The X-factor: On the relevance of implicit leadership and followership theories for leader-member exchange agreement

European Journal of Work and Organizational Psychology

Volumn 19, Issue 3, 2010, Pages 333-363

  van Gils, Suzanne ^a   van Quaquebeke, Niels ^a   van Knippenberg, Daan ^a  

^a ERASMUS UNIVERSITY   (Netherlands)

Author keywords

Agreement; Follower; Implicit theory; Leader; Leader member exchange

Indexed keywords

EID: 77953927598     PISSN: 1359432X     EISSN: 14640643     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1080/13594320902978458     Document Type: Article

References (137)

1. Alicke, M. D. (1985). Global self-evaluation as determined by the desirability and controllability of trait adjectives. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 49, 1621-1630.
2. Allison, S. T., Messick, D. M., & Goethals, G. R. (1989). On being better but not smarter than others: The Muhammad Ali effect. Social Cognition, 7, 275-296.
3. Anseel, F., & Lievens, F. (2007). The long-term impact of the feedback environment on job satisfaction: A field study in a Belgian context. Applied Psychology: An International Review, 56,254-266.
4. Atwater, L. E., & Yammarino, F. J. (1992). Does self-other agreement on leadership perceptions moderate the validity of leadership and performance predictions? Personnel Psychology, 45, 141-164.
5. Atwater, L. E., & Yammarino, F. J. (1997). Self-other rating agreement: A review and a model. Research in Personnel and Human Resources Management, 15, 121-174.
6. Barsalou, L. W. (1985). Ideals, central tendency, and frequency of instantiation as determinants of graded structure in categories. Journal of Experimental Psychology: Learning, Memory, and Cognition, 11, 629-654.
7. Bartlett, F. C. (1932). Remembering. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
8. Bass, B., & Yammarino, F. J. (1991). Congruence of self and other's leadership ratings of naval officers for understanding successful performance. Applied Psychology: An International Review, 40, 437-454.
9. Basu, R., & Green, S. G. (1997). Leader-member exchange and transformational leadership: An empirical examination of innovative behaviors in leader-member dyads. Journal of Applied Social Psychology, 27, 477-499.
10. Bechtel, W., & Abrahamsen, A. (2002). Connectionism and the mind: Parallel processing, dynamics, and evolution in networks. Cambridge, MA: Basil Blackwell.
11. Bernerth, J. B., Armenakis, A. A., Feild, H. S., Giles, W. F., & Walker, H. J. (2007). Leader member social exchange (LMSX): Development and validation of a scale. Journal of Organizational Behavior, 28, 979-1003.
12. Blau, P. (1964). Exchange and power in social life. New York: Wiley.
13. Borman, W. C. (1987). Personal constructs, performance schemata, and "folk theories" of subordinate effectiveness: Exploration in an Army Officer sample. Organizational Behavior and Human Decision Processes, 40, 307-322.
14. Brawley, L. R. (1984). Unintentional egocentric biases in attributions. Journal of Sport Psychology, 6, 264-278.
15. Brodbeck, F. C., Chhokar, J., & House, R. (2007). Culture and leadership in 25 societies: Integration, conclusions, and future directions. In J. Chhokar, F. C. Brodbeck, & R. House (Eds.), Managerial cultures of the world: A GLOBE report of in-depth studies of the cultures of 25 countries (pp. 1025-1102). Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates, Inc.
16. Brown, J. D. (1986). Evaluations of self and others: Self-enhancement biases in social judgments. Social Cognition, 4, 353-376.
17. Bruner, J. S. (1961). The act of discovery. Harvard Educational Review, 31, 21-32.
18. Burger, J. M., & Rodman, J. L. (1983). Attributions of responsibility for group tasks: The egocentric bias and the actor-observer difference. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 45, 1232-1242.
19. Burgess, R. L., & Huston, T. L. (1979). Social exchanges in developing relationships. New York: Academic Press.
20. Buunk, B. P., Doosje, B. J., Jans, L. G. J. M., & Hopstaken, L. E. M. (1993). Perceived reciprocity, social support, and stress at work: The role of exchange and communal orientation. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 65, 801-811.
21. Byrne, D. (1971). The attraction paradigm. New York: Academic Press.
22. Carver, R. P. (1972). A critical review of mathagenic behaviors and the effect of questions upon the retention of prose materials. Journal of Reading Behavior, 4, 93-119.
23. Catrambone, R., & Holyoak, K. J. (1989). Overcoming contextual limitations on problem- solving transfer. Journal of Experimental Psychology: Learning, Memory, and Cognition, 15, 1147-1156.
24. Choi, Y., & Mai-Dalton, R. R. (1999). The model of followers' responses to self-sacrificial leadership: An empirical approach. Leadership Quarterly, 10, 397-421.
25. Cialdini, R. B. (1984). Influence: How and why people agree to things. New York: William Morrow.
26. Cogliser, C. C., Schriesheim, C. A., Scandura, T. A., & Gardner, W. L. (2009). Balancing leader and follower perceptions of leader-member exchange: Relationships with performance and work attitudes. Leadership Quarterly, 20, 452-465.
27. Conger, J. A., & Kanungo, R. (1987). Toward a behavioral theory of charismatic leadership in organizational settings. Academy of Management Review, 12, 637-647.
28. Coyle-Shapiro, J., & Kessler, I. (2002). Exploring reciprocity through the lens of the psychological contract: Employee and employer perspectives. European Journal of Work and Organizational Psychology, 11, 69-86.
29. Crary, W. G. (1966). Reactions to incongruent self-experiences. Journal of Consulting Psychology, 30, 246-252.
30. Dansereau, F., Graen, G., & Haga, W. J. (1975). A vertical dyad linkage approach to leadership within formal organizations: A longitudinal investigation of the role-making process. Organizational Behavior and Human Performance, 13, 46-78.
31. Dansereau, F., Alutto, J. A., Nachman, S. A., Al-kelabi, S. A., Yammarino, F. J., Newman, J., et al. (1995). Individualized leadership: A new multiple-level approach. Leadership Quarterly, 6, 413-450.
32. Day, D. V., & Crain, E. C. (1992). The role of affect and ability in initial exchange quality perceptions. Group and Organization Management, 23, 189-216.
33. De Cremer, D., & van Knippenberg, D. (2004). Leader self-sacrifice and leadership effectiveness: The moderating role of leader self-confidence. Organizational Behavior and Human Decision Processes, 95, 140-155.
34. Deluga, R. J. (1997). Relationship among American presidential charismatic leadership, narcissism, and rated performance. Leadership Quarterly, 8, 49-65.
35. Dienesch, R. M., & Liden, R. C. (1986). Leader-member exchange model of leadership: A critique and further development. Academy of Management Review, 11, 618-634.
36. Dockery, T. M., & Steiner, D. D. (1990). The role of the initial interaction in leader-member exchange. Group and Organization Studies, 15, 395-413.
37. Duchon, D., Green, S. G., & Taber, T. D. (1986). Vertical dyad linkage: A longitudinal assessment of antecedents, measures and consequences. Journal of Applied Psychology, 71, 56-60.
38. Dunning, D., Meyerowitz, J. A., & Holzberg, A. D. (1989). Ambiguity and self-evaluation: The role of idiosyncratic trait definitions in self-serving assessments of ability. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 57, 1082-1090.
39. Eagly, A. H., & Karau, S. J. (2002). Role congruity theory of prejudice toward female leaders. Psychological Review, 109, 573-598.
40. Engle, E. M., & Lord, R. G. (1997). Implicit theories, self-schemas, and leader-member exchange. Academy of Management Journal, 40, 988-1010.
41. Epitropaki, O., & Martin, R. (2005). From ideal to real: A longitudinal study of the role of implicit leadership theories on leader-member exchanges and employee outcomes. Journal of Applied Psychology, 90, 659-676.
42. Erdogan, B., Liden, R. C., & Kraimer, M. L. (2006). Justice and leader-member exchange: The moderating role of organization culture. Academy of Management Journal, 49, 395-406.
43. Galinsky, A. D., Magee, J. C., Inesi, M. E., & Gruenfeld, D. H. (2006). Power and perspectives not taken. Psychological Science, 17, 1068-1074.
44. Gerstner, C. R., & Day, D. V. (1997). Meta-analytic review of leader-member exchange theory: Correlates and construct issues. Journal of Applied Psychology, 82, 827-844.
45. Gioia, D. A., Thomas, J. B., Clark, S. M., & Chittipeddi, K. (1994). Symbolism and strategic change in academia: The dynamics of sensemaking and influence. Organization Science, 5, 363-383.
46. Gilovich, T., Medvec, V. H., & Savitsky, K. (2000). The spotlight effect in social judgment: An egocentric bias in estimates of the salience of one's own actions and appearance. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 78, 211-222.
47. Glick, M. L., & Holyoak, K. J. (1980). Analogical problem solving. Cognitive Psychology, 12, 306-355.
48. Gouldner, A. W. (1960). The norm of reciprocity: A preliminary statement. American Sociological Review, 25, 161-179.
49. Graen, G. B. (Ed.). (2003). Dealing with diversity, LMX leadership: The series (Vol. 1). Greenwich, CT: Information Age Publishing.
50. Graen, G. B., & Cashman, J. F. (1975). A role-making model of leadership in formal organizations: A developmental approach. In J. G. Hunt & L. L. Larson (Eds.), Leadership frontiers (pp. 143-165). Kent, OH: Kent State University Press.
51. Graen, G. B., Novak, M. A., & Sommerkamp, P. (1982). The effects of leader-member exchange and job design on productivity and satisfaction: Testing a dual attachment model. Organizational Behavior and Human Performance, 30, 109-131.
52. Graen, G. B., & Scandura, T. A. (1987). Toward a psychology of dyadic organizing. Research in Organizational Behavior, 9, 175-208.
53. Graen, G. B., & Schiemann, W. (1978). Leader-member agreement: A vertical dyad linkage approach. Journal of Applied Psychology, 63, 206-212.
54. Graen, G. B., & Uhl-Bien, M. (1995). Relationship-based approach to leadership: Development of leader-member exchange (LMX) theory of leadership over 25 years: Applying a multi- level multi-domain perspective. Leadership Quarterly, 6, 219-247.
55. Green, S. G., Anderson, S. E., & Shivers, S. L. (1996). Demographic and organizational influences on leader-member exchange and related work attitudes. Organizational Behavior and Human Decision Processes, 66, 203-214.
56. Harris, M. M., & Schaubroeck, J. (1988). A meta-analysis of self-supervisor, self-peer, and peer- supervisor ratings. Personnel Psychology, 41, 43-62.
57. Harrison, D. A., Price, K. H., & Bell, M. P. (1998). Beyond relational demography: Time and the effects of surface- and deep-level diversity on work group cohesion. Academy of Management Journal, 41, 96-107.
58. Heider, F. (1958). The psychology of interpersonal relations. New York: Wiley.
59. Heilman, M. E., Block, C. J., & Lucas, J. A., (1992). Presumed incompetent? Stigmatization and affirmative action efforts. Journal of Applied Psychology, 77, 536-544.
60. Hiller, N. J., & Day, D. V. (2003). LMX and teamwork: The challenges and opportunities of diversity. In G. B. Graen (Ed.), Dealing with diversity, LMX leadership: The series (Vol. 1, pp. 29-57). Greenwich, CT: Information Age Publishing.
61. Hollingshead, A. B. (1998). Distributed knowledge and transactive processes in decision- making groups. In D. H. Gruenfeld (Ed.), Research on managing groups and teams (pp. 103-123). Stanford, CT: JAI Press.
62. Holyoak, K. J., & Koh, K. (1987). Surface and structural similarity in analogical transfer. Memory and Cognition, 15, 332-340.
63. House, R. J., Hanges, P. J., Javidan, M., Dorfman, P., & Gupta, V. (2004). Culture, leadership, and organizations: The GLOBE study of 62 societies. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage.
64. Huang, X., Wright, R. P., Chiu, W. C. K., & Wang, C. (2008). Relational schemas as sources of evaluation and misevaluation of leader-member exchanges: Some initial evidence. Leadership Quarterly, 19, 266-282.
65. Hunt, J. G., Boal, K. B., & Sorenson, R. L. (1990). Top management leadership: Inside the black box. Leadership Quarterly, 1, 41-65.
66. Ilies, R., Nahrgang, J. D., & Morgeson, F. P. (2007). Leader-member exchange and citizenship behaviors: A meta-analysis. Journal of Applied Psychology, 92, 269-277.
67. Jablin, F. M., & Krone, K. J. (1987). Organizational assimilation. In C. Berger & S. H. Chaffee (Eds.), Handbook of communication science (pp. 711-746). Newbury Park, CA: Sage.
68. John, O. P., & Robins, R. W. (1994). Accuracy and bias in self-perception: Individual differences in self-enhancement and the role of narcissism. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 66, 206-219.
69. Kacmar, K. M., Witt, L. A., Zivnuska, S., & Gully, S. M. (2003). The interactive effect of leader-member exchange and communication frequency on performance ratings. Journal of Applied Psychology, 88, 764-772.
70. Keller, T. (1999). Images of the familiar: Individual differences and implicit leadership theories. Leadership Quarterly, 10, 589-607.
71. Kenney, R. A., Schwartz-Kenney, B. M., Blascovich, J. (1996). Implicit leadership theories: Defining leaders described as worthy of influence. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, 22, 1128-1143.
72. Kim, K. I., & Organ, D. W. (1982). Determinants of leader-subordinate exchange relationships. Group and Organization Studies, 7, 77-89.
73. Lagace, R. R. (1990). Leader-member exchange: Antecedents and consequences of the cadre and hired hand. Journal of Personal Selling and Sales Management, 10, 11-19.
74. Liberman, N., Trope, Y., McCrea, S., & Sherman, S. J. (2007). The effect of level of construal on the temporal distance of activity engagement. Journal of Experimental Social Psychology, 43,143-149.
75. Liden, R. C., & Graen, G. (1980). Generalizability of the vertical dyad linkage model of leadership. Academy of Management Journal, 23, 451-465.
76. Liden, R. C., & Maslyn, J. M. (1998). Multidimensionality of leader-member exchange: An empirical assessment through scale development. Journal of Management, 24, 43-72.
77. Liden, R. C., Wayne, S. J., & Stilwell, D. (1993). A longitudinal study on the early development of leader-member exchanges. Journal of Applied Psychology, 78, 662-674.
78. Lord, R. G. (1985). An information processing approach to social perceptions, leadership perceptions and behavioral measurement in organizational settings. In B. M. Staw & L. L. Cummings (Eds.), Research in organizational behavior (Vol. 7, pp. 85-128). Greenwich, CT: JAI Press.
79. Lord, R. G., & Brown, D. J. (2004). Leadership processes and follower identity. Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates, Inc.
80. Lord, R. G., Brown, D. J., Harvey, J. L., & Hall, R. J. (2001). Contextual constraints on prototype generation and their multilevel consequences for leadership perceptions. Leadership Quarterly, 12, 311-338.
81. Lord, R. G., Foti, R. J., & de Vader, C. L. (1984). A test of leadership categorization theory: Internal structure, information processing, and leadership perceptions. Organizational Behavior and Human Performance, 34, 343-378.
82. Lord, R. G., & Hall, R. J. (2003). Identity, leadership categorization, and leadership schema. In D. van Knippenberg & M. A. Hogg (Eds.), Leadership and power (pp. 48-64). London: Sage.
83. Lord, R. G., & Maher, K. J. (1991). Leadership and information processing: Linking perceptions and performance. Boston: Unwin Hyman.
84. Maslyn, J. M., & Uhl-Bien, M. (2001). Leader-member exchange and its dimensions: Effects of self-effort and other's effort on relationship quality. Journal of Applied Psychology, 86, 697-708.
85. Mayfield, J., & Mayfield, M. (1998). Increasing worker outcomes by improving leader follower relations. Journal of Leadership Studies, 5, 72-81.
86. Meindl, J. R. (1995). The romance of leadership as a follower-centric theory: A social constructionist approach. Leadership Quarterly, 6, 329-342.
87. Minsky, B. D. (2002). LMX dyad agreement: Construct definition and the role of supervisor or subordinate similarity and communication in understanding LMX. Unpublished doctoral dissertation, Louisiana State University, Louisiana.
88. Muller, A., & Schyns, B. (2005). The perception of leadership-leadership as a perception: An exploration using the Repertory Grid-Technique. In B. Schyns & J. R. Meindl (Eds.), Implicit leadership theories: Essays and explorations (pp. 81-101). Greenwich, CT: Information Age Publishing.
89. Nye, J. L. (2002). The eye of the follower: Information processing effects on attribution regarding leaders of small groups. Small Group Research, 33, 337-360.
90. Oakes, P. J., Turner, J. C., & Haslam, A. S. (1991). Perceiving people as group members: The role of fit in the salience of social categorizations. British Journal of Social Psychology, 30, 125-144.
91. Offermann, L. R., Kennedy, J. K., Jr., & Wirtz, P. W. (1994). Implicit leadership theories: Content, structure and generalizability. Leadership Quarterly, 5, 43-58.
92. Paglis, L. L., & Green, S. G. (2002). Both sides now: Supervisor and subordinate perspectives on relationship quality. Journal of Applied Social Psychology, 32, 250-276.
93. Pirolli, P. L., & Anderson, J. R. (1985). The role of learning from examples in the acquisition of recursive programming skills. Canadian Journal of Psychology, 39, 240-272.
94. Porter, L. W., & McLaughlin, G. B. (2006). Leadership and organizational context: Like the weather? Leadership Quarterly, 17, 559-576.
95. Reed, S. K. (1987). A structure-mapping model for word problems. Journal of Experimental Psychology: Learning, Memory, and Cognition, 13, 124-139.
96. Ridgeway, C. L. (2001). Gender, status, and leadership. Journal of Social Issues, 57, 637-655
97. Ritter, B. A., & Lord, R. G. (2007). The impact of previous leaders on the evaluation of new leaders: An alternative to prototype. Journal of Applied Psychology, 92, 1683-1695.
98. Rosenthal, S. A., & Pittinsky, T. L. (2006). Narcissistic leadership. Leadership Quarterly, 17, 617-633.
99. Ross, B. (1984). Remindings and their effects in learning a cognitive skill. Cognitive Psychology, 16,371-416.
100. Ross, B. (1987). This is like that: The use of earlier problems and the separation of similarity effects. Journal of Experimental Psychology: Learning, Memory, and Cognition, 13, 629-639.
101. Ross, M., & Sicoly, E. (1979). Egocentric biases in availability and attribution. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 37, 322-336.
102. Sanders, M. M. (1999). Leader, follower, team player, thief: An exploration of managers' performer categories. Journal of Business and Psychology, 14, 199-215.
103. Scandura, T. A., & Graen, G. B. (1984). Moderating effects of initial leader-member exchange status on the effects of a leadership intervention. Journal of Applied Psychology, 69,428-436.
104. Schriesheim, C. A., Castro, S. L., & Cogliser, C. C. (1999). Leader-member exchange (LMX) research: A comprehensive review of theory, measurement, and data-analytic practices. Leadership Quarterly, 10, 63-113.
105. Schriesheim, C. A., Castro, S. L., Zhou, X., & Yammarino, F. J. (2001). The folly of theorizing "A" but testing "B": A selective level-of-analysis review of the field and a detailed leader- member exchange illustration. The Leadership Quarterly, 12, 515-551.
106. Schriesheim, C. A., & Gardiner, C. C. (1992). An exploration of the discriminant validity of the leader-member exchange scale (LMX 7) commonly used in organizational research. Paper presented at the meeting of the Southern Management Association, New Orleans, LA.
107. Schwarz, N., Bless, H., Strack, F., Klumpp, G., Rittenauer-Schatka, H., & Simons, A. (1991). Ease of retrieval as information: Another look at the availability heuristic. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 61, 195-202.
108. Schyns, B. (2006). Are group consensus in leader-member exchange (lmx) and shared work values related to organizational outcomes? Small Group Research, 37, 20-35.
109. Schyns, B., & Day, D. V. (2010). Critique and review of leader-member exchange theory: Issues of agreement, consensus, and excellence. European Journal of Work and Organizational Psychology, 19(1), 1-29.
110. Schyns, B., & Meindl, J. R. (Eds.). (2005). Implicit leadership theories: Essays and explorations. Greenwich, CT: Information Age Publishing.
111. Schyns, B., Paul, T., Mohr, G., & Blank, H. (2005). Comparing antecedents and consequences of leader-member exchange in a German working context to findings in the US. European Journal of Work and Organizational Psychology, 14, 1-22.
112. Scott, K. A., & Brown, D. J. (2006). Female first, leader second? Gender bias in the encoding of leadership behavior. Organizational Behavior and Human Decision Processes, 101, 230-242.
113. Shamir, B., Pillai, R., Bligh, M. C., & Uhl-Bien, M. (Eds.). (2007). Follower-centered perspectives on leadership. Greenwich, CT: Information Age Publishing.
114. Silverman, I. (1964). Self-esteem and differential responsiveness to success and failure. Journal of Abnormal and Social Psychology, 69, 115-119.
115. Sin, H. P., Nahrgang, J. D., & Moregeson, F. P. (2009). Understanding why they don't see eye- to-eye: An examination of leader-member exchange (LMX) agreement. Journal of Applied Psychology, 94, 1048-1057.
116. Taylor, S. E., & Brown, J. D. (1988). Illusion and well-being: A social psychological perspective on mental health. Psychological Bulletin, 103, 193-210.
117. Tekleab, A. G., & Taylor, M. S. (2003). Aren't there two parties in an employment relationship? Antecedents and consequences of organization-employee agreement on contract obligations and violations. Journal of Organizational Behavior, 24, 585-608.
118. Tsui, A. S., Egan, T. D., & O'Reilly, C. A. (1992). Being different: Relational demography and organizational attachment. Administrative Science Quarterly, 37, 549-579.
119. Tsui, A. S., & O'Reilly, C. A. (1989). Beyond simple demographic effects: The importance of relational demography in superior-sub-ordinate dyads. Academy of Management Journal, 32,402-423.
120. Turner, J. (1987). Rediscovering the social group: A self-categorization theory. Oxford, UK: Blackwell.
121. Tversky, A., & Kahneman, D. (1974). Judgment under uncertainty: Heuristics and biases. Science, 185, 1124-1131.
122. Uhl-Bien, M. (2003). Relationship development as a key ingredient for leadership development. In S. E. Murphy & R. E. Riggio (Eds.), The future of leadership development (pp. 129-147). Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates, Inc.
123. Uhl-Bien, M., & Maslyn, J. M. (2003). Reciprocity in manager-subordinate relationships: Components, configurations, and outcomes. Journal of Management, 29, 511-532.
124. Van Breukelen, W., Konst, D., & van der Vlist, R. (2002). Effects of LMX and differential treatment on work unit commitment. Psychological Reports, 91, 220-230.
125. Van Breukelen, W., Schyns, B., & LeBlanc, P. (2006). Leader-member exchange theory and research: Accomplishments and future challenges. Leadership, 2, 295-316.
126. Van Dijk, E., & van Knippenberg, D. (2005). Wanna trade? Product knowledge and the perceived differences between the gains and losses of trade. European Journal of Social Psychology, 35, 23-34.
127. Van Ginkel, W. P., Tindale, R. S., & van Knippenberg, D. (in press). Team reflexivity, development of shared task representations, and the use of distributed information in group decision making. Group Dynamics.
128. Van Ginkel, W. P., & van Knippenberg, D. (2008). Group information elaboration and group decision making: The role of shared task representations. Organizational Behavior and Human Decision Processes, 105, 82-97.
129. Van Quaquebeke, N., & Brodbeck, F. C. (2008). Entwicklung und erste Validierung zweier Instrumente zur Erfassung von Fuhrungskrafte-Kategorisierung im deutschsprachigen Raum [Development and first validation of two scales to measure leader categorization in German-speaking countries]. Zeitschrift für Arbeits- und Organisationspsychologie, 52, 70-80.
130. Van Quaquebeke, N., Graf, M. M., & Brodbeck, F. C. (2007). What do leaders have to live up to? Contrasting the effects of typical versus ideal leader prototypes for the process of leader categorization. Paper presented at the 13th European Congress of Work and Organizational Psychology, Stockholm, Sweden.
131. Vecchio, R. P. (1995). The impact of referral sources on employee attitudes: Evidence from a national sample. Journal of Management, 21, 953-965.
132. Vecchio, R. P., & Norris, W. (1996). Predicting employee turnover from performance, satisfaction, and leader-member exchange. Journal of Business and Psychology, 11, 113-125.
133. Walster, E., Walster, G. W., & Berscheid, E. (1978). Equity: Theory and research. Boston: Allyn & Bacon.
134. Weick, K. E. (1995). Sensemaking in organizations. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage.
135. Wernimont, P. F. (1971). What supervisors and subordinates expect of each other. Personnel Journal, 50, 204-208.
136. Wexley, K. N., Alexander, R. A., Greenawalt, J. P., & Couch, M. A. (1980). Attitudinal congruence and similarity as related to interpersonal evaluations in manager-subordinate dyads. Academy of Management Journal, 23, 320-330.
137. Yammarino, F. J., & Dansereau, F. (2002). Individualized leadership. Journal of Leadership and Organizational Studies, 9, 1-11.