Animal models of compulsive eating behavior

Nutrients

Volumn 6, Issue 10, 2014, Pages 4591-4609

  Di Segni, Matteo ^a,b   Patrono, Enrico ^c   Patella, Loris ^c   Puglisi Allegra, Stefano ^a,b   Ventura, Rossella ^a,b  

^a SAPIENZA UNIVERSITY OF ROME   (Italy)

^b IRCCS FONDAZIONE SANTA LUCIA   (Italy)

^c UNIVERSITY OF L'AQUILA   (Italy)

Author keywords

Animal models; Compulsive eating; Food addiction; Prefrontal cortex; Striatum

Indexed keywords

DOPAMINE RECEPTOR; MORPHINE; NALOXONE;

BINGE EATING DISORDER; COMPULSION; DRUG ABUSE; EATING DISORDER; ENVIRONMENTAL FACTOR; EXPERIMENTAL MODEL; FOOD ADDICTION; GENOTYPE ENVIRONMENT INTERACTION; NERVE CELL NETWORK; NEUROTRANSMISSION; NONHUMAN; OVERNUTRITION; PALATABILITY; REINFORCEMENT; REVIEW; REWARD; SENSORY STIMULATION; SUBSTANCE USE; ADDICTION; ANIMAL; BODY WEIGHT; BRAIN; DISEASE MODEL; FEEDING BEHAVIOR; HUMAN; PATHOPHYSIOLOGY; PSYCHOLOGY;

ANIMALIA;

ANIMALS; BEHAVIOR, ADDICTIVE; BODY WEIGHT; BRAIN; COMPULSIVE BEHAVIOR; DISEASE MODELS, ANIMAL; EATING DISORDERS; FEEDING BEHAVIOR; HUMANS; NERVE NET;

EID: 84908199189     PISSN: None     EISSN: 20726643     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.3390/nu6104591     Document Type: Review

References (136)

1. Olsen, C.M. Natural rewards, neuroplasticity, and non-drug addictions. Neuropharmacology 2011, 61, 1109-1122.
2. Pitchers, K.; Balfour, M.; Lehman, M. Neuroplasticity in the mesolimbic system induced by natural reward and subsequent reward abstinence. Biol. Psychiatry 2020, 67, 872-879.
3. Avena, N.M.; Gearhardt, A.N.; Gold, M.S.; Wang, G.J.; Potenza, M.N. Tossing the baby out with the bath water after a brief rinse? The potential down-side of dismissing food addiction based on limited data. Nat. Rev. Neurosci. 2012, 13, 514.
4. Davis, C.; Carter, J.C. Compulsive overeating as an addiction disorder. A review of theory and evidence. Appetite 2009, 53, 1-8.
5. Davis, C. Compulsive overeating as an addictive behavior: Overlap between food addiction and binge eating disorder. Curr. Obes. Rep. 2013, 2, 171-178.
6. Halpern, C.H.; Tekriwal, A.; Santollo, J.; Keating, J.G.; Wolf, J.A.; Daniels, D.; Bale, T.L. Amelioration of binge eating by nucleus accumbens shell deep brain stimulation in mice involves D2 receptor modulation. J. Neurosci. 2013, 33, 7122-7129.
7. Hone-Blanchet, A.; Fecteau, S. Overlap of food addiction and substance use disorders definitions: Analysis of animal and human studies. Neuropharmacology 2014, 85, 81-90.
8. Muele, A. Are certain foods addictive? Front. Psychiatry 2014, 5, 38.
9. Deroche-Gamonet, V.; Belin, D.; Piazza, P.V. Evidence for addiction-like behavior in the rat. Science 2004, 305, 1014-1017.
10. Everitt, B.J.; Belin, D.; Economidou, D.; Pelloux, Y.; Dalley, J.; Robbins, T.W. Neural mechanisms underlying the vulnerability to develop compulsive drug-seeking habits and addiction. Philos. Trans. R. Soc. Lond. B Biol. Sci. 2008, 363, 3125-3135.
11. Parylak, S.L.; Koob, G.F.; Zorrilla, E.P. The dark side of food addiction. Physiol. Behav. 2011, 104, 149-156.
12. Vanderschuren, L.J.; Everitt, B.J. Drug seeking becomes compulsive after prolonged cocaine self-administration. Science 2004, 305, 1017-1019.
13. Berridge, K.C.; Ho, C.Y.; Richard, J.M.; Difeliceantonio, A.G. The tempted brain eats: Pleasure and desire circuits in obesity and eating disorders. Brain Res. 2010, 1350, 43-64.
14. Volkow, N.D.; Wang, G.J.; Tomasi, D.; Baler, R.D. Obesity and addiction: Neurobiological overlaps. Obes. Rev. 2013, 14, 2-18.
15. Corwin, R.L.; Avena, N.M.; Boggiano, M.M. Feeding and reward: Perspectives from three rat models of binge eating. Physiol. Behav. 2011, 104, 87-97.
16. Hadad, N.A.; Knackstedt, L.A. Addicted to palatable foods: Comparing the neurobiology of Bulimia Nervosa to that of drug addiction. Psychopharmacology 2014, 231, 1897-1912.
17. Kenny, P.J. Common cellular and molecular mechanisms in obesity and drug addiction. Nat. Rev. Neurosci. 2011, 12, 638-651.
18. Avena, N.M.; Bocarsly, M.E.; Hoebel, B.G.; Gold, M.S. Overlaps in the nosology of substance abuse and overeating: The translational implications of "food addiction". Curr. Drug Abuse Rev. 2011, 4, 133-139.
19. American Psychiatric Association. Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of MentalDisorders, 4th ed.; American Psychiatric Publishing: Washington, WA, USA, 2010.
20. Ifland, J.R.; Preuss, H.G.; Marcus, M.T.; Rourke, K.M.; Taylor, W.C.; Burau, K.; Jacobs, W.S.; Kadish, W.; Manso, G. Refined food addiction: A classic substance use disorder. Med. Hypotheses 2009, 72, 518-526.
21. Hoebel, B.G.; Avena, N.M.; Bocarsly, M.E.; Rada, P. Natural addiction: A behavioral and circuit model based on sugar addiction in rats. J. Addict. Med. 2009, 3, 33-41.
22. Johnson, P.M.; Kenny, P.J. Addiction-like reward dysfunction and compulsive eating in obese rats: Role for dopamine D2 receptors. Nat. Neurosci. 2010, 13, 635-641.
23. Oswald, K.D.; Murdaugh, D.L.; King, V.L.; Boggiano, M.M. Motivation for palatable food despite consequences in an animal model of binge eating. Int. J. Eat. Disord. 2011, 44, 203-211.
24. Latagliata, E.C.; Patrono, E.; Puglisi-Allegra, S.; Ventura, R. Food seeking in spite of harmful consequences is under prefrontal cortical noradrenergic control. BMC Neurosci. 2010, 8, 11-15.
25. Corwin, R.L.; Buda-Levin, A. Behavioral models of binge-type eating. Physiol. Behav. 2004, 82, 123-130.
26. Hagan, M.M.; Wauford, P.K.; Chandler, P.C.; Jarrett, L.A.; Rybak, R.J.; Blackburn, K. A new animal model of binge-eating: Key synergistic role of past caloric restriction and stress. Physiol. Behav. 2002, 77, 45-54.
27. Boggiano, M.M.; Chandler, P.C. Binge eating in rats produced by combining dieting with stress. Curr. Protoc. Neurosci. 2006, doi:10.1002/0471142301.ns0923as36.
28. Teegarden, S.L.; Bale, T.L. Decreases in dietary preference produce increased emotionality and risk for dietary relapse. Biol. Psychiatry 2007, 61, 1021-1029.
29. Avena, N.M.; Rada, P.; Hoebel, B. Evidence for sugar addiction: Behavioral and neurochemical effects of intermittent, excessive sugar intake. Neurosci. Biobehav. Rev. 2008, 32, 20-39.
30. Le Merrer, J.; Stephens, D.N. Food induced behavioral sensitization, its crosssensitization to cocaine and morphine, pharmacological blockade, and effect on food intake. J. Neurosci. 2006, 26, 7163-7171.
31. Lenoir, M.; Serre, F.; Cantin, L.; Ahmed, S.H. Intense sweetness surpasses cocaine reward. PLoS One 2007, 2, e698.
32. Coccurello, R.; D'Amato, F.R.; Moles, A. Chronic social stress, hedonism and vulnerability to obesity: Lessons from rodents. Neurosci. Biobehav. Rev. 2009, 33, 537-550.
33. Petrovich, G.D.; Ross, C.A.; Holland, P.C.; Gallagher, M. Medial prefrontal cortex is necessary for an appetitive contextual conditioned stimulus to promote eating in sated rats. J. Neurosci. 2007, 27, 6436-6441.
34. Cottone, P.; Sabino, V.; Steardo, L.; Zorrilla, E.P. Opioid-dependent anticipatory negative contrast and binge-like eating in rats with limited access to highly preferred food. Neuropsychopharmacology 2008, 33, 524-535.
35. Cottone, P.; Sabino, V.; Roberto, M.; Bajo, M.; Pockros, L.; Frihauf, J.B.; Fekete, E.M.; Steardo, L.; Rice, K.C.; Grigoriadis, D.E.; et al. CRF system recruitment mediates dark side of compulsive eating. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA 2009, 106, 20016-20020.
36. Morgan, D.; Sizemore, G.M. Animal models of addiction: Fat and sugar. Curr. Pharm. Des. 2011, 17, 1168-1172.
37. Alsiö, J.; Olszewski, P.K.; Levine, A.S.; Schiöth, H.B. Feed-forward mechanisms: Addiction-like behavioral and molecular adaptations in overeating. Front. Neuroendocrinol. 2012, 33, 127-39.
38. Avena, N.M.; Bocarsly, M.E. Dysregulation of brain reward systems in eating disorders: Neurochemical information from animal models of binge eating, bulimia nervosa, and anorexia nervosa. Neuropharmacology 2012, 63, 87-96.
39. Avena, N.M.; Gold, J.A.; Kroll, C.; Gold, M.S. Further developments in the neurobiology of food and addiction: Update on the state of the science. Nutrition 2012, 28, 341-343.
40. Avena, N.M.; Hoebel, B. A diet promoting sugar dependency causes behavioral crosssensitization to a low dose of amphetamine. Neuroscience 2003, 122, 17-20.
41. Cabib, S.; Orsini, C.; Le Moal, M.; Piazza, P.V. Abolition and reversal of strain differences in behavioral responses to drugs of abuse after a brief experience. Science 2000, 289, 463-465.
42. Waters, R.P.; Moorman, D.E.; Young, A.B.; Feltenstein, M.W.; See, R.E. Assessment of a proposed "three-criteria" cocaine addiction model for use in reinstatement studies with rats. Psychopharmacology 2014, 231, 3197-3205.
43. Colantuoni, C.; Rada, P.; McCarthy, J.; Patten, C.; Avena, N.M.; Chadeayne, A.; Hoebel, B.G. Evidence that intermittent, excessive sugar intake causes endogenous opioid dependence. Obes. Res. 2002, 10, 478-488.
44. Avena, N.M. The study of food addiction using animal models of binge eating. Appetite 2010, 55, 734-737.
45. Corwin, R.L.; Wojnicki, F.H. Binge eating in rats with limited access to vegetable shortening. Curr. Protoc. Neurosci. 2006, doi:10.1002/0471142301.ns0923bs36.
46. Cifani, C.; Polidori, C.; Melotto, S.; Ciccocioppo, R.; Massi, M. A preclinical model of binge eating elicited by yo-yo dieting and stressful exposure to food: Effect of sibutramine, fluoxetine, topiramate, and midazolam. Psychopharmacology 2009, 204, 113-125.
47. Waters, A.; Hill, A.; Waller, G. Bulimics' responses to food cravings: Is binge-eating a product of hunger or emotional state? Behav. Res. Ther. 2001, 39, 877-886.
48. Heyne, A.; Kiesselbach, C.; Sahùn, I. An animal model of compulsive food-taking behaviour. Addict. Biol. 2009, 14, 373-383.
49. Di Segni, M.; Patrono, E. Department of Psychology, UniversityLa Sapienza, Rome. Unpublished work, 2014.
50. Avena, N.M.; Bocarsly, M.E.; Rada, P.; Kim, A.; Hoebel, B.G. After daily bingeing on a sucrose solution, food deprivation induces anxiety and accumbens dopamine/acetylcholine imbalance. Physiol. Behav. 2008, 94, 309-315.
51. Cottone, P.; Sabino, V.; Steardo, L.; Zorrilla, E.P. Consummatory, anxiety-related and metabolic adaptations in female rats with alternating access to preferred food. Psychoneuroendocrinology 2009, 34, 38-49.
52. Avena, N.M.; Rada, P.; Hoebel, B.G. Sugar and fat bingeing have notable differences in addictive-like behavior. J. Nutr. 2009, 139, 623-628.
53. Bocarsly, M.E.; Berner, L.A.; Hoebel, B.G.; Avena, N.M. Rats that binge eat fat-rich food do not show somatic signs or anxiety associated with opiate-like withdrawal: Implications for nutrient-specific food addiction behaviors. Physiol. Behav. 2011, 104, 865-872.
54. Kenny, P.J. Reward Mechanisms in Obesity: New Insights and Future Directions. Neuron 2011, 69, 664-679.
55. Iemolo, A.; Valenza, M.; Tozier, L.; Knapp, C.M.; Kornetsky, C.; Steardo, L.; Sabino, V.; Cottone, P. Withdrawal from chronic, intermittent access to a highly palatable food induces depressive-like behavior in compulsive eating rats. Behav. Pharmacol. 2012, 23, 593-602.
56. Parylak, S.L.; Cottone, P.; Sabino, V.; Rice, K.C.; Zorrilla, E.P. Effects of CB1 and CRF1 receptor antagonists on binge-like eating in rats with limited access to a sweet fat diet: Lack of withdrawal-like responses. Physiol. Behav. 2012, 107, 231-242.
57. Volkow, N.D.; Wang, G.J.; Fowler, J.S.; Telang, F. Overlapping neuronal circuits in addiction and obesity: Evidence of systems pathology. Philos. Trans. R. Soc. Lond. B Biol. Sci. 2008, 363, 3191-3200.
58. Volkow, N.D.; Wise, R.A. How can drug addiction help us understand obesity? Nat. Neurosci. 2005, 8, 555-556.
59. Fallon, S.; Shearman, E.; Sershen, H.; Lajtha, A. Food reward-induced neurotransmitter changes in cognitive brain regions. Neurochem. Res. 2007, 32, 1772-1782.
60. Kelley, A.E.; Berridge, K.C. The neuroscience of natural rewards: Relevance to addictive drugs. J. Neurosci. 2002, 22, 3306-3311.
61. Pelchat, M.L. Of human bondage: Food cravings, obsession, compulsion, and addiction. Physiol. Behav. 2002, 76, 347-352.
62. Ventura, R.; Morrone, C.; Puglisi-Allegra, S. Prefrontal/accumbal catecholamine system determines motivational salience attribution to both reward- and aversion-related stimuli. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA 2007, 104, 5181-5186.
63. Ventura, R.; Latagliata, E.C.; Morrone, C.; La Mela, I.; Puglisi-Allegra, S. Prefrontal norepinephrine determines attribution of "high" motivational salience. PLoS One 2008, 3, e3044.
64. Wang, G.J.; Volkow, N.D.; Thanos, P.K.; Fowler, J.S. Similarity between obesity and drug addiction as assessed by neurofunctional imaging: A concept review. J. Addict. Dis. 2004, 23, 39-53.
65. Berner, L.A.; Bocarsly, M.E.; Hoebel, B.G.; Avena, N.M. Pharmacological interventions for binge eating: Lessons from animal models, current treatments, and future directions. Curr. Pharm. Des. 2011, 17, 1180-1187.
66. Gearhardt, A.N.; Yokum, S.; Orr, P.T.; Stice, E.; Corbin, W.R.; Brownell, K.D. Neural correlates of food addiction. Arch. Gen. Psychiatry 2011, 68, 808-816.
67. Thornley, S.; McRobbie, H.; Eyles, H.; Walker, N.; Simmons, G. The obesity epidemic: Is glycemic index the key to unlocking a hidden addiction? Med. Hypotheses 2008, 71, 709-714.
68. Trinko, R.; Sears, R.M.; Guarnieri, D.J.; di Leone, R.J. Neural mechanisms underlying obesity and drug addiction. Physiol. Behav. 2007, 91, 499-505.
69. Schroeder, B.E.; Binzak, J.M.; Kelley, A.E. A common profile of prefrontal cortical activation following exposure to nicotine- or chocolate-associated contextual cues. Neuroscience 2001, 105, 535-545.
70. Volkow, N.D.; Fowler, J.S.; Wang, G.J. The addicted human brain: Insights from imaging studies. J. Clin. Investig. 2003, 111, 1444-1451.
71. Volkow, N.D.; Wang, G.J.; Baler, R.D. Reward, dopamine and the control of food intake: Implications for obesity. Trends Cogn. Sci. 2011, 15, 37-46.
72. Volkow, N.D.; Wang, G.J.; Telang, F.; Fowler, J.S.; Thanos, P.K.; Logan, J.; Alexoff, D.; Ding, Y.S.; Wong, C.; Ma, Y.; et al. Low dopamine striatal D2 receptors are associated with prefrontal metabolism in obese subjects: Possible contributing factors. Neuroimage 2008, 42, 1537-1543.
73. Bassareo, V.; di Chiara, G. Modulation of feeding-induced activation of mesolimbic dopamine transmission by appetitive stimuli and its relation to motivational state. Eur. J. Neurosci. 1999, 11, 4389-4397.
74. Stice, E.; Yokum, S.; Blum, K.; Bohon, C. Weight gain is associated with reduced striatal response to palatable food. J. Neurosci. 2010, 30, 13105-13109.
75. Van den Bos, R.; van der Harst, J.; Jonkman, S.; Schilders, M.; Sprijt, B. Rats assess costs and benefits according to an internal standard. Behav. Brain Res. 2006, 171, 350-354.
76. Flagel, S.B.; Clark, J.J.; Robinson, T.E.; Mayo, L.; Czuj, A.; Willuhn, I.; Akers, C.A.; Clinton, S.M.; Phillips, P.E.; Akil, H. A selective role for dopamine in stimulus-reward learning. Nature 2011, 469, 53-57.
77. Berridge, K.C. The debate over dopamine's role in reward: the case for incentive salience. Psychopharmacology 2007, 191, 391-431.
78. Salamone, J.D.; Correa, M.; Farrar, A.; Mingote, S.M. Effort-related functions of nucleus accumbens dopamine and associated forebrain circuits. Psychopharmacology 2007, 191, 461-482.
79. Salamone, J.D.; Correa, M. The mysterious motivational functions of mesolimbic dopamine. Neuron 2012, 76, 470-485.
80. Trifilieff, P.; Feng, B.; Urizar, E.; Winiger, V.; Ward, R.D.; Taylor, K.M.; Martinez, D.; Moore, H.; Balsam, P.D.; Simpson, E.H.; et al. Increasing dopamine D2 receptor expression in adult nucleus accumbens anhances motivation. Mol. Psychiatry 2013, 18, 1025-1033.
81. Ward, R.D.; Simpson, E.H.; Richards, V.L.; Deo, G.; Taylor, K.; Glendinning, J.I.; Kandel, E.R.; Balsam, P.D. Dissociation of hedonic reaction to reward and incentive motivation in an animal model of the negative symptoms of schizophrenia. Neuropsychopharmacology 2012, 37, 1699-1707.
82. Baik, J.H. Dopamine signaling in food addiction: Role of dopamine D2 receptors. BMB Rep. 2013, 46, 519-526.
83. Gjedde, A.; Kumakura, Y.; Cumming, P.; Linnet, J.; Moller, A. Inverted-U-shaped correlation between dopamine receptor availability in striatum and sensation seeking. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA 2010, 107, 3870-3875.
84. Tomer, R.; Goldstein, R.Z.; Wang, G.J.; Wong, C.; Volkow, N.D. Incentive motivation is associated with striatal dopamine asymmetry. Biol. Psychol. 2008, 77, 98-101.
85. Stelzel, C.; Basten, U.; Montag, C.; Reuter, M.; Fiebach, C.J. Frontostriatal involvement in task switching depends on genetic differences in D2 receptor density. J. Neurosci. 2010, 30, 14205-14212.
86. Colantuoni, C.; Schwenker, J.; McCarthy, J.; Rada, P.; Ladenheim, B.; Cadet, J.L. Excessive sugar intake alters binding to dopamine and mu-opioid receptors in the brain. Neuroreport 2001, 12, 3549-3552.
87. Stice, E.; Yokum, S.; Zald, D.; Dagher, A. Dopamine-based reward circuitry responsitivity, genetics, and overeating. Curr. Top. Behav. Neurosci. 2011, 6, 81-93.
88. Bello, N.T.; Hajnal, A. Dopamine and Binge Eating Behaviors. Pharmacol. Biochem. Behav. 2010, 97, 25-33.
89. Stice, E.; Spoor, S.; Bohon, C.; Small, D.M. Relation between obesity and blunted striatal response to food is moderated by TaqIA A1 allele. Science 2008, 322, 449-452.
90. Comings, D.E.; Blum, K. Reward deficiency syndrome: Genetic aspects of behavioral disorders. Prog. Brain Res. 2000, 126, 325-341.
91. Killgore, W.D.; Young, A.D.; Femia, L.A.; Bogorodzki, P.; Rogowska, J.; Yurgelun-Todd, D.A. Cortical and limbic activation during viewing of high- versus low-calorie foods. Neuroimage 2003, 19, 1381-1394.
92. Uher, R.; Murphy, T.; Brammer, M.J.; Dalgleish, T.; Phillips, M.L.; Ng, V.W.; Andrew, C.M.; Williams, S.C.; Campbell, I.C.; Treasure, J. Medial prefrontal cortex activity associated with symptom provocation in eating disorders. Am. J. Psychiatry 2004, 161, 1238-1246.
93. Rolls, E.T. Smell, taste, texture, and temperature multimodal representations in the brain, and their relevance to the control of appetite. Nutr. Rev. 2004, 62, S193-S204.
94. Gautier, J.F.; Chen, K.; Salbe, A.D.; Bandy, D.; Pratley, R.E.; Heiman, M.; Ravussin, E.; Reiman, E.M.; Tataranni, P.A. Differential brain responses to satiation in obese and lean men. Diabetes 2000, 49, 838-846.
95. Phan, K.L.; Wager, T.; Taylor, S.F.; Liberzon, I. Functional neuroanatomy of emotion: A meta-analysis of emotion activation studies in PET and fMRI. Neuroimage 2002, 16, 331-348.
96. Goldstein, R.Z.; Volkow, N.D. Drug addiction and its underlying neurobiological basis: Neuroimaging evidence for the involvement of the frontal cortex. Am. J. Psychiatry 2002, 159, 1642-1652.
97. Everitt, B.J.; Robbins, T.W. Neural systems of reinforcement for drug addiction: From actions to habits to compulsion. Nat. Neurosci. 2005, 8, 1481-1489.
98. Drouin, C.; Darracq, L.; Trovero, F.; Blanc, G.; Glowinski, J.; Cotecchia, S.; Tassin, J.P. Alpha1b-adrenergic receptors control locomotor and rewarding effects of psychostimulants and opiates. J. Neurosci. 2002, 22, 2873-2884.
99. Weinshenker, D.; Schroeder, J.P.S. There and back again: A tale of norepinephrine and drug addiction. Neuropsychopharmacology 2007, 32, 1433-1451.
100. Darracq, L.; Blanc, G.; Glowinski, J.; Tassin, J.P. Importance of the noradrenaline-dopamine coupling in the locomotor activating effects of D-amphetamine. J. Neurosci. 1998, 18, 2729-2739.
101. Feenstra, M.G.; Botterblom, M.H.; Mastenbroek, S. Dopamine and noradrenaline efflux in the prefrontal cortex in the light and dark period: Effects of novelty and handling and comparison to the nucleus accumbens. Neuroscience 2000, 100, 741-748.
102. Ventura, R.; Cabib, S.; Alcaro, A.; Orsini, C.; Puglisi-Allegra, S. Norepinephrine in the prefrontal cortex is critical for amphetamine-induced reward and mesoaccumbens dopamine release. J. Neurosci. 2003, 23, 1879-1885.
103. Ventura, R.; Alcaro, A.; Puglisi-Allegra, S. Prefrontal cortical norepinephrine release is critical for morphine-induced reward, reinstatement and dopamine release in the nucleus accumbens. Cereb. Cortex. 2005, 15, 1877-1886.
104. Mingote, S; de Bruin, J.P.; Feenstra, M.G. Noradrenaline and dopamine efflux in the prefrontal cortex in relation to appetitive classical conditioning. J. Neurosci. 2004, 24, 2475-2480.
105. Salomon, L.; Lanteri, C.; Glowinski, J.; Tassin, J.P. Behavioral sensitization to amphetamine results from an uncoupling between noradrenergic and serotonergic neurons. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA 2006, 103, 7476-7481.
106. Wee, S.; Mandyam, C.D.; Lekic, D.M.; Koob, G.F. Alpha 1-noradrenergic system role in increased motivation for cocaine intake in rats with prolonged access. Eur. Neuropharm. 2008, 18, 303-311.
107. Cabib, S.; Puglisi-Allegra, S. The mesoaccumbens dopamine in coping with stress. Neurosci. Biobehav. Rev. 2012, 36, 79-89.
108. Puglisi-Allegra, S.; Ventura, R. Prefrontal/accumbal catecholamine system processes emotionally driven attribution of motivational salience. Rev. Neurosci. 2012, 23, 509-526.
109. Puglisi-Allegra, S.; Ventura, R. Prefrontal/accumbal catecholamine system processes high motivational salience. Front. Behav. Neurosci. 2012, 27, 31.
110. Bulik, C.M. Exploring the gene-environment nexus in eating disorders. J. Psychiatry Neurosci. 2005, 30, 335-339.
111. Campbell, I.C.; Mill, J.; Uher, R.; Schmidt, U. Eating disorders, gene-environment interactions and epigenetics. Neurosci. Biobehav. Rev. 2010, 35, 784-793.
112. Gearhardt, A.N.; Brownell, K.D. Can food and addiction change the game? Biol. Psychiatry 2013, 73, 802-803.
113. Gearhardt, A.N.; Davis, C.; Kuschner, R.; Brownell, K.D. The addiction potential of hyperpalatable foods. Curr. Drug Abuse Rev. 2011, 4, 140-145.
114. Casper, R.C.; Sullivan, E.L.; Tecott, L. Relevance of animal models to human eating disorders and obesity. Psychopharmacology 2008, 199, 313-329.
115. Ghitza, U.E.; Nair, S.G.; Golden, S.A.; Gray, S.M.; Uejima, J.L.; Bossert, J.M.; Shaham, Y. Peptide YY3-36 decreases reinstatement of high-fat food seeking during dieting in a rat relapse model. J. Neurosci. 2007, 27, 11522-11532.
116. Parker, G.; Parker, I.; Brotchie, H. Mood state effects of chocolate. J. Affect Dis. 2006, 92, 149-159.
117. Ghitza, U.E.; Gray, S.M.; Epstein, D.H.; Rice, K.C.; Shaham, Y. The anxiogenic drugyohimbine reinstates palatable food seeking in a rat relapse model: A role of CRF1 receptors. Neuropsychopharmacology 2006, 31, 2188-2196.
118. Sinha, R.; Jastreboff, A.M. Stress as a common risk factor for obesity and addiction. Biol. Psychiatry 2013, 73, 827-835.
119. Dallman, M.F.; Pecoraro, N.; Akana, S.F.; la Fleur, S.E.; Gomez, F.; Houshyar, H.; Bell, M.E.; Bhatnagar, S.; Laugero, K.D.; Manalo, S. Chronic stress and obesity: A new view of "comfort food". Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA 2003, 100, 11696-11701.
120. Kaye, W. Neurobiology of anorexia and bulimia nervosa. Physiol. Behav. 2008, 94, 121-135.
121. Adam, T.C.; Epel, E.S. Stress, eating and the reward system. Physiol. Behav. 2007, 91, 449-458.
122. Shaham, Y.; Erb, S.; Stewart, J. Stress induced relapse to heroin and cocaine seeking in rats: A review. Brain Res. Rev. 2000, 33, 13-33.
123. Marinelli, M.; Piazza, P.V. Interaction between glucocorticoid hormones, stress and psychostimulant drugs. Eur. J. Neurosci. 2002, 16, 387-394.
124. Charney, D.S.; Manji, H.K. Life stress, genes, and depression: Multiple pathways lead to increased risk and new opportunities for interventions. Sci. STKE 2004, 2004, doi:10.1126/stke.2252004re5.
125. Hasler, G.; Drevets, W.C.; Manji, H.K.; Charney, D.S. Discovering endophenotypes for major depression. Neuropsychopharmacology 2004, 29, 1765-1781.
126. McFarland, K.; Davidge, S.B.; Lapish, C.C.; Kalivas, P.W. Limbic and motor circuitry underlying footshock-induced reinstatement of cocaine-seeking behavior. J. Neurosci. 2004, 24, 1551-1560.
127. Brady, K.T.; Sinha, R. Co-occuring mental and substance use disorders: The neurobiological effects of chronic stress. Am. J. Psychiatry 2005, 162, 1483-1493.
128. Maier, S.F.; Watkins, L.R. Stressor controllability and learned helplessness: The role of the dorsal raphe nucleus, serotonin and corticotropin-releasing factor. Neurosci. Biobehav. 2005, 29, 829-841.
129. Dallman, M.F.; Pecoraro, N.C.; la Fleur, S.E. Chronic stress and comfort foods: Self-medication and abdominal obesity. Brain Behav. Immun. 2005, 19, 275-280.
130. Pecoraro, N.; Reyes, F.; Gomez, F.; Bhargava, A.; Dallman, M.F. Chronic stress promotes palatable feeding, which reduces signs of stress: Feedforward and feedback effects of chronic stress. Endocrinology 2004, 145, 3754-3762.
131. Fairburn, C.G. Bulimia outcome. Am. J. Psychiatry 1997, 154, 1791-1792.
132. Hagan, M.M.; Chandler, P.C.; Wauford, P.K.; Rybak, R.J.; Oswald, K.D. The role of palatable food and hunger as trigger factors in an animal model of stress induced binge eating. Int. J. Eat. Disord. 2003, 34, 183-197.
133. American Psychiatric Association. Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders, 5th ed.; American Psychiatric Publishing: Arlington, TX, USA, 2013.
134. Gearhardt, A.N.; Boswell, R.G.; White, M.A. The association of "food addiction" with disordered eating and body mass index. Eat. Behav. 2014, 15, 427-433.
135. Rada, P.; Bocarsly, M.E.; Barson, J.R.; Hoebel, B.G.; Leibowitz, S.F. Reduced accumbens dopamine in Sprague-Dawley rats prone to overeating a fat-rich diet. Physiol. Behav. 2010, 101, 394-400.
136. Teegarden, S.L.; Bale, T.L. Effects of stress on dietary preference and intake are dependent on access and stress sensitivity. Physiol. Behav. 2008, 93, 713-723.