2007). Effects of learning about gender discrimination on adolescent girls' attitudes toward and interest in science. Psychology of Women Quarterly, 31(3), 262-269. doi:10.1111/j.1471-6402.2007.00369.x
155. Weisgram, E. S., Bigler, R. S., & Liben, L. S. (2010). Gender, values, and occupational interests among children, adolescents, and adults. Child Development, 81, 778-796.
156. Weisgram, E. S., & Diekman, A. B. (in preparation). Believing that science helps people predict positivity toward science careers from middle school through college.
157. Wigfield, A., Eccles, J. S., Yoon, K. S., Harold, R. D., Arbreton, A. J. A., Freedman-Doan, C., & Blumenfeld, P. C. (1997). Change in children's competence beliefs and subjective task values across the elementary school years: A 3-year study. Journal of Educational Psychology, 89(3), 451-69.
158. Williams, W. M., & Ceci, S. J. (2012). When scientists choose motherhood. American Scientist, 100, 138-145.
159. Witt, M. G., & Wood, W. (2010). Self-regulation of gendered behavior in everyday life. Sex Roles, 62, 635-646. doi:10.1007/s11199-010-9761-y
160. Wood, W., & Eagly, A. H. (2012). Chapter two - biosocial construction of sex differences and similarities in behavior. In J. M. Olson, & M. P. Zanna (Ed.), Advances in experimental social psychology (Vol. 46, pp. 55-123). New York: Academic Press (Downloaded from http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/B9780123942814000027, accessed November 21, 2014).
161. Wood, W., Niels, P., Hebl, M. R., & Rothgerber, H. (1997). Conformity to sex-typed norms, affect, and the self-concept. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 73, 523-535. doi:10.1037/0022-3514.73.3.523
162. Xie, Y., & Shauman, K. A. (2005). Women in science: Career processes and outcomes. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press.
163. Yeager, D. S., & Walton, G. M. (2011). Social-psychological interventions in education: They're not magic. Review of Educational Research, 81(2), 267-301. doi:10.3102/0034654311405999
164. Ziegler, A., & Stoeger, H. (2004). Evaluation of an attributional retraining (modeling technique) to reduce gender differences in chemistry instruction1. High Ability Studies, 15(1), 63-83. doi:10.1080/1359813042000225348