Visual processing of multiple elements in the dyslexic brain: Evidence for a superior parietal dysfunction

Frontiers in Human Neuroscience

Volumn 8, Issue JULY, 2014, Pages

  Lobier, Muriel A ^a,b   Peyrin, Carole ^a,c   Pichat, Cédric ^a,c   Le Bas, Jean François ^d   Valdois, Sylviane ^a,c  

^a UNIV GRENOBLE ALPES   (France)

^b UNIVERSITY OF HELSINKI   (Finland)

^c UNIVERSITÉ PIERRE MENDÈS FRANCE   (France)

^d GRENOBLE INSTITUT DES NEUROSCIENCES   (France)

Author keywords

Developmental dyslexia; Reading; Superior parietal lobes; Visual attention

Indexed keywords

ACCURACY; ADULT; ARTICLE; ATTENTION; CLINICAL ARTICLE; CONTROLLED STUDY; DYSLEXIA; FRONTAL CORTEX; FUNCTIONAL MAGNETIC RESONANCE IMAGING; FUSIFORM GYRUS; HUMAN; INFERIOR OCCIPITAL GYRUS; INFERIOR TEMPORAL GYRUS; INSULA; LEFT HEMISPHERE; NUCLEAR MAGNETIC RESONANCE SCANNER; OCCIPITAL CORTEX; OCCIPITAL GYRUS; PARIETAL CORTEX; PRECUNEUS; PUTAMEN; RESPONSE TIME; RIGHT HEMISPHERE; SUPERIOR PARIETAL LOBULE; SUPPLEMENTARY MOTOR AREA; TASK PERFORMANCE; TEMPORAL CORTEX; VISION; VISUAL ATTENTION; WORD RECOGNITION;

EID: 84905104189     PISSN: None     EISSN: 16625161     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.3389/fnhum.2014.00479     Document Type: Article

References (96)

1. Ans, B., Carbonnel, S., and Valdois, S. (1998). A connectionist multiple-trace memory model for polysyllabic word reading. Cereb. Cortex 105, 678-723. doi: 10.1037/0033-295X.105.4.678-723
2. Behrmann, M., Geng, J. J., and Shomstein, S. (2004). Parietal cortex and attention. Curr. Opin. Neurobiol. 14, 212-217. doi: 10.1016/j.conb.2004.03.012
3. Bishop, D. V. M., and Snowling, M. J. (2004). Developmental dyslexia and specific language impairment: same or different? Psychol. Bull. 130, 858-886. doi: 10.1037/0033-2909.130.6.858
4. Boden, C., and Giaschi, D. (2007). M-stream deficits and reading-related visual processes in developmental dyslexia. Psychol. Bull. 133, 346-366. doi: 10.1037/0033-2909.133.2.346
5. Bosse, M.-L., Tainturier, M. J., and Valdois, S. (2007). Developmental dyslexia: the visual attention span deficit hypothesis. Cognition 104, 198-230. doi: 10.1016/j.cognition.2006.05.009
6. Bosse, M.-L., and Valdois, S. (2009). Influence of the visual attention span on child reading performance: a cross-sectional study. J. Res. Read. 32, 230-253. doi: 10.1111/j.1467-9817.2008.01387.x
7. Brem, S., Bach, S., Kucian, K., Guttorm, T. K., Martin, E., Lyytinen, H., et al. (2010). Brain sensitivity to print emerges when children learn letter-speech sound correspondences. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. U.S.A. 107, 7939-7944. doi: 10.1073/pnas.0904402107
8. Brem, S., Bucher, K., Halder, P., Summers, P., Dietrich, T., Martin, E., et al. (2006). Evidence for developmental changes in the visual word processing network beyond adolescence. Neuroimage 29, 822-837. doi: 10.1016/j.neuroimage.2005.09.023
9. Bullier, J. (2001). Integrated model of visual processing. Brain Res. Rev. 36, 96-107. doi: 10.1016/S0165-0173(01)00085-6
10. Cai, Q., Paulignan, Y., Brysbaert, M., Ibarrola, D., and Nazir, T. A. (2010). The left ventral occipito-temporal response to words depends on language lateralization but not on visual familiarity. Cereb. Cortex 20, 1153-1163. doi: 10.1093/cercor/bhp175
11. Cao, F., Lee, R., Shu, H., Yang, Y., Xu, G., Li, K., et al. (2010). Cultural constraints on brain development: evidence from a developmental study of visual word processing in Mandarin Chinese. Cereb. Cortex 20, 1223-1233. doi: 10.1093/cercor/bhp186
12. Church, J. A., Coalson, R. S., Lugar, H. M., Petersen, S. E., and Schlaggar, B. L. (2008). A developmental fMRI study of reading and repetition reveals changes in phonological and visual mechanisms over age. Cereb. Cortex 18, 2054-2065. doi: 10.1093/cercor/bhm228
13. Cohen, L., and Dehaene, S. (2004). Specialization within the ventral stream: the case for the visual word form area. Neuroimage 22, 466-476. doi: 10.1016/j.neuroimage.2003.12.049
14. Cohen, L., Dehaene, S., Vinckier, F., Jobert, A., and Montavont, A. (2008). Reading normal and degraded words: contribution of the dorsal and ventral visual pathways. Neuroimage 40, 353-366. doi: 10.1016/j.neuroimage.2007.11.03
15. Corbetta, M., and Shulman, G. L. (2002). Control of goal-directed and stimulus-driven attention in the brain. Nat. Rev. Neurosci. 3, 201-215. doi: 10.1038/nrn755
16. Dehaene, S., and Cohen, L. (2011). The unique role of the visual word form area in reading. Trends Cogn. Sci. 15, 254-262. doi: 10.1016/j.tics.2011.04.003
17. Dehaene, S., Pegado, F., Braga, L. W., Ventura, P., Nunes Filho, G., Jobert, A., et al. (2010). How learning to read changes the cortical networks for vision and language. Science 330, 1359-1364. doi: 10.1126/science.1194140
18. Démonet, J.-F., Taylor, M. J., and Chaix, Y. (2004). Developmental dyslexia. Lancet 363, 1451-1460. doi: 10.1016/S0140-6736(04)16106-0
19. Dubois, M., Kyllingsbaek, S., Prado, C., Musca, S. C., Peiffer, E., Lassus-Sangosse, D., et al. (2010). Fractionating the multi-character processing deficit in developmental dyslexia: evidence from two case studies. Cortex 46, 717-738. doi: 10.1016/j.cortex.2009.11.002
20. Facoetti, A., Zorzi, M., Cestnick, L., Lorusso, M. L., Molteni, M., Paganoni, P., et al. (2006). The relationship between visuo-spatial attention and nonword reading in developmental dyslexia. Cogn. Neuropsychol. 23, 841-855. doi: 10.1080/02643290500483090
21. Facoetti, A., Ruffino, M., Peru, A., Paganoni, P., and Chelazzi, L. (2008). Sluggish engagement and disengagement of non-spatial attention in dyslexic children. Cortex 44, 1221-1233. doi: 10.1016/j.cortex.2007.10.007
22. Flowers, D. L., Jones, K., Noble, K., VanMeter, J., Zeffiro, T. A, Wood, F. B., et al. (2004). Attention to single letters activates left extrastriate cortex. Neuroimage 21, 829-839. doi: 10.1016/j.neuroimage.2003.10.002
23. Friston, K. J., Fletcher, P., Josephs, O., Holmes, A., Rugg, M. D., and Turner, R. (1998). Event related fMRI: characterizing differential responses. Neuroimage 7, 30-40. doi: 10.1006/nimg.1997.0306
24. Friston, K. J., Holmes, A. P., Worsley, K. J., Poline, J. P., Frith, C. D., and Frackowiak, R. S. (1994). Statistical parametric maps in functional imaging: a general linear approach. Hum. Brain Mapp. 2, 189-210. doi: 10.1002/hbm.460020402
25. Friston, K. J., Zarahn, E. O. R. N. A., Josephs, O., Henson, R. N. A., and Dale, A. M. (1999). Stochastic designsin event-related fMRI. Neuroimage 10, 607-619. doi: 10.1006/nimg.1999.0498
26. Gaillard, R., Naccache, L., Pinel, P., Clémenceau, S., Volle, E., Hasboun, D., et al. (2006). Direct intracranial fMRI and lesion evidence for the causal role of left infero temporal cortex in reading. Neurons 50, 191-204. doi: 10.1016/j.neuron.2006.03.031
27. Hahn, B., Ross, T. J., and Stein, E. A. (2006). Neuroanatomical dissociation between bottom-up and top-down processes of visuospatial selective attention. Neuroimage 32, 842-853. doi: 10.1016/j.neuroimage.2006.04.177
28. Hari, R., and Renvall, H. (2001). Impaired processing of rapid stimulus sequences in dyslexia. Trends Cogn. Sci. 5, 525-532. doi: 10.1016/S1364-6613(00)01801-5
29. Hawelka, S., and Wimmer, H. (2008). Visual target detection is not impaired in dyslexic readers. Vision Res. 48, 850-852. doi: 10.1016/j.visres.2007.11.003
30. Helenius, P., Tarkiainen, A., Cornelissen, P. L., Hansen, P., and Salmelin, R. (1999). Dissociation of normal feature analysis and deficient processing of letter-strings in dyslexic adults. Cereb. Cortex 9, 476. doi: 10.1093/cercor/9.5.476
31. Hoeft, F., Meyler, A., Hernandez, A., Juel, C., Taylor-Hill, H., Martindale, J. L., et al. (2007). Functional and morphometric brain dissociation between dyslexia and reading ability. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. U.S.A. 104, 4234-4239. doi: 10.1073/pnas.0609399104
32. Jobard, G., Crivello, F., and Tzourio-Mazoyer, N. (2003). Evaluation of the dual route theory of reading: a metanalysis of 35 neuroimaging studies. Neuroimage 20, 693-712. doi: 10.1016/S1053-8119(03)00343-4
33. Jobard, G., Vigneau, M., Simon, G., and Tzourio-Mazoyer, N. (2011). The weight of skill: interindividual variability of reading related brain activation patterns in fluent readers. J. Neurol. 24, 113-132. doi: 10.1016/j.jneuroling.2010.09.002
34. Jones, M. W., Branigan, H. P., and Kelly, M. L. (2008). Visual deficits in developmental dyslexia: relationships between non-linguistic visual tasks and their contribution to components of reading. Dyslexia 14, 95-115. doi: 10.1002/dys
35. Kanwisher, N., and Wojciulik, E. (2000). Visual attention: insights from brain imaging. Nat. Rev. Neurosci. 1, 91-100. doi: 10.1038/35039043
36. Lassus-Sangosse, D., N'Guyen-Morel, M. A., and Valdois, S. (2008). Sequential or simultaneous visual processing deficit in developmental dyslexia? Vision Res. 48, 979-988. doi: 10.1016/j.visres.2008.01.025
37. Lefavrais, P. (1965). Test de l'Alouette. Paris: Editions du centre de psychologie appliquée.
38. Levy, J., Pernet, C., Treserras, S., Boulanouar, K., Berry, I., Aubry, F., et al. (2008). Piecemeal recruitment of left-lateralized brain areas during reading: a spatio-functional account. Neuroimage 43, 581-591. doi: 10.1016/j.neuroimage.2008.08.008
39. Lobier, M., Peyrin, C., Le Bas, J. F., and Valdois, S. (2012a). Pre-orthographic character string processing and parietal cortex: a role for visual attention in reading? Neuropsychologia 50, 2195-2204. doi: 10.1016/j.neuropsychologia.2012.05.023
40. Lobier, M., Zoubrinetzky, R., and Valdois, S. (2012b). The visual attention span deficit in dyslexia is visual and not verbal. Cortex 48, 768-773. doi: 10.1016/j.cortex.2011.09.003
41. Maisog, J. M., Einbinder, E. R., Flowers, D. L., Turkeltaub, P. E., and Eden, G. F. (2008). A meta-analysis of functional neuroimaging studies of dyslexia. Ann. N. Y. Acad. Sci. 1145, 237-259. doi: 10.1196/annals.1416.024
42. Majaj, N. J., Pelli, D. G., Kurshan, P., and Palomares, M. (2002). The role of spatial frequency channels in letter identification. Vision Res. 42, 1165-1184. doi: 10.1016/S0042-6989(02)00045-7
43. Maldjian, J. A., Laurienti, P. J., Kraft, R. A., and Burdette, J. H. (2003). An automated method for neuroanatomic and cytoarchitectonic atlas-based interrogation of fMRI data sets. Neuroimage 19, 1233-1239. doi: 10.1016/S1053-8119(03)00169-1
44. Maurer, U., Brem, S., Bucher, K., Kranz, F., Benz, R., Steinhausen, H.-C., et al. (2007). Impaired tuning of a fast occipito-temporal response for print in dyslexic children learning to read. Brain 130, 3200-3210. doi: 10.1093/brain/awm193
45. Mayall, K., Humphreys, G. W., Mechelli, A., Olson, A., and Price, C. J. (2001). The effects of case mixing on word recognition: evidence from a PET study. J. Cogn. Neurosci. 13, 844-853. doi: 10.1162/08989290152541494
46. McCandliss, B. D., and Noble, K. G. (2003). The development of reading impairment: a cognitive neuroscience model. Ment. Retard. Dev. Disabil. Res. Rev. 9, 196-204. doi: 10.1002/mrdd.10080
47. Menghini, D., Finzi, A., Benassi, M., Bolzani, R., Facoetti, A., Giovagnoli, S., et al. (2010). Different underlying neurocognitive deficits in developmental dyslexia: a comparative study. Neuropsychologia 48, 863-872. doi: 10.1016/j.neuropsychologia.2009.11.003
48. Mitchell, D. J., and Cusack, R. (2008). Flexible, capacity-limited activity of posterior parietal cortex in perceptual as well as visual short-term memory tasks. Cereb. Cortex 18, 1788-1798. doi: 10.1093/cercor/bhm205
49. Nazir, T. A., Ben-Boutayab, N., Decoppet, N., Deutsch, A., and Frost, R. (2004). Reading habits, perceptual learning, and recognition of printed words. Brain Lang. 88, 294-311. doi: 10.1016/S0093-934X(03)00168-8
50. Nebel, K., Wiese, H., Stude, P., de Greiff, A., Diener, H.-C., and Keidel, M. (2005). On the neural basis of focused and divided attention. Cogn. Brain Res. 25, 760-776. doi: 10.1016/j.cogbrainres.2005.09.011
51. Pammer, K., Hansen, P., Cornelissen, P. L., and Holliday, I. (2006). Attentional shifting and the role of the dorsal pathway in visual word recognition. Neuropsychologia 44, 2926-2936. doi: 10.1016/j.neuropsychologia.2006.06.028
52. Pammer, K., Lavis, R., Hansen, P., and Cornelissen, P. L. (2004). Symbol-string sensitivity and children's reading. Brain Lang. 89, 601-610. doi: 10.1016/j.bandl.2004.01.009
53. Pelli, D. G., Burns, C. W., Farell, B., and Moore-Page, D. C. (2006). Feature detection and letter identification. Vision Res. 46, 4646-4674. doi: 10.1016/j.visres.2006.04.023
54. Pennington, B. F. (2006). From single to multiple deficit models of developmental disorders. Cognition 101, 385-413. doi: 10.1016/j.cognition.2006.04.008
55. Peyrin, C., Démonet, J. F., N'Guyen-Morel, M. A., Le Bas, J. F., and Valdois, S. (2011). Superior parietal lobule dysfunction in a homogeneous group of dyslexic children with a visual attention span disorder. Brain Lang. 118, 128-138. doi: 10.1016/j.bandl.2010.06.005
56. Peyrin, C., Lallier, M., Baciu, M., and Valdois, S. (2008). "Brain mechanisms of the visual attention span in normal and dyslexic readers, " in Behavioural, Neuropsychological and Neuroimaging Studies of Spoken and Written Language, ed. M. Bacxiu (Trivandrum: Signpost Edition).
57. Peyrin, C., Lallier, M., Démonet, J.-F., Pernet, C., Baciu, M., Le Bas, J. F., et al. (2012). Neural dissociation of phonological and visual attention span disorders in developmental dyslexia: fMRI evidence from two case reports. Brain Lang. 120, 381-394. doi: 10.1016/j.bandl.2011.12.015
58. Picard, N., and Strick, P. L. (2001). Imaging the premotor areas. Curr. Opin. Neurobiol. 11, 663-672. doi: 10.1016/S0959-4388(01)00266-5
59. Ramus, F. (2003). Developmental dyslexia: specific phonological deficit or general sensorimotor dysfunction? Curr. Opin. Neurobiol. 13, 212-218. doi: 10.1016/S0959-4388(03)00035-7
60. Ramus, F., and Szenkovits, G. (2008). What phonological deficit? Q. J. Exp. Psychol. 61, 129-141. doi: 10.1080/17470210701508822
61. Reilhac, C., Peyrin, C., Démonet, J. F., and Valdois, S. (2013). Role of the superior parietal lobules in letter-identity processing within strings: fMRI evidence from skilled and dyslexic readers. Neuropsychologia 51, 601-612. doi: 10.1016/j.neuropsychologia.2012.12.010
62. Richlan, F. (2012). Developmental dyslexia: dysfunction of a left hemisphere reading network. Front. Hum. Neurosci. 6:120. doi: 10.3389/fnhum.2012.00120
63. Richlan, F., Kronbichler, M., and Wimmer, H. (2009). Functional abnormalities in the dyslexic brain: a quantitative meta-analysis of neuroimaging studies. Hum. Brain Mapp. 30, 3299-3308. doi: 10.1002/hbm.20752
64. Richlan, F., Kronbichler, M., and Wimmer, H. (2011). Meta-analyzing brain dysfunctions in dyslexic children and adults. Neuroimage 56, 1735-1742. doi: 10.1016/j.neuroimage.2011.02.040
65. Rosazza, C., Cai, Q., Minati, L., Paulignan, Y., and Nazir, T. A. (2009). Early involvement of dorsal and ventral pathways in visual word recognition: an ERP study. Brain Res. 1272, 32-44. doi: 10.1016/j.brainres.2009.03.033
66. Santee, J. L., and Egeth, H. E. (1982). Do reaction time and accuracy measure the same aspects of letter recognition? J. Exp. Psychol. Hum. Percept. Perform. 8, 489-501. doi: 10.1037//0096-1523.8.4.489
67. Scalf, P. E., and Beck, D. M. (2010). Competition in visual cortex impedes attention to multiple items. J. Neurosci. 30, 161-169. doi: 10.1523/JNEUROSCI.4207-09.2010
68. Shaywitz, S. E., and Shaywitz, B. A. (2005). Dyslexia (specific reading disability). Biol. Psychiatry 57, 1301-1309. doi: 10.1016/j.biopsych.2005.01.043
69. Stenneken, P., Egetemeir, J., Schulte-Körne, G., Müller, H. J., Schneider, W. X., and Finke, K. (2011). Slow perceptual processing at the core of developmental dyslexia: a parameter-based assessment of visual attention. Neuropsychologia 49, 3454-3465. doi: 10.1016/j.neuropsychologia.2011.08.021
70. Szwed, M., Dehaene, S., Kleinschmidt, A., Eger, E., Valabrègue, R., Amadon, A., et al. (2011). Specialization for written words over objects in the visual cortex. Neuroimage 56, 330-344. doi: 10.1016/j.neuroimage.2011.01.073
71. Szwed, M., Ventura, P., Querido, L., Cohen, L., and Dehaene, S. (2012). Reading acquisition enhances an early visual process of contour integration. Dev. Sci. 15, 139-149. doi: 10.1111/j.1467-7687.2011.01102.x
72. Tagamets, M., Novick, J., and Chalmers, M. (2000). A parametric approach to orthographic processing in the brain: an fMRI study. J. Cogn. Neurosci. 12, 281-297. doi: 10.1162/089892900562101
73. Turkeltaub, P. E., Gareau, L., Flowers, D. L., Zeffiro, T. A, and Eden, G. F. (2003). Development of neural mechanisms for reading. Nat. Neurosci. 6, 767-773. doi: 10.1038/nn1065
74. Tzourio-Mazoyer, N., Landeau, B., Papathanassiou, D., Crivello, F., Etard, O., Delcroix, N., et al. (2002). Automated anatomical labeling of activations in SPM using a macroscopic anatomical parcellation of the MNI MRI single-subject brain. Neuroimage 15, 273-289. doi: 10.1006/nimg.2001.0978
75. Valdois, S., Bosse, M.-L., Ans, B., Carbonnel, S., Zorman, M., David, D., et al. (2003). Phonological and visual processing deficits can dissociate in developmental dyslexia: evidence from two case studies. Read. Writ. 16, 541-572. doi: 10.1023/A:1025501406971
76. Valdois, S., Bosse, M.-L., and Tainturier, M.-J. (2004). The cognitive deficits responsible for developmental dyslexia: review of evidence for a selective visual attentional disorder. Dyslexia 10, 339-363. doi: 10.1002/dys.284
77. Valdois, S., Guinet, E., and Embs, J. L. (2014a). EVADYS: logiciel d'évaluation de l'empan visuo-attentionnel chez les personnes dyslexique (EVADYS: a software for the assessment of visual attention span abilities in dyslexic individuals). Isbergues: Ortho-Editions.
78. Valdois, S., Peyrin, C., Lassus-Sangosse, D., Lallier, M., Démonet, J. F., and Kandel, S. (2014b). Dyslexia in a French-Spanish bilingual girl: behavioural and neural modulations following a specific visual-attention span intervention program. Cortex 53, 120-145. doi: 10.1016/j.cortex.2013.11.006
79. Valdois, S., Juphard, A., Baciu, M., Ans, B., Peyrin, C., Segebarth, C., et al. (2006). Differential length effect in reading and lexical decision: convergent evidence from behavioural data, connectionist simulations and functional MRI. Brain Res. 1085, 149-162. doi: 10.1016/j.brainres.2006.02.049
80. Valdois, S., Lassus-Sangosse, D., and Lobier, M. (2012). Impaired letter-string processing in developmental dyslexia: what visual-to-phonology code mapping disorder? Dyslexia 18, 77-93. doi: 10.1002/dys.1437
81. Valdois, S., Peyrin, C., and Baciu, M. (2009). "The neurobiological correlates of developmental dyslexia, " in Some Aspects of Speech and the Brain, eds S. Fuchs, H. Loevenbruck, D. Pape, and P. Perrier (Berlin: Verlag Publishers), 141-162.
82. Vandenberghe, R., Gitelman, D. R., Parrish, T. B., and Mesulam, M. M. (2001). Functional specificity of superior parietal mediation of spatial shifting. Neuroimage 14, 661-673. doi: 10.1006/nimg.2001.0860
83. van der Mark, S., Bucher, K., Maurer, U., Schulz, E., Brem, S., Buckelmüller, J., et al. (2009). Children with dyslexia lack multiple specializations along the visual word-form (VWF) system. Neuroimage 47, 1940-1949. doi: 10.1016/j.neuroimage.2009.05.021
84. Van der mark, S., Klaver, P., Bucher, K., Maurer, U., Schulz, E., Brem, S., et al. (2011). The left occipitotemporal system in reading: disruption of focal fMRI connectivity to left inferior frontal and inferior parietal language areas in children with dyslexia. Neuroimage 54, 2426-2436. doi: 10.1016/j.neuroimage.2010.10.002
85. Vellutino, F. R., Fletcher, J. M., Snowling, M. J., and Scanlon, D. M. (2004). Specific reading disability (dyslexia): what have we learned in the past four decades? J. Child Psychol. Psychiatry 45, 2-40. doi: 10.1046/j.0021-9630.2003.00305.x
86. Vidyasagar, T. R., and Pammer, K. (2010). Dyslexia: a deficit in visuo-spatial attention, not in phonological processing. Trends Cogn. Sci. 14, 57-63. doi: 10.1016/j.tics.2009.12.003
87. Vinckier, F., Dehaene, S., Jobert, A., Dubus, J. P., Sigman, M., and Cohen, L. (2007). Hierarchical coding of letter strings in the ventral stream: dissecting the inner organization of the visual word-form system. Neuron 55, 143-156. doi: 10.1016/j.neuron.2007.05.031
88. Vogel, A. C., Miezin, F. M., Petersen, S. E., and Schlaggar, B. L. (2011). The putative visual word form area is functionally connected to the dorsal attention network. Cereb. Cortex 22, 537-549. doi: 10.1093/cercor/bhr100
89. White, S., Milne, E., Rosen, S., Hansen, P., Swettenham, J., Frith, U., et al. (2006). The role of sensorimotor impairments in dyslexia: a multiple case study of dyslexic children. Dev. Sci. 9, 237-255; discussion 265-269. doi: 10.1111/j.1467-7687.2006.00483.x
90. Wimmer, H., Schurz, M., Sturm, D., Richlan, F., Klackl, J., Kronbichler, M., et al. (2010). A dual-route perspective on poor reading in a regular orthography: an fMRI study. Cortex 46, 1284-1298. doi: 10.1016/j.cortex.2010.06.004
91. Wojciulik, E., and Kanwisher, N. (1999). The generality of parietal involvement in visual attention. Neuron 23, 747-764. doi: 10.1016/S0896-6273(01)80033-7
92. Xu, Y., and Chun, M. M. (2009). Selecting and perceiving multiple visual objects. Trends Cogn. Sci. 13, 167-174. doi: 10.1016/j.tics.2009.01.008
93. Yantis, S., Schwarzbach, J., Serences, J. T., Carlson, R. L., Steinmetz, M. A., Pekar, J. J., et al. (2002). Transient neural activity in human parietal cortex during spatial attention shifts. Nat. Neurosci. 5, 995-1002. doi: 10.1038/nn921
94. Yantis, S., and Serences, J. T. (2003). Cortical mechanisms of space-based and object-based attentional control. Curr. Opin. Neurobiol. 13, 187-193. doi: 10.1016/S0959-4388(03)00033-3
95. Ziegler, J. C., Pech-Georgel, C., Dufau, S., and Grainger, J. (2010). Rapid processing of letters, digits and symbols: what purely visual-attentional deficit in developmental dyslexia? Dev. Sci. 13, F8-F14. doi: 10.1111/j.1467-7687.2010.00983.x
96. Zoubrinetzky, R., Bielle, F., and Valdois, S. (2014). New insights on developmental dyslexia subtypes: heterogeneity of mixed reading profiles. PLoS ONE 9:e99337. doi: 10.1371/journal.pone.0099337