The challenges of multiple organ dysfunction syndrome and extra-corporeal circuits for drug delivery in critically ill patients

Advanced Drug Delivery Reviews

Volumn 77, Issue , 2014, Pages 12-21

  Hites, Maya ^a   Dell'Anna, Antonio Maria ^a   Scolletta, Sabino ^b   Taccone, Fabio Silvio ^a  

^a ERASME HOSPITAL   (Belgium)

^b UNIVERSITY OF SIENA   (Italy)

Author keywords

Antibiotic; Drug; ECMO; Extracorporeal therapy; Liver failure; Pharmacokinetic; Renal failure; Renal replacement therapy

Indexed keywords

ANTIBIOTICS; DISEASES; PHARMACOKINETICS; RESPIRATORY THERAPY; TIMING CIRCUITS;

DRUG; ECMO; EXTRACORPOREAL THERAPY; LIVER FAILURE; RENAL FAILURE; RENAL REPLACEMENT THERAPIES;

DRUG DELIVERY;

ANTIBIOTIC AGENT; DRUG;

ACUTE KIDNEY FAILURE; ACUTE LIVER FAILURE; CONTINUOUS RENAL REPLACEMENT THERAPY; CRITICALLY ILL PATIENT; DRUG CLEARANCE; DRUG DELIVERY SYSTEM; EXTRACORPOREAL CIRCULATION; EXTRACORPOREAL OXYGENATION; FLOW RATE; HUMAN; KIDNEY BLOOD FLOW; KIDNEY CLEARANCE; LIVER BLOOD FLOW; LIVER CLEARANCE; MULTIPLE ORGAN FAILURE; REVIEW; CRITICAL ILLNESS; INTENSIVE CARE UNIT; PATHOPHYSIOLOGY; PHARMACOKINETICS; PROCEDURES; RENAL REPLACEMENT THERAPY;

CRITICAL ILLNESS; DRUG DELIVERY SYSTEMS; EXTRACORPOREAL MEMBRANE OXYGENATION; HUMANS; INTENSIVE CARE UNITS; MULTIPLE ORGAN FAILURE; PHARMACEUTICAL PREPARATIONS; PHARMACOKINETICS; RENAL REPLACEMENT THERAPY;

EID: 84919463966     PISSN: 0169409X     EISSN: 18728294     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1016/j.addr.2014.05.007     Document Type: Review

References (136)

1. Durham R.M., Moran J.J., Mazuski J.E., Shapiro M.J., Baue A.E., Flint L.M. Multiple organ failure in trauma patients. J. Trauma 2003, 55:608-616.
2. Fullerton J.N., Singer M. Organ failure in the ICU: cellular alterations. Semin. Respir. Crit. Care Med. 2011, 32:581-586.
3. Blanco J., Muriel-Bombin A., Sagredo V., Taboada F., Gandia F., Tamayo L., Collado J., García-Labattut A., Carriedo D., Valledor M., De Frutos M., López M.J., Caballero A., Guerra J., Alvarez B., Mayo A., Villar J. Incidence, organ dysfunction and mortality in severe sepsis: a Spanish multicentre study. Crit. Care 2008, 12:R158. Grupo de Estudios y Análisis en Cuidados Intensivos.
4. Martin G.S., Mannino D.M., Eaton S., Moss M. The epidemiology of sepsis in the United States from 1979 through 2000. N. Engl. J. Med. 2003, 348:1546-1554.
5. Udy A.A., Roberts J.A., Lipman J. Clinical implications of antibiotic pharmacokinetic principles in the critically ill. Intensive Care Med. 2013, 39(12):2070-2082.
6. Roberts J.A., Lipman J. Pharmacokinetic issues for antibiotics in the critically ill patient. Crit. Care Med. 2009, 37:840-851.
7. Rao G.G., Ly N.S., Haas C.E., Garonzik S., Forrest A., Bulitta J.B., Kelchlin P.A., Holden P.N., Nation R.L., Li J., Tsuji B. New dosing strategies for an 'Old' antibiotic: pharmacodynamics of front-loaded regimens of colistin at simulated pharmacokinetics of patients with kidney or liver disease. Antimicrob. Agents Chemother. 2014, 58(3):1381-1388.
8. Tarbeeh G.A., Othman M.M. The pharmacodynamics of vecuronium in chronic renal failure patients: the impact of different priming doses. Ren. Fail. 2012, 34:827-833.
9. Udy A.A., Roberts J.A., Lipman J. Implications of augmented renal clearance in critically ill patients. Nat. Rev. Nephrol. 2011, 7:539-543.
10. Asconapé J.J. Use of antiepileptic drugs in hepatic and renal disease. Handb. Clin. Neurol. 2014, 119:417-432.
11. Matsuzaki T., Morisaki T., Sugimoto W., Yokoo K., Sato D., Nonoguchi H., Tomita K., Terada T., Inui K., Hamada A., Saito H. Altered pharmacokinetics of cationic drugs caused by down-regulation of renal rat organic cation transporter 2 (Slc22a2) and rat multidrug and toxin extrusion 1 (Slc47a1) in ischemia/reperfusion-induced acute kidney injury. Drug Metab. Dispos. 2008, 36:649-654.
12. Markou N., Fousteri M., Markantonis S.L., Zidianakis B., Hroni D., Boutzouka E., Baltopoulos G. Colistin pharmacokinetics in intensive care unit patients on continuous venovenous haemodiafiltration: an observational study. J. Antimicrob. Chemother. 2012, 67:2459-2462.
13. Shekar K., Roberts J.A., Welch S., Buscher H., Rudham S., Burrows F., Ghassabian S., Wallis S.C., Levkovich B., Pellegrino V., McGuinness S., Parke R., Gilder E., Barnett A.G., Walsham J., Mullany D.V., Fung Y.L., Smith M.T., Fraser J.F. ASAP ECMO: Antibiotic, Sedative and Analgesic Pharmacokinetics during Extracorporeal Membrane Oxygenation: a multi-centre study to optimise drug therapy during ECMO. BMC Anesthesiol. 2012, 28:12. (29).
14. Jamal J.A., Economou C.J., Lipman J., Roberts J.A. Improving antibiotic dosing in special situations in the ICU: burns, renal replacement therapy and extracorporeal membrane oxygenation. Curr. Opin. Crit. Care 2012, 18:460-471.
15. Lone N.I., Walsh T.S. Impact of intensive care unit organ failures on mortality during the five years after a critical illness. Am. J. Respir. Crit. Care Med. 2012, 186:640-647.
16. Ebert E.C. Hypoxic liver injury. Mayo Clin. Proc. 2006, 81:1232-1236.
17. Hiramatsu A., Takahashi S., Aikata H., Azakami T., Katamura Y., Kawaoka T., Uka K., Yamashina K., Takaki S., Kodama H., Jeong S.C., Imamura M., Kawakami Y., Chayama K. Etiology and outcome of acute liver failure: retrospective analysis of 50 patients treated at a single center. J. Gastroenterol. Hepatol. 2008, 23:1216-1222.
18. Hebert M.F. Guide to Drug Dosage in Hepatic Disease: Avery's Drug Treatment. A Guide to the Properties, Choice, Therapeutic Use and Economic Value of Drugs in Disease Management 1997, 1761-1789. Adis International Auckland, Auckland. Fourth edition.
19. Morgan D.J., McLean A.J. Therapeutic implications of impaired hepatic oxygen diffusion in chronic liver disease. Hepatology 1991, 14:1280-1282.
20. Hoyumpa A.M., Schenker S. Is glucuronidation truly preserved in patients with liver disease?. Hepatology 1991, 13:786-795.
21. Boucher B.A., Wood G.C., Swanson J.M. Pharmacokinetic changes in critical illness. Crit. Care Clin. 2006, 22:255-271.
22. Wilkinson G.R. Clearance approaches in pharmacology. Pharmacol. Rev. 1987, 39:1-47.
23. Lange H., Stephan H., Rieke H., Kellerman M., Sonntag H., Bircher J. Hepatic and extrahepatic disposition of propofol in patients undergoing coronary bypass surgery. Br. J. Anaesth. 1990, 64:563-570.
24. Hiraoka H., Yamamoto K., Miyoshi S., Morita T., Nakamura K., Kadoi Y., Kunimoto F., Horiuchi R. Kidneys contribute to the extrahepatic clearance of propofol in humans, but not lungs and brain. Br. J. Clin. Pharmacol. 2005, 60:176-182.
25. Pentikäinen P.J., Välisalmi L., Himberg J.L., Crevoisier C. Pharmacokinetics of midazolam following intravenous and oral administration in patients with chronic liver disease and in healthy subjects. J. Clin. Pharmacol. 1989, 29:272-277.
26. Klotz U., Antonin K.H., Brügel H., Bieck P.R. Disposition of diazepam and its major metabolite desmethyldiazepam in patients with liver disease. Clin. Pharmacol. Ther. 1977, 21:430-436.
27. Lukin C.L., Hein H.A., Swygert T.H., Gunning T.C., Valek T.R., Donica S.K., Nelson R.B., Ramsay M.A. Duration of vecuronium-induced neuromuscular block as a predictor of liver allograft dysfunction. Anesth. Analg. 1995, 80:526-533.
28. Mazoit J.X., Sandouk P., Zetlaoui P., Scherrmann J.M. Pharmacokinetics of unchanged morphine in normal and cirrhotic subjects. Anesth. Analg. 1987, 66:293-298.
29. Chauvin M., Ferrier C., Haberer J.P., Spielvogel C., Lebrault C., Levron J.C., Duvaldestin P. Sufentanil pharmacokinetics in patients with cirrhosis. Anesth. Analg. 1989, 68:1-4.
30. Jin S.J., Jung J.Y., Noh M.H., Lee S.H., Lee E.K., Choi B.M., Song M.H., Noh G.J. The population pharmaco-kinetics of fentanyl in patients undergoing living-donor liver transplantation. Clin. Pharmacol. Ther. 2011, 90:423-431.
31. Navapurkar V.U., Archer S., Gupta S.K., Muir K.T., Frazer N., Park G.R. Metabolism of remifentanil during liver transplantation. Br. J. Anaesth. 1998, 81:881-886.
32. Costela J.L., Jiménez R., Calvo R., Suárez E., Carlos R. Serum protein binding of propofol in patients with renal failure or hepatic cirrhosis. Acta Anaesthesiol. Scand. 1996, 40:741-745.
33. Delcò F., Tchambaz L., Schlienger R., Drewe J., Krähenbühl S. Dose adjustment in patients with liver disease. Drug Saf. 2005, 28:529-545.
34. Naora K., Ichikawa N., Hirano H., Iwamoto K. Distribution of ciprofloxacin into the central nervous system in rats with acute renal or hepatic failure. J. Pharm. Pharmacol. 1999, 51:609-616.
35. Hendershot P.E., Jungbluth G.L., Cammarata S.K., Hopkins N.K. Pharmacokinetics of linezolid in patients with liver diseases. J. Antimicrob. Chemother. 1999, 44(Suppl. A):55.
36. Scheetz M.H., Reddy P., Nicolau D.P., Noskin G.A., Postelnick M.J., Stosor V., Zembower T.R. Peritoneal fluid penetration of tigecycline. Ann. Pharmacother. 2006, 40:2064-2067.
37. Wynalda M.A., Hutzler J.M., Koets M.D., Podoll T., Wienkers L.C. In vitro metabolism of clindamycin in human liver and intestinal microsomes. Drug Metab. Dispos. 2003, 31:878-887.
38. Gachet C., Aleil B. The inter-individual variability of the response to clopidogrel. Arch. Mal. Coeur Vaiss. 2005, 98:216-225.
39. Hylek E.M. Oral anticoagulants. Pharmacologic issues for use in the elderly. Clin. Geriatr. Med. 2001, 17:1-13.
40. Choi Q., Hong K.H., Kim J.E., Kim H.K. Changes in plasma levels of natural anticoagulants in disseminated intravascular coagulation: high prognostic value of antithrombin and protein C in patients with underlying sepsis or severe infection. Ann. Lab. Med. 2014, 34:85-91.
41. Bagshaw S.M., George C., Bellomo R. Changes in the incidence and outcome for early acute kidney injury in a cohort of Australian intensive care units. Crit. Care 2007, 11:R68.
42. Nisula S., Kaukonen K.M., Vaara S.T., Korhonen A.M., Poukkanen M., Karlsson S., Haapio M., Inkinen O., Parviainen I., Suojaranta-Ylinen R., Laurila J.J., Tenhunen J., Reinikainen M., Ala-Kokko T., Ruokonen E., Kuitunen A., Pettilä V., FINNAKI Study Group Incidence, risk factors and 90-day mortality of patients with acute kidney injury in Finnish intensive care units: the FINNAKI study. Intensive Care Med. 2013, 39:420-428.
43. Bonventre J.V. Pathophysiology of AKI: injury and normal and abnormal repair. Contrib. Nephrol. 2010, 165:9-17.
44. St Peter W., Redic-Kill K., Halstenson C. Clinical pharmacokinetics of antibiotics in patients with impaired renal function. Clin. Pharmacokinet. 1992, 22:169-210.
45. Bellomo R., Ronco C., Kellum J.A., Mehta R.L., Palevsky P. Acute renal failure - definition, outcome measures, animal models, fluid therapy and information technology needs: the Second International Consensus Conference of the Acute Dialysis Quality Initiative (ADQI) Group. Crit. Care 2004, 8:R204-R212.
46. Verbeeck R.K., Musuamba F.T. Pharmacokinetics and dosage adjustment in patients with renal dysfunction. Eur. J. Clin. Pharmacol. 2009, 65:757-773.
47. Udy A.A., Roberts J.A., Boots R.J., Paterson D.L., Lipman J. Augmented renal clearance: implications for antibacterial dosing in the critically ill. Clin. Pharmacokinet. 2010, 49:1-16.
48. Chapuis T.M., Giannoni E., Majcherczyk P.A., Chioléro R., Schaller M.D., Berger M.M., Bolay S., Décosterd L.A., Bugnon D., Moreillon P. Prospective monitoring of cefepime in intensive care unit adult patients. Crit. Care 2010, 14:R51.
49. Turnidge J. Pharmacodynamics and dosing of aminoglycosides. Infect. Dis. Clin. North Am. 2003, 17:503-528.
50. Ocampos-Martinez E., Penaccini L., Scolletta S., Abdelhadii A., Devigili A., Cianferoni S., De Backer D., Jacobs F., Cotton F., Vincent J.L., Taccone F.S. Determinants of early inadequate vancomycin concentrations during continuous infusion in septic patients. Int. J. Antimicrob. Agents 2012, 39:332-337.
51. Taccone F.S., Laterre P.F., Dugernier T., Spapen H., Delattre I., Wittebole X., De Backer D., Layeux B., Wallemacq P., Vincent J.L., Jacobs F. Insufficient β-lactam concentrations in the early phase of severe sepsis and septic shock. Crit. Care 2010, 14:R126.
52. Taccone F.S., Laterre P.F., Spapen H., Dugernier T., Delattre I., Layeux B., De Backer D., Wittebole X., Wallemacq P., Vincent J.L., Jacobs F. Revisiting the loading dose of amikacin for patients with severe sepsis and septic shock. Crit. Care 2010, 14:R53.
53. Penson R.T., Joel S.P., Bakhshi K., Clark S.J., Langford R.M., Slevin M.L. Randomized placebo-controlled trial of activity of the morphine glucuronides. Clin. Pharmacol. Ther. 2000, 68:667-676.
54. Hoffmann P., Keller F. Increased major bleeding risk in patients with kidney dysfunction receiving enoxaparin: a meta-analysis. Eur. J. Clin. Pharmacol. 2012, 68:757-765.
55. Ponto L.L., Schoenwald R.D. Furosemide (frusemide): a pharmacokinetic/pharmacodynamic review (part I). Clin. Pharmacokinet. 1990, 18:381-408.
56. Brophy D.F., Sica D.A. Use of enoxaparin in patients with chronic kidney disease: safety considerations. Drug Saf. 2007, 30:991-994.
57. Vilay A.M., Churchwell M.D., Mueller B.A. Clinical review: drug metabolism and nonrenal clearance in acute kidney injury. Crit. Care 2008, 12:235.
58. Uchino S. The epidemiology of acute renal failure in the world. Curr. Opin. Crit. Care 2006, 12:538-543.
59. Allegretti A.S., Steele D.J., David-Kasdan J.A., Bajwa E., Niles J.L., Bhan I. Continuous renal replacement therapy outcomes in acute kidney injury and end-stage renal disease: a cohort study. Crit. Care 2013, 17:R109.
60. Deepa C., Muralidhar K. Renal replacement therapy in ICU. J. Anaesthesiol. Clin. Pharmacol. 2012, 28:386-396.
61. Brunet S., Leblanc M., Geadah D., Parent D., Courteau S., Cardinal J. Diffusive and convective solute clearances during continuous renal replacement therapy at various dialysate and ultrafiltration flow rates. Am. J. Kidney Dis. 1999, 34:486-492.
62. Arzuaga A., Isla A., Gascón A.R., Maynar J., Corral E., Pedraz J.L. Elimination of piperacillin and tazobactam by renal replacement therapies with AN69 and polysulfone hemofilters: evaluation of the sieving coefficient. Blood Purif. 2006, 24:347-354.
63. Golper T.A., Marx M.A. Drug dosing adjustments during continuous renal replacement therapies. Kidney Int. Suppl. 1998, 66:S165-S168.
64. Choi G., Gomersall C.D., Lipman J., Wong A., Joynt G.M., Leung P., Ramsay S.J., Ho O.M. The effect of adsorption, filter material and point of dilution on antibiotic elimination by haemofiltration an in vitro study of levofloxacin. Int. J. Antimicrob. Agents 2004, 24:468-472.
65. Tian Q., Gomersall C.D., Ip M., Tan P.E., Joynt G.M., Choi G.Y. Adsorption of amikacin, a significant mechanism of elimination by hemofiltration. Antimicrob. Agents Chemother. 2008, 1009-1013.
66. Tian Q., Gomersall C.D., Leung P.P., Choi G.Y., Joynt G.M., Tan P.E., Wong A.S. The adsorption of vancomycin by polyacrylonitrile, polyamide, and polysulfone hemofilters. Artif. Organs 2008, 32:81-84.
67. Ronco C., Bellomo R. Principles of solute clearance during continuous renal replacement therapy. Critical Care Nephrology 1998, 1213-1223. Boston Kluwer Academic, Dordrecht. C. Ronco, R. Bellomo (Eds.).
68. Gonzalez M.A., Moranchel A.H., Duran S., Pichardo A., Magana J.L., Painter B., Drusano G.L. Multiple-dose ciprofloxacin dose ranging and kinetics. Clin. Pharmacol. Ther. 1985, 37:633-637.
69. Chow A.T., Fowler C., Williams R.R., Morgan N., Kaminski S., Natarajan J. Safety and pharmacokinetics of multiple 750-milligram doses of intravenous levofloxacin in healthy volunteers. Antimicrob. Agents Chemother. 2001, 45:2122-2125.
70. Bugge J.F. Pharmacokinetics and drug dosing adjustments during continuous venovenous hemofiltration or hemodiafiltration in critically ill patients. Acta Anaesthesiol. Scand. 2001, 45:929-934.
71. Phillips G.J., Davies J.G., Olliff C.J., Kingswood C., Street M. Use of in vitro models of haemofiltration and haemodiafiltration to estimate dosage regimens for critically ill patients prescribed cefpirome. J. Clin. Pharm. Ther. 1998, 23:353-359.
72. Choi G., Gomersall C.D., Tian Q., Joynt G.M., Li A.M., Lipman J. Principles of antibacterial dosing in continuous renal replacement therapy. Blood Purif. 2010, 30:195-212.
73. Trotman R.L., Williamson J.C., Shoemaker D.M., Salzer W.L. Antibiotic dosing in critically ill adult patients receiving continuous renal replacement therapy. Clin. Infect. Dis. 2005, 41:1159-1166.
74. Malone R.S., Fish D.N., Abraham E., Teitelbaum I. Pharmacokinetics of cefepime during continuous renal replacement therapy in critically ill patients. Antimicrob. Agents Chemother. 2001, 45:3148-3155.
75. Matzke G.R., Frye R.F., Joy M.S., Palevsky P.M. Determinants of ceftazidime clearance by continuous venovenous hemofiltration and continuous venovenous hemodialysis. Antimicrob. Agents Chemother. 2000, 44:1639-1644.
76. Mueller S.C., Majcher-Peszynska J., Hickstein H., Francke A., Pertschy A., Schulz M., Mundkowski R., Drewelow B. Pharmacokinetics of piperacillin-tazobactam in anuric intensive care patients during continuous venovenous hemodialysis. Antimicrob. Agents Chemother. 2002, 46:1557-1560.
77. Valtonen M., Tiula E., Backman J.T., Neuvonen P.J. Elimination of meropenem during continuous veno-venous haemofiltration and haemodiafiltration in patients with acute renal failure. J. Antimicrob. Chemother. 2000, 45:701-704.
78. Roberts D.M., Roberts J.A., Roberts M.S., Liu X., Nair P., Cole L., Lipman J., Bellomo R. Variability of antibiotic concentrations in critically ill patients receiving continuous renal replacement therapy: a multicentre pharmacokinetic study. Crit. Care Med. 2012, 40:1523-1528. RENAL Replacement Therapy Study Investigators.
79. Seyler L., Cotton F., Taccone F.S., De Backer D., Macours P., Vincent J.L., Jacobs F. Recommended β-lactam regimens are inadequate in septic patients treated with continuous renal replacement therapy. Crit. Care 2011, 15:R137.
80. Beumier M., Roberts J.A., Kabtouri H., Hites M., Cotton F., Wolff F., Lipman J., Jacobs F., Vincent J.L., Taccone F.S. A new regimen for continuous infusion of vancomycin during continuous renal replacement therapy. J. Antimicrob. Chemother. 2013, 68:2859-2865.
81. Taccone F.S., De Backer D., Laterre P.F., Spapen H., Dugernier T., Delattre I., Wallemacq P., Vincent J.L., Jacobs F. Pharmacokinetics of a loading dose of amikacin in septic patients undergoing continuous renal replacement therapy. Int. J. Antimicrob. Agents 2011, 37:531-535.
82. Valtonen M., Tiula E., Takkunen O., Backman J.T., Neuvonen P.J. Elimination of the piperacillin/tazobactam combination during continuous venovenous haemofiltration and haemodiafiltration in patients with acute renal failure. J. Antimicrob. Chemother. 2001, 48:881-885.
83. Covajes C., Scolletta S., Penaccini L., Ocampos-Martinez E., Abdelhadii A., Beumier M., Jacobs F., de Backer D., Vincent J.L., Taccone F.S. Continuous infusion of vancomycin in septic patients receiving continuous renal replacement therapy. Int. J. Antimicrob. Agents 2013, 41:261-266.
84. Bartlett R.H. Extracorporeal oxygenation in neonates. Hosp. Pract. 1984, 19:139-143.
85. Peek G.J., Mugford M., Tiruvoipati R., Wilson A., Allen E., Thalanany M.M., Hibbert C.L., Truesdale A., Clemens F., Cooper N., Firmin R.K., Elbourne D. Efficacy and economic assessment of conventional ventilatory support versus extracorporeal membrane oxygenation for severe adult respiratory failure (CESAR): a multicentre randomised controlled trial. Lancet 2009, 374:1351-1363. CESAR trial collaboration.
86. Zampieri F.G., Mendes P.V., Ranzani O.T., Taniguchi L.U., Pontes Azevedo L.C., Vieira Costa E.L., Park M. Extracorporeal membrane oxygenation for severe respiratory failure in adult patients: a systematic review and meta-analysis of current evidence. J. Crit. Care 2013, 28:998-1005.
87. Pham T., Combes A., Roze H., Chevret S., Mercat A., Roch A., Mourvillier B., Ara-Somohano C., Bastien O., Zogheib E., Clavel M., Constan A., Marie Richard J.C., Brun-Buisson C., Brochard L. Extracorporeal membrane oxygenation for pandemic influenza A (H1N1)-induced acute respiratory distress syndrome: a cohort study and propensity-matched analysis. Am. J. Respir. Crit. Care Med. 2013, 187:276-285. REVA Research Network.
88. Paden M.L., Conrad S.A., Rycus P.T., Thiagarajan R.R., E Registry Extracorporeal life support organization registry report 2012. ASAIO J. 2013, 59:202-210.
89. Aubron C., Cheng A.C., Pilcher D., Leong T., Magrin G., Cooper D.J., Scheinkestel C., Pellegrino V. Factors associated with outcomes of patients on extracorporeal membrane oxygenation support: a 5-year cohort study. Crit. Care 2013, 17:R73.
90. Zwiers A.J., de Wildt S.N., Hop W.C., Dorresteijn E.M., Gischler S.J., Tibboel D., Cransberg K. Acute kidney injury is a frequent complication in critically ill neonates receiving extracorporeal membrane oxygenation: a 14-year cohort study. Crit. Care 2013, 17:R151.
91. Smith A.H., Hardison D.C., Worden C.R., Fleming G.M., Taylor M.B. Acute renal failure during extracorporeal support in the pediatric cardiac patient. ASAIO J. 2009, 55:412-416.
92. Lin C.Y., Chen Y.C., Tsai F.C., Tian Y.C., Jenq C.C., Fang J.T., Yang C.W. RIFLE classification is predictive of short-term prognosis in critically ill patients with acute renal failure supported by extracorporeal membrane oxygenation. Nephrol. Dial. Transplant. 2006, 21:2867-2873.
93. Lafci G., Budak A.B., Yener A.U., Cicek O.F. Use of extracorporeal membrane oxygenation in adults. Heart Lung Circ. 2014, 23:10-23.
94. Marasco S.F., Lukas G., McDonald M., McMillan J., Ihle B. Review of ECMO (extra corporeal membrane oxygenation) support in critically ill adult patients. Heart Lung Circ. 2008, 17:S41-S47.
95. Mahomed K., Nyamurera T., Tarumbwa A. PVC bags considerably reduce availability of diazepam. Cent. Afr. J. Med. 1998, 44:171-173.
96. Kowaluk E.A., Roberts M.S., Polack A.E. Factors affecting the availability of diazepam stored in plastic bags and administered through intravenous sets. Am. J. Hosp. Pharm. 1983, 40:417-423.
97. Airaudo C.B., Gayte-Sorbier A., Bianchi C., Verdier M. Interactions between six psychotherapeutic drugs and plastic containers. influence of plastic material and infusion solutions. Int. J. Clin. Pharmacol. Ther. Toxicol. 1993, 31:261-266.
98. Dagan O., Klein J., Gruenwald C., Bohn D., Barker G., Koren G. Preliminary studies of the effects of extracorporeal membrane oxygenator on the disposition of common pediatric drugs. Ther. Drug Monit. 1993, 15:263-266.
99. Preston T.J., Hodge A.B., Riley J.B., Leib-Sargel C., Nicol K.K. In vitro drug adsorption and plasma free hemoglobin levels associated with hollow fiber oxygenators in the extracorporeal life support (ECLS) circuit. J. Extra Corpor. Technol. 2007, 39:234-237.
100. Mulla H.L.G., Woodland E.D., Peek G.J., Killer H., Firmin R.K., Upton D. Effects of neonatal extracorporeal membrane oxygenation circuits on drug disposition. Curr. Ther. Res. 2000, 61:838-848.
101. Wildschut E.D., Ahsman M.J., Allegaert K., Mathot R.A., Tibboel D. Determinants of drug absorption in different ECMO circuits. Intensive Care Med. 2010, 36:2109-2116.
102. Shekar K., Roberts J.A., McDonald C.I., Fisquet S., Barnett A.G., Mullany D.V., Ghassabian S., Wallis S.C., Fung Y.L., Smith M.T., Fraser J.F. Sequestration of drugs in the circuit may lead to therapeutic failure during extracorporeal membrane oxygenation. Crit. Care 2012, 16:R194.
103. Wagner D., Pasko D., Phillips K., Waldvogel J., Annich G. In vitro clearance of dexmedetomidine in extracorporeal membrane oxygenation. Perfusion 2013, 28:40-46.
104. Bhatt-Mehta V., Annich G. Sedative clearance during extracorporeal membrane oxygenation. Perfusion 2005, 20:309-315.
105. Hammaren E., Rosenberg P.H., Hynynen M. Coating of extracorporeal circuit with heparin does not prevent sequestration of propofol in vitro. Br. J. Anaesth. 1998, 82:38-40.
106. Preston T.J., Ratliff T.M., Gomez D., Olshove V.E., Nicol K.K., Sargel C.L., Chicoine L.G. Modified surface coatings and their effect on drug adsorption within the extracorporeal life support circuit. J. Extra Corpor. Technol. 2010, 42:199-202.
107. Leuschen M.P., Willett L.D., Hoie E.B., Bolam D.L., Bussey M.E., Goodrich P.D., Zach T.L., Nelson R.M. Plasma fentanyl levels in infants undergoing extracorporeal membrane oxygenation. J. Thorac. Cardiovasc. Surg. 1993, 105:885-891.
108. Dagan O., Klein J., Bohn D., Barker G., Koren G. Morphine pharmacokinetics in children following cardiac surgery: effects of disease and inotropic support. J. Cardiothorac. Vasc. Anesth. 1993, 7:396-398.
109. Mulla H., Lawson G., von Anrep C., Burke M.D., Upton D.U., Firmin R.K., Killer H. In vitro evaluation of sedative drug losses during extracorporeal membrane oxygenation. Perfusion 2000, 15:21-26.
110. Anderson H.L., Coran A.G., Drongowski R.A., Ha H.J., Bartlett R.H. Extracellular fluid and total body water changes in neonates undergoing extracorporeal membrane oxygenation. J. Pediatr. Surg. 1992, 27:1003-1007.
111. Ulldemolins M., Roberts J.A., Rello J., Paterson D.L., Lipman J. The effects of hypoalbuminaemia on optimizing antibacterial dosing in critically ill patients. Clin. Pharmacokinet. 2011, 50:99-110.
112. Roberts J.A., Pea F., Lipman J. The clinical relevance of plasma protein binding changes. Clin. Pharmacokinet. 2013, 52:1-8.
113. Smith B.S., Yogaratnam D., Levasseur-Franklin K.E., Forni A., Fong J. Introduction to drug pharmacokinetics in the critically ill patient. Chest 2012, 141:1327-1336.
114. Di Giantomasso D., May C.N., Bellomo R. Norepinephrine and vital organ blood flow. Intensive Care Med. 2002, 28:1804-1809.
115. Many M., Soroff H.S., Birtwell W.C., Giron F., Wise H., Deterling R.A. The physiologic role of pulsatile and nonpulsatile blood flow. II. Effects on renal function. Arch. Surg. 1967, 95:762-767.
116. Ahsman M.J., Wildschut E.D., Tibboel D., Mathot R.A. Pharmacokinetics of cefotaxime and desacetylcefotaxime in infants during extracorporeal membrane oxygenation. Antimicrob. Agents Chemother. 2010, 54:1734-1741.
117. Bhatt-Mehta V., Johnson C.E., Schumacher R.E. Gentamicin pharmacokinetics in term neonates receiving extracorporeal membrane oxygenation. Pharmacotherapy 1992, 12:28-32.
118. Alcorn J., McNamara P.J. Pharmacokinetics in the newborn. Adv. Drug Deliv. Rev. 2003, 55:667-686.
119. McILwain R.B., Timpa J.G., Kurundkar A.R., Holt D.W., Kelly D.R., Hartman Y.E., Neel M.L., Karnatak R.K., Schelonka R.L., Anantharamaiah G.M., Killingsworth C.R., Maheshwari A. Plasma concentrations of inflammatory cytokines rise rapidly during ECMO-related SIRS due to the release of preformed stores in the intestine. Lab. Investig. 2010, 90:128-139.
120. Carcillo J.A., Doughty L., Kofos D., Frye R.F., Kaplan S.S., Sasser H., Burckart G.J. Cytochrome P450 mediated-drug metabolism is reduced in children with sepsis-induced multiple organ failure. Intensive Care Med. 2003, 29:980-984.
121. Dodge W.F., Jelliffe R.W., Zwischenberger J.B., Bellanger R.A., Hokanson J.A., Snodgrass W.R. Population pharmacokinetic models: effect of explicit versus assumed constant serum concentration assay error patterns upon parameter values of gentamicin in infants on and off extracorporeal membrane oxygenation. Ther. Drug Monit. 1994, 16:552-559.
122. Southgate W.M., DiPiro J.T., Robertson A.F. Pharmacokinetics of gentamicin in neonates on extracorporeal membrane oxygenation. Antimicrob. Agents Chemother. 1989, 33:817-819.
123. Shekar K., Roberts J.A., Ghassabian S., Mullany D.V., Wallis S.C., Smith M.T., Fraser J.F. Altered antibiotic pharmacokinetics during extracorporeal membrane oxygenation: cause for concern?. J. Antimicrob. Chemother. 2013, 68:726-727.
124. Lemaitre F., Luyt C.E., Roullet-Renoleau F., Nieszkowska A., Zahr N., Fernandez C., Antignac M., Farinotti R., Combes A. Oseltamivir carboxylate accumulation in a patient treated by haemodiafiltration and extracorporeal membrane oxygenation. Intensive Care Med. 2010, 36:1273-1274.
125. Lemaitre F., Luyt C.E., Roullet-Renoleau F., Nieszkowska A., Zahr N., Corvol E., Farinotti R. Impact of extracorporeal membrane oxygenation and continuous venovenous hemodiafiltration on the pharmacokinetics of oseltamivir carboxylate in critically ill patients with pandemic (H1N1) influenza. Ther. Drug Monit. 2012, 34:171-175.
126. Eyler R.F., Klein K.C., Mueller B.A. The pharmacokinetics of oseltamivir and oseltamivir carboxylate in a critically ill pediatric patient receiving extracorporeal membrane oxygenation and continuous venovenous hemodialysis. J. Pediatr. Pharmacol. Ther. 2012, 17:173-176.
127. Hypothermia after Cardiac Arrest Study G Mild therapeutic hypothermia to improve the neurologic outcome after cardiac arrest. N. Engl. J. Med. 2002, 346:549-556.
128. Thoresen M., Whitelaw A. Therapeutic hypothermia for hypoxic-ischaemic encephalopathy in the newborn infant. Curr. Opin. Neurol. 2005, 18:111-116.
129. Zhou J., Poloyac S.M. The effect of therapeutic hypothermia on drug metabolism and response: cellular mechanisms to organ function. Expert. Opin. Drug Metab. Toxicol. 2011, 7:803-816.
130. Miller R.D., Agoston S., van der Pol F., Booij L.H., Crul J.F., Ham J. Hypothermia and the pharmacokinetics and pharmacodynamics of pancuronium in the cat. J. Pharmacol. Exp. Ther. 1978, 207:532-538.
131. Empey P.E., Miller T.M., Philbrick A.H., Melick J.A., Kochanek P.M., Poloyac S.M. Mild hypothermia decreases fentanyl and midazolam steady-state clearance in a rat model of cardiac arrest. Crit. Care Med. 2012, 40:1221-1228.
132. Bansinath M., Turndorf H., Puig M.M. Influence of hypo and hyperthermia on disposition of morphine. J. Clin. Pharmacol. 1988, 28:860-864.
133. Koren G., Barker C., Bohn D., Kent G., Biggar W.D. Influence of hypothermia on the pharmacokinetics of gentamicin and theophylline in piglets. Crit. Care Med. 1985, 13:844-847.
134. Hostler D., Zhou J., Tortorici M.A., Bies R.R., Rittenberger J.C., Empey P.E., Kochanek P.M., Callaway C.W., Poloyac S.M. Mild hypothermia alters midazolam pharmacokinetics in normal healthy volunteers. Drug Metab. Dispos. 2010, 38:781-788.
135. Roka A., Melinda K.T., Vasarhelyi B., Machay T., Azzopardi D., Szabo M. Elevated morphine concentrations in neonates treated with morphine and prolonged hypothermia for hypoxic ischemic encephalopathy. Pediatrics 2008, 121:e844-e849.
136. Satas S., Hoem N.O., Melby K., Porter H., Lindgren C.G., Whitelaw A., Thoresen M. Influence of mild hypothermia after hypoxia-ischemia on the pharmacokinetics of gentamicin in newborn pigs. Biol. Neonate 2000, 77:50-57.