Clinical implications of antibiotic pharmacokinetic principles in the critically ill

Intensive Care Medicine

Volumn 39, Issue 12, 2013, Pages 2070-2082

  Udy, Andrew A ^a,b   Roberts, Jason A ^a,b   Lipman, Jeffrey ^a,b  

^a UNIVERSITY OF QUEENSLAND   (Australia)

^b ROYAL BRISBANE AND WOMEN'S HOSPITAL   (Australia)

Author keywords

Antibiotics; Critical illness; Dosing; Pharmacokinetics

Indexed keywords

AMIKACIN; AMINOGLYCOSIDE; AMOXICILLIN; ANTIBIOTIC AGENT; BETA LACTAM; CEFEPIME; CEFOXITIN; CEFTAZIDIME; CEFTRIAXONE; CILASTATIN PLUS IMIPENEM; CIPROFLOXACIN; CLAVULANIC ACID; COLISTIN; DAPTOMYCIN; DORIPENEM; ERTAPENEM; FLUCLOXACILLIN; FLUCONAZOLE; GENTAMICIN; GLYCOPEPTIDE; IMIPENEM; LINEZOLID; PIPERACILLIN; PIPERACILLIN PLUS TAZOBACTAM; POLYMYXIN B; QUINOLONE DERIVATIVE; TEICOPLANIN; TICARCILLIN; UNINDEXED DRUG; VANCOMYCIN;

ACUTE KIDNEY FAILURE; ANTIBIOTIC SENSITIVITY; ANTIBIOTIC THERAPY; CAPILLARY LEAK SYNDROME; CONTINUOUS RENAL REPLACEMENT THERAPY; CRITICALLY ILL PATIENT; DRUG CLEARANCE; DRUG DISTRIBUTION; DRUG MONITORING; ENDOTHELIAL DYSFUNCTION; HUMAN; INTENSIVE CARE UNIT; KIDNEY CLEARANCE; ORGAN BLOOD FLOW; PRESCRIPTION; PROTEIN BINDING; PSEUDOMONAS INFECTION; REVIEW; TREATMENT FAILURE;

ANTI-BACTERIAL AGENTS; CRITICAL ILLNESS; DRUG DOSAGE CALCULATIONS; HUMANS;

EID: 84888203416     PISSN: 03424642     EISSN: 14321238     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1007/s00134-013-3088-4     Document Type: Review

References (126)

1. Kumar A, Roberts D, Wood KE, Light B, Parrillo JE, Sharma S, Suppes R, Feinstein D, Zanotti S, Taiberg L, Gurka D, Kumar A, Cheang M (2006) Duration of hypotension before initiation of effective antimicrobial therapy is the critical determinant of survival in human septic shock. Crit Care Med 34:1589-1596
2. Udy AA, Roberts J, De Waele J, Paterson D, Lipman J (2012) What's behind the failure of emerging antibiotics in the critically ill? Understanding the impact of altered pharmacokinetics and augmented renal clearance. Int J Antimicrob Agents 39:455-457
3. Goncalves-Pereira J, Povoa P (2011) Antibiotics in critically ill patients: a systematic review of the pharmacokinetics of beta-lactams. Crit Care 15:R206
4. Buijk SE, Mouton JW, Gyssens IC, Verbrugh HA, Bruining HA (2002) Experience with a once-daily dosing program of aminoglycosides in critically ill patients. Intensive Care Med 28:936-942
5. Joynt GM, Lipman J, Gomersall CD, Young RJ, Wong EL, Gin T (2001) The pharmacokinetics of once-daily dosing of ceftriaxone in critically ill patients. J Antimicrob Chemother 47:421-429
6. Mohr JF 3rd, Ostrosky-Zeichner L, Wainright DJ, Parks DH, Hollenbeck TC, Ericsson CD (2008) Pharmacokinetic evaluation of single-dose intravenous daptomycin in patients with thermal burn injury. Antimicrob Agents Chemother 52:1891-1893
7. del Mar Fernandez de Gatta Garcia M, Revilla N, Calvo MV, Dominguez-Gil A, Sanchez Navarro A (2007) Pharmacokinetic/pharmacodynamic analysis of vancomycin in ICU patients. Intensive Care Med 33:279-285
8. Dellinger RP, Levy MM, Rhodes A, Annane D, Gerlach H, Opal SM, Sevransky JE, Sprung CL, Douglas IS, Jaeschke R, Osborn TM, Nunnally ME, Townsend SR, Reinhart K, Kleinpell RM, Angus DC, Deutschman CS, Machado FR, Rubenfeld GD, Webb S, Beale RJ, Vincent JL, Moreno R, Surviving Sepsis Campaign Guidelines Committee including The Pediatric Subgroup (2013) Surviving Sepsis Campaign: international guidelines for management of severe sepsis and septic shock, 2012. Intensive Care Med 39:165-228
9. Marik PE (1993) Aminoglycoside volume of distribution and illness severity in critically ill septic patients. Anaesth Intensive Care 21:172-173
10. Kees MG, Vogeler S, Hilpert JW (2011) Initial dosing of vancomycin in critically ill patients. Int J Antimicrob Agents 38:91-92
11. Longo C, Bartlett G, Macgibbon B, Mayo N, Rosenberg E, Nadeau L, Daskalopoulou SS (2013) The effect of obesity on antibiotic treatment failure: a historical cohort study. Pharmacoepidemiol Drug Saf. doi: 10.1002/pds.3461
12. Muzevich KM, Lee KB (2013) Subtherapeutic linezolid concentrations in a patient with morbid obesity and methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus pneumonia: case report and review of the literature. Ann Pharmacother 47:e25. doi: 10.1345/aph.1R707
13. Toma O, Suntrup P, Stefanescu A, London A, Mutch M, Kharasch E (2011) Pharmacokinetics and tissue penetration of cefoxitin in obesity: implications for risk of surgical site infection. Anesth Analg 113:730-737
14. Janson B, Thursky K (2012) Dosing of antibiotics in obesity. Curr Opin Infect Dis 25:634-649
15. Roberts JA, Lipman J (2013) Optimal doripenem dosing simulations in critically ill nosocomial pneumonia patients with obesity, augmented renal clearance, and decreased bacterial susceptibility. Crit Care Med 41:489-495
16. Cheatham SC, Fleming MR, Healy DP, Chung CE, Shea KM, Humphrey ML, Kays MB (2013) Steady-state pharmacokinetics and pharmacodynamics of piperacillin and tazobactam administered by prolonged infusion in obese patients. Int J Antimicrob Agents 41:52-56
17. Conil JM, Georges B, Fourcade O, Seguin T, Houin G, Saivin S (2007) Intermittent administration of ceftazidime to burns patients: influence of glomerular filtration. Int J Clin Pharmacol Ther 45:133-142
18. Conil JM, Georges B, Breden A, Segonds C, Lavit M, Seguin T, Coley N, Samii K, Chabanon G, Houin G, Saivin S (2006) Increased amikacin dosage requirements in burn patients receiving a once-daily regimen. Int J Antimicrob Agents 28:226-230
19. Pea F, Porreca L, Baraldo M, Furlanut M (2000) High vancomycin dosage regimens required by intensive care unit patients cotreated with drugs to improve haemodynamics following cardiac surgical procedures. J Antimicrob Chemother 45:329-335
20. Choi G, Gomersall CD, Tian Q, Joynt GM, Freebairn R, Lipman J (2009) Principles of antibacterial dosing in continuous renal replacement therapy. Crit Care Med 37:2268-2282
21. Udy AA, Covajes C, Taccone FS, Jacobs F, Vincent JL, Lipman J, Roberts JA (2013) Can population pharmacokinetic modelling guide vancomycin dosing during continuous renal replacement therapy in critically ill patients? Int J Antimicrob Agents 41:564-568
22. Roberts DM, Roberts JA, Roberts MS, Liu X, Nair P, Cole L, Lipman J, Bellomo R, RENAL Replacement Therapy Study Investigators (2012) Variability of antibiotic concentrations in critically ill patients receiving continuous renal replacement therapy: a multicentre pharmacokinetic study. Crit Care Med 40:1523-1528
23. Mehta RL, Bouchard J, Soroko SB, Ikizler TA, Paganini EP, Chertow GM, Himmelfarb J, Program to Improve Care in Acute Renal Disease (PICARD) Study Group (2011) Sepsis as a cause and consequence of acute kidney injury: Program to Improve Care in Acute Renal Disease. Intensive Care Med 37:241-248
24. Oppert M, Engel C, Brunkhorst FM, Bogatsch H, Reinhart K, Frei U, Eckardt KU, Loeffler M, John S, German Competence Network Sepsis (Sepnet) (2008) Acute renal failure in patients with severe sepsis and septic shock - a significant independent risk factor for mortality: results from the German Prevalence Study. Nephrol Dial Transpl 23:904-909
25. Beumier M, Roberts JA, Kabtouri H, Hites M, Cotton F, Wolff F, Lipman J, Jacobs F, Vincent JL, Taccone FS (2013) A new regimen for continuous infusion of vancomycin during continuous renal replacement therapy. J Antimicrob Chemother. doi: 10.1093/jac/dkt261
26. Asin-Prieto E, Rodriguez-Gascon A, Troconiz IF, Soraluce A, Maynar J, Sanchez-Izquierdo JA, Isla A (2013) Population pharmacokinetics of piperacillin and tazobactam in critically ill patients undergoing continuous renal replacement therapy: application to pharmacokinetic/pharmacodynamic analysis. J Antimicrob Chemother. doi: 10.1093/jac/dkt304
27. Wilson FP, Bachhuber MA, Caroff D, Adler R, Fish D, Berns J (2012) Low cefepime concentrations during high blood and dialysate flow continuous venovenous hemodialysis. Antimicrob Agents Chemother 56:2178-2180
28. Falcone M, Russo A, Cassetta MI, Lappa A, Tritapepe L, Fallani S, Vullo V, Venditti M, Novelli A (2012) Daptomycin serum levels in critical patients undergoing continuous renal replacement. J Chemother 24:253-256
29. Wenisch JM, Meyer B, Fuhrmann V, Saria K, Zuba C, Dittrich P, Thalhammer F (2012) Multiple-dose pharmacokinetics of daptomycin during continuous venovenous haemodiafiltration. J Antimicrob Chemother 67:977-983
30. Sandri AM, Landersdorfer CB, Jacob J, Boniatti MM, Dalarosa MG, Falci DR, Behle TF, Saitovitch D, Wang J, Forrest A, Nation RL, Zavascki AP, Li J (2013) Pharmacokinetics of polymyxin B in patients on continuous venovenous haemodialysis. J Antimicrob Chemother 68:674-677
31. Karvanen M, Plachouras D, Friberg LE, Paramythiotou E, Papadomichelakis E, Karaiskos I, Tsangaris I, Armaganidis A, Cars O, Giamarellou H (2013) Colistin methanesulfonate and colistin pharmacokinetics in critically ill patients receiving continuous venovenous hemodiafiltration. Antimicrob Agents Chemother 57:668-671
32. Patel K, Roberts JA, Lipman J, Tett SE, Deldot ME, Kirkpatrick CM (2011) Population pharmacokinetics of fluconazole in critically ill patients receiving continuous venovenous hemodiafiltration: using Monte Carlo simulations to predict doses for specified pharmacodynamic targets. Antimicrob Agents Chemother 55:5868-5873
33. Bauer SR, Salem C, Connor MJ Jr, Groszek J, Taylor ME, Wei P, Tolwani AJ, Fissell WH (2012) Pharmacokinetics and pharmacodynamics of piperacillin- tazobactam in 42 patients treated with concomitant CRRT. Clin J Am Soc Nephrol 7:452-457
34. Seyler L, Cotton F, Taccone FS, De Backer D, Macours P, Vincent JL, Jacobs F (2011) Recommended beta-lactam regimens are inadequate in septic patients treated with continuous renal replacement therapy. Crit Care 15:R137
35. Joos B, Schmidli M, Keusch G (1996) Pharmacokinetics of antimicrobial agents in anuric patients during continuous venovenous haemofiltration. Nephrol Dial Transpl 11:1582-1585
36. van der Werf TS, Mulder PO, Zijlstra JG, Uges DR, Stegeman CA (1997) Pharmacokinetics of piperacillin and tazobactam in critically ill patients with renal failure, treated with continuous veno-venous hemofiltration (CVVH). Intensive Care Med 23:873-877
37. Capellier G, Cornette C, Boillot A, Guinchard C, Jacques T, Blasco G, Barale F (1998) Removal of piperacillin in critically ill patients undergoing continuous venovenous hemofiltration. Crit Care Med 26:88-91
38. Valtonen M, Tiula E, Takkunen O, Backman JT, Neuvonen PJ (2001) Elimination of the piperacillin/tazobactam combination during continuous venovenous haemofiltration and haemodiafiltration in patients with acute renal failure. J Antimicrob Chemother 48:881-885
39. Mueller SC, Majcher-Peszynska J, Hickstein H, Francke A, Pertschy A, Schulz M, Mundkowski R, Drewelow B (2002) Pharmacokinetics of piperacillin-tazobactam in anuric intensive care patients during continuous venovenous hemodialysis. Antimicrob Agents Chemother 46:1557-1560
40. Arzuaga A, Maynar J, Gascon AR, Isla A, Corral E, Fonseca F, Sanchez-Izquierdo JA, Rello J, Canut A, Pedraz JL (2005) Influence of renal function on the pharmacokinetics of piperacillin/tazobactam in intensive care unit patients during continuous venovenous hemofiltration. J Clin Pharmacol 45:168-176
41. Udy AA, Roberts JA, Boots RJ, Paterson DL, Lipman J (2010) Augmented renal clearance: implications for antibacterial dosing in the critically ill. Clin Pharmacokinet 49:1-16
42. Roberts JA, Roberts MS, Robertson TA, Dalley AJ, Lipman J (2009) Piperacillin penetration into tissue of critically ill patients with sepsis-bolus versus continuous administration? Crit Care Med 37:926-933
43. Barbot A, Venisse N, Rayeh F, Bouquet S, Debaene B, Mimoz O (2003) Pharmacokinetics and pharmacodynamics of sequential intravenous and subcutaneous teicoplanin in critically ill patients without vasopressors. Intensive Care Med 29:1528-1534
44. Baptista JP, Sousa E, Martins PJ, Pimentel JM (2012) Augmented renal clearance in septic patients and implications for vancomycin optimisation. Int J Antimicrob Agents 39:420-423
45. Conil JM, Georges B, Mimoz O, Dieye E, Ruiz S, Cougot P, Samii K, Houin G, Saivin S (2006) Influence of renal function on trough serum concentrations of piperacillin in intensive care unit patients. Intensive Care Med 32:2063-2066
46. Udy AA, Varghese JM, Altukroni M, Briscoe S, McWhinney B, Ungerer J, Lipman J, Roberts JA (2012) Sub-therapeutic initial beta-lactam concentrations in select critically ill patients: association between augmented renal clearance and low trough drug concentrations. Chest 142:30-39
47. Minville V, Asehnoune K, Ruiz S, Breden A, Seguin T, Georges B, Tack I, Jaafar A, Saivin S, Fourcade O, Samii K, Conil JM (2011) Increased creatinine clearance in polytrauma patients with normal serum creatinine: a retrospective observational study. Crit Care 15:R49
48. Udy A, Boots R, Senthuran S, Stuart J, Deans R, Lassig-Smith M, Lipman J (2010) Augmented creatinine clearance in traumatic brain injury. Anesth Analg 111:1505-1510
49. Lautrette A, Phan TN, Ouchchane L, Aithssain A, Tixier V, Heng AE, Souweine B (2012) High creatinine clearance in critically ill patients with community-acquired acute infectious meningitis. BMC Nephrol 13:124
50. Brown R, Babcock R, Talbert J, Gruenberg J, Czurak C, Campbell M (1980) Renal function in critically ill postoperative patients: sequential assessment of creatinine osmolar and free water clearance. Crit Care Med 8:68-72
51. Conil JM, Georges B, Fourcade O, Seguin T, Lavit M, Samii K, Houin G, Tack I, Saivin S (2007) Assessment of renal function in clinical practice at the bedside of burn patients. Br J Clin Pharmacol 63:583-594
52. Ambrose PG, Bhavnani SM, Ellis-Grosse EJ, Drusano GL (2010) Pharmacokinetic-pharmacodynamic considerations in the design of hospital-acquired or ventilator-associated bacterial pneumonia studies: look before you leap! Clin Infect Dis 51(Suppl 1):S103-S110
53. Dunlop W (1981) Serial changes in renal haemodynamics during normal human pregnancy. Br J Obstet Gynaecol 88:1-9
54. Fuster-Lluch O, Geronimo-Pardo M, Peyro-Garcia R, Lizan-Garcia M (2008) Glomerular hyperfiltration and albuminuria in critically ill patients. Anaesth Intensive Care 36:674-680
55. Udy AA, Roberts JA, Shorr AF, Boots RJ, Lipman J (2013) Augmented renal clearance in septic and traumatized patients with normal plasma creatinine concentrations: identifying at-risk patients. Crit Care 17:R35
56. Claus BO, Hoste EA, Colpaert K, Robays H, Decruyenaere J, De Waele JJ (2013) Augmented renal clearance is a common finding with worse clinical outcome in critically ill patients receiving antimicrobial therapy. J Crit Care. doi: 10.1016/j.jcrc.2013.03.003
57. Shimamoto Y, Fukuda T, Tanaka K, Komori K, Sadamitsu D (2013) Systemic inflammatory response syndrome criteria and vancomycin dose requirement in patients with sepsis. Intensive Care Med 39:1247-1252
58. Kollef MH, Chastre J, Clavel M, Restrepo MI, Michiels B, Kaniga K, Cirillo I, Kimko H, Redman R (2012) A randomized trial of 7-day doripenem versus 10-day imipenem-cilastatin for ventilator-associated pneumonia. Crit Care 16:R218
59. Cockcroft DW, Gault MH (1976) Prediction of creatinine clearance from serum creatinine. Nephron 16:31-41
60. Levey AS, Bosch JP, Lewis JB, Greene T, Rogers N, Roth D (1999) A more accurate method to estimate glomerular filtration rate from serum creatinine: a new prediction equation. Modification of Diet in Renal Disease Study Group. Ann Intern Med 130:461-470
61. Levey AS, Stevens LA, Schmid CH, Zhang YL, Castro AF 3rd, Feldman HI, Kusek JW, Eggers P, Van Lente F, Greene T, Coresh J, Ckd EPI (2009) A new equation to estimate glomerular filtration rate. Ann Intern Med 150:604-612
62. Herrera-Gutierrez ME, Seller-Perez G, Banderas-Bravo E, Munoz-Bono J, Lebron-Gallardo M, Fernandez-Ortega JF (2007) Replacement of 24-h creatinine clearance by 2-h creatinine clearance in intensive care unit patients: a single-center study. Intensive Care Med 33:1900-1906
63. Hoste EA, Damen J, Vanholder RC, Lameire NH, Delanghe JR, Van den Hauwe K, Colardyn FA (2005) Assessment of renal function in recently admitted critically ill patients with normal serum creatinine. Nephrol Dial Transpl 20:747-753
64. Martin JH, Fay MF, Udy A, Roberts J, Kirkpatrick C, Ungerer J, Lipman J (2011) Pitfalls of using estimations of glomerular filtration rate in an intensive care population. Intern Med J 41:537-543
65. Baptista JP, Udy AA, Sousa E, Pimentel J, Wang L, Roberts JA, Lipman J (2011) A comparison of estimates of glomerular filtration in critically ill patients with augmented renal clearance. Crit Care 15:R139
66. Grootaert V, Willems L, Debaveye Y, Meyfroidt G, Spriet I (2012) Augmented renal clearance in the critically ill: how to assess kidney function. Ann Pharmacother 46:952-959
67. Udy A, Roberts JA, Boots RJ, Lipman J (2009) You only find what you look for: the importance of high creatinine clearance in the critically ill. Anaesth Intensive Care 37:11-13
68. Cherry RA, Eachempati SR, Hydo L, Barie PS (2002) Accuracy of short-duration creatinine clearance determinations in predicting 24-hour creatinine clearance in critically ill and injured patients. J Trauma 53:267-271
69. Roberts JA, Pea F, Lipman J (2013) The clinical relevance of plasma protein binding changes. Clin Pharmacokinet 52:1-8
70. Nix DE, Goodwin SD, Peloquin CA, Rotella DL, Schentag JJ (1991) Antibiotic tissue penetration and its relevance: impact of tissue penetration on infection response. Antimicrob Agents Chemother 35:1953-1959
71. Finfer S, Bellomo R, McEvoy S, Lo SK, Myburgh J, Neal B, Norton R (2006) Effect of baseline serum albumin concentration on outcome of resuscitation with albumin or saline in patients in intensive care units: analysis of data from the saline versus albumin fluid evaluation (SAFE) study. BMJ 333:1044
72. Ulldemolins M, Roberts JA, Wallis SC, Rello J, Lipman J (2010) Flucloxacillin dosing in critically ill patients with hypoalbuminaemia: special emphasis on unbound pharmacokinetics. J Antimicrob Chemother 65:1771-1778
73. Brink AJ, Richards GA, Schillack V, Kiem S, Schentag J (2009) Pharmacokinetics of once-daily dosing of ertapenem in critically ill patients with severe sepsis. Int J Antimicrob Agents 33:432-436
74. Eagye KJ, Banevicius MA, Nicolau DP (2012) Pseudomonas aeruginosa is not just in the intensive care unit any more: implications for empirical therapy. Crit Care Med 40:1329-1332
75. Kiratisin P, Chongthaleong A, Tan TY, Lagamayo E, Roberts S, Garcia J, Davies T (2012) Comparative in vitro activity of carbapenems against major Gram-negative pathogens: results of Asia-Pacific surveillance from the COMPACT II study. Int J Antimicrob Agents 39:311-316
76. Lodise TP Jr, Lomaestro B, Drusano GL (2007) Piperacillin-tazobactam for Pseudomonas aeruginosa infection: clinical implications of an extended-infusion dosing strategy. Clin Infect Dis 44:357-363
77. Vicari G, Bauer SR, Neuner EA, Lam SW (2013) Association between colistin dose and microbiologic outcomes in patients with multidrug-resistant gram-negative bacteremia. Clin Infect Dis 56:398-404
78. Khachman D, Conil JM, Georges B, Saivin S, Houin G, Toutain PL, Laffont CM (2011) Optimizing ciprofloxacin dosing in intensive care unit patients through the use of population pharmacokinetic-pharmacodynamic analysis and Monte Carlo simulations. J Antimicrob Chemother 66:1798-1809
79. Lipman J, Udy AA, Roberts JA (2011) Do we understand the impact of altered physiology, consequent interventions and resultant clinical scenarios in the intensive care unit? The antibiotic story. Anaesth Intensive Care 39:999-1000
80. Roberts JA, Ulldemolins M, Roberts MS, McWhinney B, Ungerer J, Paterson DL, Lipman J (2010) Therapeutic drug monitoring of beta-lactams in critically ill patients: proof of concept. Int J Antimicrob Agents 36:332-339
81. Duszynska W, Taccone FS, Hurkacz M, Kowalska-Krochmal B, Wiela-Hojenska A, Kubler A (2013) Therapeutic drug monitoring of amikacin in septic patients. Crit Care 17:R165
82. Roberts JA, Norris R, Paterson DL, Martin JH (2012) Therapeutic drug monitoring of antimicrobials. Br J Clin Pharmacol 73:27-36
83. Lonsdale DO, Udy AA, Roberts JA, Lipman J (2013) Antibacterial therapeutic drug monitoring in cerebrospinal fluid: difficulty in achieving adequate drug concentrations. J Neurosurg 118:297-301
84. Roberts JA, Taccone FS, Udy AA, Vincent JL, Jacobs F, Lipman J (2011) Vancomycin dosing in critically ill patients: robust methods for improved continuous-infusion regimens. Antimicrob Agents Chemother 55:2704-2709
85. Brink AJ, Richards GA, Cummins RR, Lambson J (2008) Recommendations to achieve rapid therapeutic teicoplanin plasma concentrations in adult hospitalised patients treated for sepsis. Int J Antimicrob Agents 32:455-458
86. Lipman J, Scribante J, Gous AG, Hon H, Tshukutsoane S (1998) Pharmacokinetic profiles of high-dose intravenous ciprofloxacin in severe sepsis. The Baragwanath Ciprofloxacin Study Group. Antimicrob Agents Chemother 42:2235-2239
87. Pea F, Pavan F, Di Qual E, Brollo L, Nascimben E, Baldassarre M, Furlanut M (2003) Urinary pharmacokinetics and theoretical pharmacodynamics of intravenous levofloxacin in intensive care unit patients treated with 500 mg b.i.d. for ventilator-associated pneumonia. J Chemother 15:563-567
88. Kees MG, Schaeftlein A, Haeberle HA, Kees F, Kloft C, Heininger A (2013) Population pharmacokinetics and pharmacodynamic evaluation of intravenous and enteral moxifloxacin in surgical intensive care unit patients. J Antimicrob Chemother 68:1331-1337
89. Whitehouse T, Cepeda JA, Shulman R, Aarons L, Nalda-Molina R, Tobin C, MacGowan A, Shaw S, Kibbler C, Singer M, Wilson AP (2005) Pharmacokinetic studies of linezolid and teicoplanin in the critically ill. J Antimicrob Chemother 55:333-340
90. Ramirez J, Dartois N, Gandjini H, Yan JL, Korth-Bradley J, McGovern PC (2013) Randomized phase 2 trial to evaluate the clinical efficacy of two high-dosage tigecycline regimens versus imipenem-cilastatin for treatment of hospital-acquired pneumonia. Antimicrob Agents Chemother 57:1756-1762
91. Garonzik SM, Li J, Thamlikitkul V, Paterson DL, Shoham S, Jacob J, Silveira FP, Forrest A, Nation RL (2011) Population pharmacokinetics of colistin methanesulfonate and formed colistin in critically ill patients from a multicenter study provide dosing suggestions for various categories of patients. Antimicrob Agents Chemother 55:3284-3294
92. Moore RD, Lietman PS, Smith CR (1987) Clinical response to aminoglycoside therapy: importance of the ratio of peak concentration to minimal inhibitory concentration. J Infect Dis 155:93-99
93. Kashuba AD, Nafziger AN, Drusano GL, Bertino JS Jr (1999) Optimizing aminoglycoside therapy for nosocomial pneumonia caused by gram-negative bacteria. Antimicrob Agents Chemother 43:623-629
94. Taccone FS, Laterre PF, Spapen H, Dugernier T, Delattre I, Layeux B, De Backer D, Wittebole X, Wallemacq P, Vincent JL, Jacobs F (2010) Revisiting the loading dose of amikacin for patients with severe sepsis and septic shock. Crit Care 14:R53
95. Truong J, Levkovich BJ, Padiglione AA (2012) Simple approach to improving vancomycin dosing in intensive care: a standardised loading dose results in earlier therapeutic levels. Intern Med J 42:23-29
96. Chung J, Oh JM, Cho E, Jang H, Hong S, Lim C, Koh Y (2011) Optimal dose of vancomycin for treating methicillin-resistant staphylococcus aureus pneumonia in critically ill patients. Anaesth Intensive Care 39:1030-1037
97. De Waele JJ, Danneels I, Depuydt P, Decruyenaere J, Bourgeois M, Hoste E (2013) Factors associated with inadequate early vancomycin levels in critically ill patients treated with continuous infusion. Int J Antimicrob Agents 41:434-438
98. Li J, Udy AA, Kirkpatrick CM, Lipman J, Roberts JA (2012) Improving vancomycin prescription in critical illness through a drug use evaluation process: a weight-based dosing intervention study. Int J Antimicrob Agents 39:69-72
99. Taccone FS, Laterre PF, Dugernier T, Spapen H, Delattre I, Wittebole X, De Backer D, Layeux B, Wallemacq P, Vincent JL, Jacobs F (2010) Insufficient beta-lactam concentrations in the early phase of severe sepsis and septic shock. Crit Care 14:R126
100. Mohamed AF, Karaiskos I, Plachouras D, Karvanen M, Pontikis K, Jansson B, Papadomichelakis E, Antoniadou A, Giamarellou H, Armaganidis A, Cars O, Friberg LE (2012) Application of a loading dose of colistin methanesulfonate in critically ill patients: population pharmacokinetics, protein binding, and prediction of bacterial kill. Antimicrob Agents Chemother 56:4241-4249
101. Sandri AM, Landersdorfer CB, Jacob J, Boniatti MM, Dalarosa MG, Falci DR, Behle TF, Bordinhao RC, Wang J, Forrest A, Nation RL, Li J, Zavascki AP (2013) Population pharmacokinetics of intravenous polymyxin B in critically ill patients: implications for selection of dosage regimens. Clin Infect Dis 57:524-531
102. McKinnon PS, Paladino JA, Schentag JJ (2008) Evaluation of area under the inhibitory curve (AUIC) and time above the minimum inhibitory concentration (T > MIC) as predictors of outcome for cefepime and ceftazidime in serious bacterial infections. Int J Antimicrob Agents 31:345-351
103. Roberts JA, Kirkpatrick CM, Roberts MS, Robertson TA, Dalley AJ, Lipman J (2009) Meropenem dosing in critically ill patients with sepsis and without renal dysfunction: intermittent bolus versus continuous administration? Monte Carlo dosing simulations and subcutaneous tissue distribution. J Antimicrob Chemother 64:142-150
104. Roberts JA, Paratz J, Paratz E, Krueger WA, Lipman J (2007) Continuous infusion of beta-lactam antibiotics in severe infections: a review of its role. Int J Antimicrob Agents 30:11-18
105. Lorente L, Lorenzo L, Martin MM, Jimenez A, Mora ML (2006) Meropenem by continuous versus intermittent infusion in ventilator-associated pneumonia due to gram-negative bacilli. Ann Pharmacother 40:219-223
106. Lorente L, Jimenez A, Palmero S, Jimenez JJ, Iribarren JL, Santana M, Martin MM, Mora ML (2007) Comparison of clinical cure rates in adults with ventilator-associated pneumonia treated with intravenous ceftazidime administered by continuous or intermittent infusion: a retrospective, nonrandomized, open-label, historical chart review. Clin Ther 29:2433-2439
107. Lorente L, Jimenez A, Martin MM, Iribarren JL, Jimenez JJ, Mora ML (2009) Clinical cure of ventilator-associated pneumonia treated with piperacillin/tazobactam administered by continuous or intermittent infusion. Int J Antimicrob Agents 33:464-468
108. Roberts JA, Boots R, Rickard CM, Thomas P, Quinn J, Roberts DM, Richards B, Lipman J (2007) Is continuous infusion ceftriaxone better than once-a-day dosing in intensive care? A randomized controlled pilot study. J Antimicrob Chemother 59:285-291
109. Roberts JA, Webb S, Paterson D, Ho KM, Lipman J (2009) A systematic review on clinical benefits of continuous administration of beta-lactam antibiotics. Crit Care Med 37:2071-2078
110. Falagas ME, Tansarli GS, Ikawa K, Vardakas KZ (2013) Clinical outcomes with extended or continuous versus short-term intravenous infusion of carbapenems and piperacillin/tazobactam: a systematic review and meta-analysis. Clin Infect Dis 56:272-282
111. Arnold HM, Hollands JM, Skrupky LP, Smith JR, Juang PH, Hampton NB, McCormick S, Reichley RM, Hoban A, Hoffmann J, Micek ST, Kollef MH (2013) Prolonged infusion antibiotics for suspected gram-negative infections in the ICU: a before-after study. Ann Pharmacother 47:170-180
112. Dulhunty JM, Roberts JA, Davis JS, Webb SA, Bellomo R, Gomersall C, Shirwadkar C, Eastwood GM, Myburgh J, Paterson DL, Lipman J (2013) Continuous infusion of beta-lactam antibiotics in severe sepsis: a multicenter double-blind, randomized controlled trial. Clin Infect Dis 56:236-244
113. Rello J, Sole-Violan J, Sa-Borges M, Garnacho-Montero J, Munoz E, Sirgo G, Olona M, Diaz E (2005) Pneumonia caused by oxacillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus treated with glycopeptides. Crit Care Med 33:1983-1987
114. Wysocki M, Delatour F, Faurisson F, Rauss A, Pean Y, Misset B, Thomas F, Timsit JF, Similowski T, Mentec H, Mier L, Dreyfuss D (2001) Continuous versus intermittent infusion of vancomycin in severe Staphylococcal infections: prospective multicenter randomized study. Antimicrob Agents Chemother 45:2460-2467
115. Cataldo MA, Tacconelli E, Grilli E, Pea F, Petrosillo N (2012) Continuous versus intermittent infusion of vancomycin for the treatment of Gram-positive infections: systematic review and meta-analysis. J Antimicrob Chemother 67:17-24
116. Carlier M, Carrette S, Roberts JA, Stove V, Verstraete AG, Hoste E, Decruyenaere J, Depuydt P, Lipman J, Wallis SC, De Waele JJ (2013) Meropenem and piperacillin/tazobactam prescribing in critically ill patients: does augmented renal clearance affect pharmacokinetic/pharmacodynamic target attainment when extended infusions are used? Crit Care 17:R84
117. Crandon JL, Ariano RE, Zelenitsky SA, Nicasio AM, Kuti JL, Nicolau DP (2011) Optimization of meropenem dosage in the critically ill population based on renal function. Intensive Care Med 37:632-638
118. Nicasio AM, Ariano RE, Zelenitsky SA, Kim A, Crandon JL, Kuti JL, Nicolau DP (2009) Population pharmacokinetics of high-dose, prolonged-infusion cefepime in adult critically ill patients with ventilator-associated pneumonia. Antimicrob Agents Chemother 53:1476-1481
119. Felton TW, Hope WW, Lomaestro BM, Butterfield JM, Kwa AL, Drusano GL, Lodise TP (2012) Population pharmacokinetics of extended-infusion piperacillin-tazobactam in hospitalized patients with nosocomial infections. Antimicrob Agents Chemother 56:4087-4094
120. Roberts JA, Hope WW, Lipman J (2010) Therapeutic drug monitoring of beta-lactams for critically ill patients: unwarranted or essential? Int J Antimicrob Agents 35:419-420
121. McWhinney BC, Wallis SC, Hillister T, Roberts JA, Lipman J, Ungerer JP (2010) Analysis of 12 beta-lactam antibiotics in human plasma by HPLC with ultraviolet detection. J Chromatogr B Analyt Technol Biomed Life Sci 878:2039-2043
122. Briscoe SE, McWhinney BC, Lipman J, Roberts JA, Ungerer JP (2012) A method for determining the free (unbound) concentration of ten beta-lactam antibiotics in human plasma using high performance liquid chromatography with ultraviolet detection. J Chromatogr B Analyt Technol Biomed Life Sci 907:178-184
123. Sime FB, Roberts MS, Peake SL, Lipman J, Roberts JA (2012) Does Beta-lactam pharmacokinetic variability in critically ill patients justify therapeutic drug monitoring? A systematic review. Ann Intensive Care 2:35
124. Roberts JA, Lipman J (2012) Editorial commentary: closing the loop - a colistin clinical study to confirm dosing recommendations from PK/PD modeling. Clin Infect Dis 54:1727-1729
125. Plachouras D, Karvanen M, Friberg LE, Papadomichelakis E, Antoniadou A, Tsangaris I, Karaiskos I, Poulakou G, Kontopidou F, Armaganidis A, Cars O, Giamarellou H (2009) Population pharmacokinetic analysis of colistin methanesulfonate and colistin after intravenous administration in critically ill patients with infections caused by gram-negative bacteria. Antimicrob Agents Chemother 53:3430-3436
126. Dalfino L, Puntillo F, Mosca A, Monno R, Spada ML, Coppolecchia S, Miragliotta G, Bruno F, Brienza N (2012) High-dose, extended-interval colistin administration in critically ill patients: is this the right dosing strategy? A preliminary study. Clin Infect Dis 54:1720-1726