Pharmacology of intra-articular triamcinolone

Inflammopharmacology

Volumn 22, Issue 4, 2014, Pages 201-217

  Scherer, Justin ^a   Rainsford, K D ^b   Kean, Colin A ^c   Kean, Walter F ^a  

^a MCMASTER UNIVERSITY   (Canada)

^b SHEFFIELD HALLAM UNIVERSITY   (United Kingdom)

^c VITA SALUTE SAN RAFFAELE UNIVERSITY   (Italy)

Author keywords

Intra articular therapy; Pharmacodynamics; Pharmacokinetics; Triamcinolone

Indexed keywords

ANTINUCLEAR ANTIBODY; ARACHIDONATE 15 LIPOXYGENASE; ARACHIDONATE 5 LIPOXYGENASE; BETAMETHASONE; BINDING PROTEIN; CELL ADHESION MOLECULE; CORTICOSTEROID; CYTOKINE; GLUCOCORTICOID; GLUCOCORTICOID RECEPTOR; LEUKOTRIENE B4; METHYLPREDNISOLONE; METHYLPREDNISOLONE ACETATE; MINERALOCORTICOID; MONOCLONAL ANTIBODY; PROTEIN ARGININE DEIMINASE; PROTEIN S 100A12; TRIAMCINOLONE ACETONIDE; TRIAMCINOLONE HEXACETONIDE; UNCLASSIFIED DRUG; ANTIINFLAMMATORY AGENT;

ANAPHYLAXIS; ANTIBODY BLOOD LEVEL; AREA UNDER THE CURVE; AVASCULAR NECROSIS; BIOLOGY; CALCIFICATION; CLINICAL PHARMACOLOGY; CORTICOSTEROID THERAPY; DISEASE COURSE; DRUG ABSORPTION; DRUG CLEARANCE; DRUG HALF LIFE; DRUG MECHANISM; DRUG STRUCTURE; FLUSHING; HEADACHE; HUMAN; HYPOTHALAMUS HYPOPHYSIS ADRENAL SYSTEM; INJECTION PAIN; JUVENILE; JUVENILE RHEUMATOID ARTHRITIS; LYMPHOCYTE; MENSTRUAL IRREGULARITY; NONHUMAN; OSTEOARTHRITIS; OSTEOCHONDRITIS DISSECANS; OSTEOPHYTE; PAIN ASSESSMENT; PHARMACOGENOMICS; PRIORITY JOURNAL; PROTEIN EXPRESSION; RANDOMIZED CONTROLLED TRIAL (TOPIC); RANGE OF MOTION; REVIEW; RHEUMATOID ARTHRITIS; SIDE EFFECT; SUBTALAR JOINT; SYNOVIUM; TEMPOROMANDIBULAR JOINT; THERMOGRAPHY; TREATMENT OUTCOME; TREATMENT RESPONSE; ANALOGS AND DERIVATIVES; ANIMAL; ARTHRITIS, JUVENILE; ARTHRITIS, RHEUMATOID; INTRAARTICULAR DRUG ADMINISTRATION; PATHOPHYSIOLOGY; TIME;

ANIMALS; ANTI-INFLAMMATORY AGENTS; ARTHRITIS, JUVENILE; ARTHRITIS, RHEUMATOID; GLUCOCORTICOIDS; HUMANS; INJECTIONS, INTRA-ARTICULAR; OSTEOARTHRITIS; TIME FACTORS; TRIAMCINOLONE ACETONIDE;

EID: 84904546625     PISSN: 09254692     EISSN: 15685608     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1007/s10787-014-0205-0     Document Type: Review

References (153)

1. Acebes JC, Sanchez-Pernaute O, Diaz-Oca A, Herrero-Beaumont G (2006) Ultrasonographic assessment of Baker's cysts after intra-articular corticosteroid injection in knee osteoarthritis. J Clin Ultrasound 34(3):113-117
2. Adatia A, Rainsford KD, Kean WF (2012) Osteoarthritis of the knee and hip. Part I: aetiology and pathogenesis as a basis for pharmacotherapy. J Pharm Pharmacol 64(5):617-625
3. af Klint E, Grundtman C, Engstrom M, Catrina AI, Makrygiannakis D, Klareskog L, Andersson U, Ulfgren AK (2005) Intra-articular glucocorticoid treatment reduces inflammation in synovial cell infiltrations more efficiently than in synovial blood vessels. Arthritis Rheum 53(12):3880-3889
4. Alex P, Szodoray P, Arthur E, Willis L, Hynd R, Flinn D, Centola M (2007) Influence of intra-articular corticosteroid administration on serum cytokines in rheumatoid arthritis. Clin Rheum 26(5):845-848 (Pubitemid 46554113)
5. Altman RD (1991) Classification of disease: osteoarthritis. Semin Arthritis Rheum 20(6)(S2):40-47
6. American Rheumatism Association (1955) Experience with cortisone in the management of rheumatoid arthritis report of a cooperative study conducted by a Committee of the American Rheumatism Association. Ann Rheum Dis 14(4):325-336
7. Anderson MA, Maraskovsky E, Billingsley WL, Dougall WC, Tometsko ME, Roux ER, Teepe MC, DuBose RF, Cosman D, Galibert L (1997) A homologue of the TNF receptor and its ligand enhance T-cell growth and dendritic-cell function. Nature 390:175-179 (Pubitemid 27507987)
8. Andersson U, Wang H, Palmblad K, Aveberger A, Bloom O, Erlandsson-Harris H, Janson A, Kokkola R, Zhang M, Yang H, Tracey KJ (2000) High mobility group 1 protein HMG-1 stimulates proinflammatory cytokine synthesis in human monocytes. JExp Med 192(4):565
9. Angelo LS, Kurzrock R (2007) Vascular endothelial growth factor and its relationship to inflammatory mediators. Clin Cancer Res 13:2825
10. Arabshahi B, Dewitt EM, Cahill AM, Kaye RD, Baskin KM, Towbin RB, Cron RQ (2005) Utility of corticosteroid injection for temporomandibular arthritis in children with juvenile idiopathic arthritis. Arthritis Rheum 52(11):3563-3569 (Pubitemid 41612225)
11. Axelsen MB, Eshed I, Hørslev-Petersen K, Stengaard-Pedersen K, Hetland ML, Møller J, Junker P, Pødenphant J, Schlemmer A, Ellingsen T, Ahlquist P, Lindegaard H, Linauskas A, Dam MY, Hansen I, Horn HC, Ammitzbøll CG, Jørgensen A, Krintel SB, Raun J, Krogh NS, Johansen JS østergaard M, OPERA study group (2014) A treat-to-target strategy with methotrexate and intra-articular triamcinolone with or without adalimumab effectively reduces MRI synovitis, osteitis and tenosynovitis and halts structural damage progression in early rheumatoid arthritis: results from the OPERA randomised controlled trial. Ann Rheum Dis, 204537. Published Online First: 10 January 2014. doi:10.1136/annrheumdis-2013-204537
12. Balogh Z, Ruzsonyi E (1988) Triamcinolone hexacetonide versus betamethasone A double-blind comparative study of the long-term effects of intra-articular steroids in patients with juvenile chronic arthritis. Scand J Rheum 67:80-82
13. Barnes PJ, Adcock IM (2009) Glucocorticoid resistance in inflammatory diseases. Lancet 373(9678):1905-1917
14. Barnes PJ, Ito K, Adcock IM (2004) Corticosteroid resistance in chronic obstructive pulmonary disease inactivation of histone deacetylase. Lancet 363(9410):731-733 (Pubitemid 38296564)
15. Bartholome B, Spies CM, Gaber T, Schuchmann S, Berki T, Kunkel D, Bienert M, Radburch A, Burmester GR, Lauster R, Scheffold A, Buttgereit F (2004) Membrane glucocorticoid receptors mGCR are expressed in normal human peripheral blood mononuclear cells and up-regulated after in vitro stimulation and in patients with rheumatoid arthritis. FASEB J 18(1):70-80 (Pubitemid 38076467)
16. Beck IM, Vanden BW, Vermeulen L, Yamamoto KR, Haegeman G, De BK (2009) Crosstalk in inflammation the interplay of glucocorticoid receptor-based mechanisms and kinases and phosphatases. Endocr Rev 30(7):830-882
17. Bella J, Kolatkar PR, Marlor CW, Greve JM, Rossmann MG (1998) The structure of the two amino-terminal domains of human ICAM-1 suggests how it functions as a rhinovirus receptor and as an LFA-1 integrin ligand. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 95:4140-4145 (Pubitemid 28207878)
18. Bevan MJ (1997) In thymic selection, peptide diversity gives and take away. Immunity 7:175-178
19. Biddie SC, John S, Sabo PJ, Thurman RE, Johnson TA, Schiltz RL, Miranda TB, Sung MH, Trump S, Lightman SL, Vinson C, Stamatoyannopoulos JA, Hager GL (2011) Transcription factor AP1 potentiates chromatin accessibility and glucocorticoid receptor binding. Mol Cell 43(1):145-155
20. Bird HA, Ring EFJ, Bacon PA (1979) Thermographic and clinical comparison of 3 intra-articular steroid preparations in rheumatoid arthritis. Ann Rheum Dis 38(1):36-39 (Pubitemid 9133341)
21. Blyth T, Stirling A, Coote J, Land D, Hunter JA (1998) Injection of the rheumatoid knee does intra-articular methotrexate or rifampicin add to the benefits of triamcinolone hexacetonide. Br J Rheumatol 37(7):770-772
22. Bombardier C, Hazlewood GS, Akhavan P, Schieir O, Dooley A, Haraoui B, Khraishi M, Leclercq SA, Légaré J, Mosher DP, Pencharz J, Pope JE, Thomson J, Thorne C, Zummer M, Gardam MA, Askling J, Bykerk V (2012) Canadian Rheumatology Association recommendations for the pharmacological management of rheumatoid arthritis with traditional and biologic disease-modifying antirheumatic drugs: part II safety. J Rheumatol 39:1583-1602
23. Bradley JR (2008) TNF-mediated inflammatory disease. J Pathol 214(2):149-160
24. Breit W, Frosch M, Meyer U, Heinecke A, Ganser G (2000) A subgroup-specific evaluation of the efficacy of intra-articular triamcinolone hexacetonide in juvenile chronic arthritis. J Rheumatol 27(11):2696-2702
25. Buchanan WW, Kean WF (2002a) Osteoarthritis I: Epidemiological risk factors and historical considerations. Inflammopharmacology 10:5-21 (Pubitemid 35334239)
26. Buchanan WW, Kean WF (2002b) Osteoarthritis II: pathology and pathogenesis. Inflammopharmacology 10:23-52 (Pubitemid 35334240)
27. Buchanan WW, Kean WF, Kean R (2003) History and current status of osteoarthritis in the population. Inflammopharmacology 11:301-316 (Pubitemid 38175940)
28. Buttgereit F, Scheffold A (2002) Rapid glucocorticoid effects on immune cells. Steroids 67:529-534 (Pubitemid 34311770)
29. Buttgereit F, Burmester GR, Brand MD (2000) Bioenergetics of immune functions fundamental and therapeutic aspects. Immunol Today 21:192-199 (Pubitemid 30184792)
30. Buttgereit F, Straub RH, Wehling M, Burmester GR (2004) Glucocorticoids in the treatment of rheumatic diseases an update on the mechanisms of action. Arthritis Rheum 50:3408-3417 (Pubitemid 39488664)
31. Bykerk VP, Akhavan P, Hazlewood GS, Schieir O, Dooley A, Haraoui B, Khraishi M, Leclercq SA, Légaré J, Mosher DP, Pencharz J, Pope JE, Thomson J, Thorne C, Zummer M, Bombardier C, Canadian Rheumatology Association (2012) Canadian Rheumatology Association recommendations for pharmacological management of rheumatoid arthritis with traditional and biologic disease-modifying antirheumatic drugs. J Rheumatol. 39(8):1559-1582
32. Cahill AM, Cho SS, Baskin KM, Beukelman T, Cron RQ, Kaye RD, Towbin RB (2007) Benefit of fluoroscopically guided intra-articular long-acting corticosteroid injection for subtalar arthritis in juvenile idiopathic arthritis. Pediatr Radiol 37(6):544-548 (Pubitemid 46767444)
33. Charmandari E, Kino T, Ichijo T, Chrousos GP (2008) Generalized glucocorticoid resistance clinical aspects molecular mechanisms and implications of a rare genetic disorder. J Clin Endocrinol Metab 93(5):1563-1572 (Pubitemid 351656488)
34. Chiou C, Liao S, Liu H, Chang C, Hou T, Liu F, Lai J, Chang D (2008) Prevalence of Baker's cysts in painful primary osteoarthritis of the knee a musculoskeletal ultrasound study. Formoson J Rheumatol 22:43-49
35. Clark AR (2007) Anti-inflammatory functions of glucocorticoid-induced genes. Mol Cell Endocrinol 275:79-97
36. Cope AP, Schulze-Koops H, Aringer M (2007) The central role of T cells in rheumatoid arthritis. Clin Exp Rheumatol 25(5 Suppl 46):S4-S11 (Pubitemid 350176262)
37. Coutinho AE, Chapman KE (2011) The anti-inflammatory and immunosuppressive effects of glucocorticoids recent developments and mechanistic insights. Mole Cell Endocrinol 335:2-13
38. Cowell A, Buckingam J (2001) Glucocorticoids and the HPA axis. In: Goulding NJ, Flower RJ (eds) Glucocorticoids: milestones in drug therapy MDT. Birkhäuser, Basel, pp 129-147
39. Croxtall JD, Choudhury Q, Flower RJ (2000) Glucocorticoids act within minutes to inhibit recruitment of signaling factors to activated EGF receptors through a receptor-dependent transcription-independent mechanism. Br J Pharmacol 130:289-298 (Pubitemid 30261038)
40. Dejager L, Vandevyver S, Petta I, Libert C (2014) Dominance of the strongest: inflammatory cytokines versus glucocorticoids. Cytokine Growth Factor Rev 1:21-33
41. De Jong BA, Dahmen R, Hogeweg JA, Marti RK (1998) Intra-articular triamcinolone acetonide injection in patients with capsulitis of the shoulder a comparative study of two dose regimens. Clin Rehabil 12(3):211-215 (Pubitemid 28339919)
42. De Leo JA, Tawfik JL, LaCroix-Fralish ML (2006) The tetra-partite synapse: path to CNS sensitization and chronic pain. Pain 122(1-2):17-21
43. De Iudicibus S, Franca R, Martelossi S, Ventura A, Decorti G (2011) Molecular mechanism of glucocorticoid resistance in inflammatory bowel disease. World J Gastroenterol 17(9):1095-1108
44. Dephoure N, Zhou C, Villen J, Beausoleil SA, Bakalarski CE, Elledge SJ et al (2008) A quantitative atlas of mitotic phosphorylation. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 105(31):10762-10767
45. Derendorf H, Möllmann H, Grüner A, Haack D, Gyselby G (1986) Pharmacokinetics and pharmacodynamics of glucocorticoid suspensions after intra-articular administration. Clin Pharmacol Ther 39:313-317 (Pubitemid 16113640)
46. DeWitt EM, KimuraY, Beukelman T, Nigrovic PA, Onel K, Prahalad S, Schneider R, StollML, Angeles-Han S, Milojevic D, Schikler KN, Vehe RK, Weiss JE, Weiss P, Ilowite NT, Wallace CA. Juvenile Idiopathic Arthritis Disease-specific Research Committee of Childhood Arthritis Rheumatology and Research Alliance (2012) Consensus treatment plans for new-onset systemic juvenile idiopathic arthritis. Arthritis Care Res (Hoboken) 64(7):1001-1010
47. Dieppe PA, Lohmander LS (2005) Pathogenesis and management of pain in osteoarthritis. Lancet 365(9463):965-973 (Pubitemid 41071431)
48. Dieppe PA, Sathapatayavongs B, Jones HE, Bacon PA, Ring EF (1980) Intra-articular steroids in osteoarthritis. Rheumatol Rehabil 19(4):212-217 (Pubitemid 11232162)
49. Dinarello CA (2009) Immunological and inflammatory functions of the interleukin-1 family. Annu Rev Immunol 27:519-550
50. Donato R (2003) Intracellular and extracellular roles of S100 proteins. Microsc Res Tech 60(6):540-551
51. Dreier R (2010) Hypertrophic differentiation of chondrocytes in osteoarthritis: the developmental aspect of degenerative joint disorders. Arthritis Res Ther. 12(5):216
52. El-Arman MM, El-Fayoumi GE, El-Shal E, El-Boghdady I, El-Ghaweet A (2010) Aggrecan and cartilage oligomeric matrix protein in serum and synovial fluid of patients with knee osteoarthritis. HSS J 6(2):171-176
53. Emkey RD, Lindsay R, Lyssy J, Weisberg JS, Dempster DW, Shen V (1996) The systemic effect of intra-articular administration of corticosteroid on markers of bone formation and bone resorption in patients with rheumatoid arthritis. Arthritis Rheum 39(2):277-282 (Pubitemid 26069677)
54. Esselinckx W, Kolanowski J, Dedeuxchaisnes CN (1982) Adrenocortical function and responsiveness to tetracosactrin infusions after intra-articular treatment with triamcinolone acetonide and hydrocortisone acetate. Clin Rheumatol 1(3):176-184 (Pubitemid 13172401)
55. Fingar VH, Taber SW, Buschemeyer WC, ten Tije A, Cerrito PB, Tseng M, Guo H, Johnston MN, Wieman TJ (1997) Constitutive and stimulated expression of ICAM-1 protein on pulmonary endothelial cells in vivo. Microvasc Res 54:135-144 (Pubitemid 27433625)
56. Foell D, Roth J (2004) Proinflammatory s100 proteins in arthritis and autoimmune disease. Arthritis Rheum 50:3762-3771 (Pubitemid 39643922)
57. Frank PG, Lisanti MP (2008) ICAM-1 role in inflammation and in the regulation of vascular permeability. Am J Physiol 295:H926-H927
58. Funk CD (2001) Prostaglandins and leukotrienes advances in eicosanoid biology. Science 294(5548):1871-1875
59. Gaffney K, Ledingham J, Perry JD (1995) Intra-articular triamcinolone hexacetonide in knee osteoarthritis: factors influencing the clinical response. Ann Rheum Dis 54(5):378-381
60. Gheorghe KR, Korotkova M, Catrina AI, Backman L, af Klint E, Claesson HE, Radmark O, Jakobsson PJ (2009) Expression of 5-lipoxygenase and 15-lipoxygenase in rheumatoid arthritis synovium and effects of intra-articular glucocorticoids. Arthritis Res Ther 11(3):R83
61. Gross KL, Lu NZ, Cidlowski JA (2009) Molecular mechanisms regulating glucocorticoid sensitivity and resistance. Mol Cell Endocrinol 300(1-2):7-16
62. Guignard F, Mauel J, Markert M (1995) Identification and characterization of a novel human neutrophil protein related to the S100 family. Biochem J 309(2):395-401
63. Habib GS (2009) Systemic effects of intra-articular corticosteroids. Clin Rheumatol 28(7):749-756
64. Harrison RW, Fairfield S, Orth DN (1974) Evidence for glucocorticoid transport through the target cell membrane. Biochem Biophy Res Commun 61:1262-1267
65. Hashkes PJ, Laxer RM (2005) Medical treatment of juvenile idiopathic arthritis. JAMA 294(13):1671-1684 (Pubitemid 41407360)
66. Haynes DR, Barg E, Crotti TN, Holding C, Weedon H, Atkins GJ et al (2003) Osteoprotegerin expression in synovial tissue from patients with rheumatoid arthritis spondyloarthropathis and osteoarthritis and normal controls. Rheumatology (Oxford) 42:123-134 (Pubitemid 36131578)
67. Hench PS, Kendall EC, Slocumb CH, Polley HF (1949) Adrenocortical hormone in arthritis preliminary report. Ann Rheum Dis 8(2):97-104
68. Herold MJ, McPherson KG, Reichardt HM (2006) Glucocorticoids in T cell apoptosis and function. Cell Mol Life Sci 63(1):60-72 (Pubitemid 43100281)
69. Hertzberger-Ten CR, DeVries-Van der Vlugt BCM, Van Suijlekom-Smit LWA, Cats A (1991) Intra-articular steroids in pauciarticular juvenile chronic arthritis type 1. Eur J Pediatr 150(3):170-172
70. Hochberg MC, Altman RD, April KT, Benkhalti M, Guyatt G, McGowan J, Towheed T, Welch V, Wells G, Tugwell P (2012) American College of Rheumatology 2012 recommendations for the use of nonpharmacologic and pharmacologic therapies in osteoarthritis of the hand, hip, and knee. Arthritis Care Res (Hoboken) 64(4):465-474
71. Hofbauer LC, Heufelder AE (2001) Role of receptor activator of nuclear factor-kappaB ligand and osteoprotegerin in bone cell biology. J Mol Med 79:243-253 (Pubitemid 32646379)
72. Hollander JL (1961) Intrasynovial corticosteroid therapy in arthritis. Md State Med J 19(3):62-66
73. Hollander JL, Brown EM, Jessar RA, Brown CY (1951) Hydrocortisone and cortisone injected into arthritic joints: comparative effects of and use of hydrocortisone as a local antiarthritic agent. J Am Med Assoc 147(17):1629-1635
74. Honkanen VEA, Rautonen JK, Pelkonen PM (1993) Intra-articular glucocorticoids in early juvenile chronic arthritis. Acta Paediatr 82(12):1072-1074 (Pubitemid 24051403)
75. Hozuki T, Imai T, Tsuda E, Matsumura A, Yamamoto D, Toyoshima T, Suzuki S, Yamauchi R, Hayashi T, Hisahara S, Shimohama S (2010) Response of serum carboxylated and under carboxylated osteocalcin to risedronate monotherapy and combined therapy with vitamin K2 in corticosteroid-treated. Intern Med 49(5):371-376
76. Huppertz HI, Tschammler A, Horwitz AE, Schwab KO (1995) Intra-articular corticosteroids for chronic arthritis in children - efficacy and effects on cartilage and growth. J Pediatr 127(2):317-321
77. Ishiguro Y (1999) Mucosal proinflammatory cytokine production correlates with endoscopic activity of ulcerative colitis. J Gastroenterol 34(1):66-74
78. Ito K, Yamamura S, Essilfie-Quaye S, Cosio B, Ito M, Barnes PJ et al (2006) Histone deacetylase 2-mediated deacetylation of the glucocorticoid receptor enables NK-kappaB suppression. J Exp Med 203(1):7-13 (Pubitemid 43139638)
79. Job-Deslandre C, Menkes CJ (1990) Complications of intra-articular injections of triamcinolone hexacetonide in chronic arthritis in children. Clin Exp Rheumatol 8(4):413-416 (Pubitemid 20249790)
80. Karsh J, Yang WH (2003) An anaphylactic reaction to intra-articular triamcinolone a case report and review of the literature. Ann Allergy Asthma Immunol 90(2):254-258 (Pubitemid 36231751)
81. Klune JR, Dhupar R, Cardinal J, Billar TR, Tsung A (2008) HMGB1 endogenous danger signaling. Mol Med 14(7-8):476-484
82. Kojika S, Sugita K, Inukai T, Saito M, Iijima K, Tezuka T et al (1996) Mechanisms of glucocorticoid resistance in human leukemic cells implication of abnormal 90 and 70 kDa heat shock proteins. Leukemia 10(6):994-999 (Pubitemid 26235933)
83. Kokkola R, Andersson A, Mullins G, Ostberg T, Treutiger CJ, Arnold B, Nawroth P, Andersson U, Harris RA, Harris HE (2005) RAGE is the major receptor for the proinflammatory activity of HMGB1 in rodent macrophages. Scand J Immunol 61(1):1-9 (Pubitemid 40188342)
84. Kong YY, Boyle WJ, Penninger JM (2000) Osteoprotegerin ligand a regulator of immune response and bone physiology. Immunol Today 21:495-502
85. Krstic MD, Rogatsky I, Yamamoto KR, Garabedian MJ (1997) Mitogen-activated and cyclin-dependent protein kinases selectively and differentially modulate transcriptional enchancement by the glucocorticoid receptor. Mol Cell Biol 17(7):3947-3954 (Pubitemid 27281870)
86. Lacey DL, Timms E, Tan HL, Kelley MJ, Dunstan CR, Burgess T et al (1998) Osteoprotegerin ligand is a cytokine that regulates osteoclast differentiation and activation. Cell 93:165-176 (Pubitemid 28180851)
87. Lane SJ, Adcock IM, Richards D, Hawrylowicz C, Barnes PJ, Lee TH (1998) Corticosteroid-resistant bronchial asthma is associated with increased c-fos expression in monocytes and T lymphocytes. J Clin Invest 102(12):2156-2164 (Pubitemid 29018822)
88. Larsson LG (1989) Anaphylactic shock after IA administration of triamcinolone acetonide in a 35-year-old female. Scan J Rheumatol 18(6):441-442
89. Lee R, Kean WF (2012) Obesity and knee osteoarthritis. Inflammopharmacology 20(2):53-58
90. Lepore L, Del Santo M, Malorgio C, Presani G, Perticarari S, Prodan M, Di Leo G, Leone V, Tommasini A (2002) Treatment of juvenile idiopathic arthritis with intra-articular triamcinolone hexacetonide Evaluation of clinical effectiveness correlated with circulating ANA and T gamma/delta plus and B CD5+ lymphocyte populations of synovial fluid. Clin Exp Rheumatol 20(5):719-722 (Pubitemid 35243789)
91. Leung DY, Martin RJ, Szefler SJ, Sher ER, Ying S, Kay AB et al (1995) Dysregulation of interleukin 4 interleukin 5 and interferon gamma gene expression in steroid-resistant asthma. J Exp Med 181(1):33-40
92. Leung GJ, Rainsford KD, Kean WF (2014) Osteoarthritis of the hand I: aetiology and pathogenesis, risk factors, investigations and diagnosis. J Pharm Pharmacol 66(3):339-346
93. Makrygiannakis D, af Klint E, Catrina S, Botusan IR, Klareskog E, Klareskog L, Ulfgren A, Catrina AI (2006) Intraarticular corticosteroids decrease synovial RANKL expression in inflammatory arthritis. Arthritis Rheum 54(5):1463-1472
94. Makrygiannakis D, Revu S, Engstrom M, af Klint E, Nicholas AP, Prujin GJM, Catrina AI (2012) Local administration of glucocorticoids decreases synovial citrullination in rheumatoid arthritis. Arthritis Res Ther 14(1):R20
95. Malaviya AP, Ostör AJ (2012) Rheumatoid arthritis and the era of biologic therapy. Inflammopharmacology 20(2):59-69
96. McAlindon TE, Bannuru RR, Sullivan MC, Arden NK, Berenbaum F, Bierma-Zeinstra SM, Hawker GA, Henrotin Y, Hunter DJ, Kawaguchi H, Kwoh K, Lohmander S, Rannou F, Roos EM, Underwood M (2014) OARSI guidelines for the non-surgical management of knee osteoarthritis. Osteoarthritis Cartil 22(3):363-388
97. McInnes I, Schett G (2011) Pathogenesis of rheumatoid arthritis. N Engl J Med 365(23):2205-2219
98. Meenagh GK, Patton J, Kynes C, Wright GD (2004) A randomised controlled trial of intra-articular corticosteroid injection of the carpometacarpal joint of the thumb in osteoarthritis. Ann Rheum Dis 63(10):1260-1263 (Pubitemid 39273505)
99. Meijer B, Gearry RB, Day AS (2012) The role of S100A12 as a systemic marker of inflammation. Int J Inflam 2012:907078
100. Melby JC (1974) Systemic corticosteroid therapy: pharmacology and endocrinologic considerations. Ann Intern Med 81(4):505-512
101. Melzi R, Rubinacci A, Soldarini A, Villa I, Zampino M (1999) Total and free deoxypyridinoline after acute osteoclast actibity inhibition. Clin Chem 45(9):1510
102. Menninger H, Reinhardt S, Sondgen W (1994) Intra-articular treatment of rheumatoid knee-joint effusion with triamcinolone hexacetonide versus sodium morrhuate. Scan J Rheumatol 23(5):249-254 (Pubitemid 24334030)
103. Neve A, Corrado A, Cantatore FP (2013) Osteocalcin skeletal and extra-skeletal effects. J Cell Physiol 228(6):1149-1153
104. Nixon M, Andrew R, Chapman KE (2013) It takes two to tango dimerisation of glucocorticoid receptor and its anti-inflammatory functions. Steroids 78(1):59-68
105. Oakley RH, Cidlowski JA (2001) The glucocorticoid receptor expression function and regulation of glucocorticoid responsiveness. In: Goulding NJ, Flower RJ (eds) Glucocorticoids: milestones in drug therapy MDT. Birkhäuser Basel, pp 55-80
106. O'Neill LAJ (1995) Interleukin-1 signal transduction. Int J Clin Lab Res 25(4):169-177
107. Opferman JT, Korsmeyer SJ (2003) Apoptosis in the development and maintenance of the immune system. Nat Immunol 4:410-415 (Pubitemid 36592430)
108. Padeh S, Passwell JH (1998) Intra-articular corticosteroid injection in the management of children with chronic arthritis. Arthritis Rheum 41(7):1210-1214 (Pubitemid 28313422)
109. Paliogianni F, Boumpas DT (2001) Molecular and cellular aspects of cytokine regulation by glucocorticoids. In: Goulding NJ, Flower RJ (eds) Glucocorticoids: milestones in drug therapy MDT. Birkhäuser, Basel, pp 81-101
110. Parente L (2001) The development of synthetic glucocorticoids. In: Goulding NJ, Flower RJ (eds) Glucocorticoids: milestones in drug therapy MDT. Birkhäuser, Basel, pp 35-51
111. Pattrick M, Doherty M (1987) Facial flushing after intra-articular injection of steroid. BMJ 295(6610):1380 (Pubitemid 17163371)
112. Paulsson M, Heinegard D (1981) Purification and structural characterization of a cartilage matrix protein. Biochem J 197(2):367-375
113. Pelletier JP, Martel-Pelletier J, Abramson SB (2001) Osteoarthritis, an inflammatory disease: potential implication for the selection of new therapeutic targets. Arthritis Rheum 44(6):1237-1247 (Pubitemid 32537520)
114. Pratt WB, Morishima Y, Murphy M, Harrell M (2006) Chaperoning of glucocorticoid receptors. Handb Exp Pharmacol 172:111-138
115. Pruimboom L, van Dam AC (2007) Chronic pain: a non-use disease. Med Hypotheses 68(3):506-511 (Pubitemid 46037984)
116. Pyne D, Ioannou Y, Mootoo R, Bhanji AB (2004) Intra-articular steroids in knee osteoarthritis A comparative study of triamcinolone hexacetonide and methylprednisolone acetate. Clin Rheumatol 23(2):116-120 (Pubitemid 38559180)
117. Rao ML, Rao GS, Eckel J, Breuer H (1977) Factors involved in the uptake of corticosterone by rat liver cells. Biochem Biophys Ada 500:322-332 (Pubitemid 8229363)
118. Raynauld JP, Buckland-Wright C, Ward R, Choquette D, Haraoui B, Martel-Pelletier J, Uthman I, Khy V, Tremblay JL, Bertrand C, Pelletier JP (2003) Safety and efficacy of long-term intra-articular steroid injections in osteoarthritis of the knee. Arthritis Rheum 48(2):370-377
119. Rodger IW (2009) Analgesic targets: today and tomorrow. Inflammopharmacology 17:151-161
120. Rouhiainen A, Kuja-Panula J, Wilkman E, Pakkanen J, Stenfors J, Tuominen RK, Lepäntalo M, Carpén O, Parkkinen J, Rauvala H (2004) Regulation of monocyte migration by amphoterin (HMGB1). Blood 104(4):1174-1182 (Pubitemid 39038040)
121. Roux GP, Arlot ME, Gineyts E, Meunier PJ, Delmas PD (1995) Automatic-interactive measurement of resorption cavities in transiliac bone biopsies and correlation with deoxypyridinoline. Bone 17:153-156
122. Russcher H, Smit P, van den Akker EL, van Rossum EF, Brinkmann AO, de Jong FH et al (2005) Two polymorphisms in the glucocorticoid receptor gene directly affect glucocorticoid-regulated gene expression. J Clin Endocrinol Metab 90(10):5804-5810 (Pubitemid 41415495)
123. Salaffi F, Carotti M, Manganelli P, Filippucci E, Giuseppetti GM, Grassi W (2004) Contrast-enhanced power Doppler sonography of knee synovitis in rheumatoid arthritis: assessment of therapeutic response. Clin Rheumatol 23(4):285-290 (Pubitemid 39193782)
124. Sattar N, McCarey DW, Capell H, McInnes IB (2003) Explaining how "high-grade" systemic inflammation accelerates vascular risk in rheumatoid arthritis. Circulation 108(24):2957-2963 (Pubitemid 37553561)
125. Scammell JG, Denny WB, Valentine DL, Smith DF (2001) Overexpression of the FK506-binding immunophilin FKBP51 is the common cause of glucocorticoid resistance in three New World primates. Gen Comp Endocrinol 124(2):152-165 (Pubitemid 33065587)
126. Scammell JG, Tucker JA, King JA, Moore CM, Wright JL, Tuck-Muller CM (2005) A kidney epithelial cell line from a Bolivian squirrel monkey. Vitro Cell Dev Biol Anim 38(5):258-261
127. Schlossmacher G, Stevens A, White A (2011) Glucocorticoid receptor-mediated apoptosis: mechanisms of resistance in cancer cells. J Endocrinol 211(1):17-25
128. Seror P, Pluvinage P, d'Andre FL, Benamou P, Attuil G (1999) Frequency of sepsis after local corticosteroid injection (an inquiry on 1 160 000 injections in rheumatological private practice in France). Rheumatology 38(12):1272-1274
129. Song IH, Buttgereit F (2006) Non-genomic glucocorticoid effects to provide the basis for new drug developments. Mol Cell Endocrinol 246:142-146
130. Sparling M, Malleson P, Wood B, Petty R (1990) Radiographic follow-up of joints injected with triamcinolone hexacetonide for the management of childhood arthritis. Arthritis Rheum 33(6):821-826 (Pubitemid 20205761)
131. Spies CM, Strehl C, van der Goes MC, Bijlsma JW, Buttgereit F (2011) Glucocorticoids. Best Pract Res Clin Rheumatol. 25(6):891-900
132. Stoll ML, Good J, Sharpe T, Beukelman T, Young D, Waite PD, Cron RQ (2012) Intra-articular corticosteroid injections to the temporomandibular joints are safe and appear to be effective therapy in children with juvenile idiopathic arthritis. J Oral Maxillofac Surg 70(8):1802-1807
133. Strehl C, Spies CM, Buttgereit F (2011) Pharmacodynamics of glucocorticoids. Clin Exp Rheumatol 29(5 Suppl 68):S13-S18
134. Stucky CL, Gold MS, Zhang X (2001) Mechanisms of pain. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 98(21):11845-11846 (Pubitemid 32959788)
135. Triamcinolone acetonide [package insert]. Bristol-Meyers Squibb Canada Co., Montreal
136. Triamcinolone hexacetonide [package insert]. Sandoz Canada Inc., Canada
137. Unsal E, Makay B (2008) Intra-articular triamcinolone in juvenile idiopathic arthritis. Indian Pediatr 45(12):995-997
138. van Gaalen FA, Linn-Rasker SP, van Venrooij WJ, de Jong BA, Breedveld FC, Verweij CL, Toes REM, Huizinga TW (2004) In undifferentiated arthritis, autoantibodies to cyclic citrullinated peptides (CCP) predict progression to rheumatoid arthritis: a prospective cohort study. Arthritis Rheum 50:709-715 (Pubitemid 38326168)
139. Vossenaar ER, van Venrooij WJ (2004a) Anti-CCP antibodies, a specific marker for (early) rheumatoid arthritis. Clin Appl Immunol Rev 4:239-262 (Pubitemid 38495780)
140. Vossenaar ER, van Venrooij WJ (2004b) Citrullinated proteins: sparks that may ignite the fire in rheumatoid arthritis. Arthritis Res Ther 6(3):107-111
141. Vossenaar E, Radstake T, van der Heijden A, van Mansum MAM, Dieteren C, de Rooij D-J, Barrera P, Zendman A, van Venrooij WJ (2004) Expression and activity of citrullinating peptidylarginine deiminase enzymes in monocytes and macrophages. Ann Rheum Dis 63(4):373-381 (Pubitemid 38453302)
142. Weitoft T, Ronnblom LR (2006) Glucocorticoid resorption and influence on the hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal axis after intra-articular treatment of the knee in resting and mobile patients. Ann Rheum Dis 65(7):955-957
143. Weitoft T, Larsson A, Saxne T, Ronnblom L (2005) Changes of cartilage and bone markers after intra-articular glucocorticoid treatment with and without post-injection rest in patients with rheumatoid arthritis. Ann Rheum Dis 64(12):1750-1753 (Pubitemid 41667150)
144. Wittkowski H, Foell D, af Klint E, De Rycke L, De Keyser F, Frosch M, Ulfgren AK, Roth J (2007) Effects of intra-articular corticosteroids and anti-TNF therapy on neutrophil activation in rheumatoid arthritis. Ann Rheum Dis 66(8):1020-1025 (Pubitemid 47122313)
145. Wochink GM, Ruegg J, Abel GA, Schmidt U, Holsboer F, Rein T (2005) FK506-binding proteins 51 and 52 differentially regulate dynein interaction and nuclear translocation of the glucocorticoid receptor in mammalian cells. J Biol Chem 280(6):4609-4616 (Pubitemid 40288629)
146. Wong BR, Rho J, Arron J, Robinson E, Orlinck J, Chao M, Kalachikov S, Cayani E, Bartlett FS, Frankel WN, Young Lee S, Choi Y (1997) Trance is a novel ligand of the tumor necrosis factor receptor family that activates c-jun N-terminal kinase in T cells. J Biol Chem 272:25190-25194 (Pubitemid 27415705)
147. Yang Z, Yan WX, Cai H, Tedla N, Armishaw C, Di Girolamo N, Wand HW, Hampartzoumian T, Simpson JL, Gibson PG, Hunt J, Hart P, Hughes JM, Perry MA, Alewood PF, Geczy CL (2007) S100A12 provokes mast cell activation: a potential amplification pathway in asthma and innate immunity. J Allergy Clin Immunol 119(1):106-114 (Pubitemid 46037791)
148. Yang N, Ray DW, Matthews LC (2012) Current concepts in glucocorticoid resistance. Steroids 77(11):1041-1049
149. Yilmaz Y, Yonal O, Eren F, Atug O, Over Hamzaoglu H (2011) Serum levels of soluble receptor for advanced glycation endproducts (sRAGE) are higher in ulcerative colitis and correlate with disease activity. J Crohns Colitis 5(5):402-406
150. Yoo SA, Bae DG, Ryoo JW (2005) Arginine-rich anti-vascular endothelial growth factor (anti-VEGF) hexapeptide inhibits collagen-induced arthritis and VEGF-stimulated productions of TNF-alpha and IL-6 by human monocytes. J Immunol 174:5846-5855
151. Zuckner J, Ramsey RH, Caciolo C, Gantner GE (1958) Triamcinolone therapy in rheumatoid arthritis. Ann Rheum Dis 17:398-405
152. Zulian F, Martini G, Gobber D, Agosto C, Gigante C, Zacchello F (2003) Comparison of intra-articular triamcinolone hexacetonide and triamcinolone acetonide in oligoarticular juvenile idiopathic arthritis. Rheumatology 42(10):1254-1259 (Pubitemid 37258492)
153. Zulian F, Martini G, Gobber D, Plebani M, Zacchello F, Manners P (2004) Triamcinolone acetonide and hexacetonide intra-articular treatment of