Saturated fat consumption may not be the main cause of increased blood lipid levels

Medical Hypotheses

Volumn 82, Issue 2, 2014, Pages 187-195

  Dias, C B ^a   Garg, R ^b   Wood, L G ^a   Garg, M L ^a  

^a UNIVERSITY OF NEWCASTLE   (Australia)

^b ROYAL PRINCE ALFRED HOSPITAL   (Australia)

Author keywords

[No Author keywords available]

Indexed keywords

ARACHIDONIC ACID; CHOLESTEROL; COCONUT OIL; CORN OIL; COTTON SEED OIL; DOCOSAHEXAENOIC ACID; FISH OIL; ICOSAPENTAENOIC ACID; LINOLENIC ACID; LIPID; MONOUNSATURATED FATTY ACID; OLIVE OIL; OMEGA 3 FATTY ACID; SAFFLOWER OIL; SATURATED FATTY ACID; SUNFLOWER OIL; TRIACYLGLYCEROL;

ARTERY DISEASE; ARTICLE; BLOOD SAMPLING; BUTTER; CHOLESTEROL BLOOD LEVEL; CLINICAL TRIAL (TOPIC); DIET SUPPLEMENTATION; DRUG EFFICACY; EPIDEMIOLOGICAL DATA; FAT INTAKE; FATTY ACID METABOLISM; FOOD COMPOSITION; FOOD FREQUENCY QUESTIONNAIRE; FOOD INTAKE; HEART DISEASE; HUMAN; HYPERCHOLESTEROLEMIA; HYPERLIPIDEMIA; HYPOTHESIS; ISCHEMIC HEART DISEASE; LIPID BLOOD LEVEL; NONHUMAN; PERIPHERAL OCCLUSIVE ARTERY DISEASE; PREVALENCE; PUBLIC HEALTH; RISK FACTOR; SERUM; TRIACYLGLYCEROL BLOOD LEVEL;

ANIMALIA;

ANIMALS; ANTI-INFLAMMATORY AGENTS; CLINICAL TRIALS AS TOPIC; DIET; FATTY ACIDS; FATTY ACIDS, OMEGA-3; FEMALE; HEALTH PROMOTION; HUMANS; HYPERLIPIDEMIAS; LIPIDS; MALE; MODELS, THEORETICAL; RISK FACTORS;

EID: 84892364707     PISSN: 03069877     EISSN: 15322777     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1016/j.mehy.2013.11.036     Document Type: Article

References (60)

1. Keys A., Anderson J.T., Grande F. Prediction of serum-cholesterol responses of man to changes in fats in the diet. Lancet 1957, 273:959-966.
2. Hegsted D.M., Mcgandy R.B., Myers L., Stare F.J. Quantitative effects of dietary fat on serum cholesterol in man. Am J Clin Nutr 1965, 17:281-295.
3. Keys A., Menotti A., Karvonen M.J., et al. The diet and 15-year death rate in the seven countries study. Am J Epidemiol 1986, 124:903-915.
4. Mustad V.A., Ellsworth J.L., Cooper A.D., Kris-Etherton P.M., Etherto T.D. Dietary linoleic acid increases and palmitic acid decreases hepatic LDL receptor protein and mRNA abundance in young pigs. J Lipid Res 1996, 37:2310-2323.
5. Fernandez M.L., West K.L. Mechanisms by which dietary fatty acids modulate plasma lipids. J Nutr 2005, 135:2075-2078.
6. Daumerie C.M., Woollett L.A., Dietschy J.M. Fatty acids regulate hepatic low density lipoprotein receptor activity through redistribution of intracellular cholesterol pools. Natl Acad Sci USA 1992, 89:10797-10801.
7. MacDonald-Wicks L.K., Garg M.L. Incorporation of n-3 fatty acids into plasma and liver lipids of rats: importance of background dietary fat. Lipids 2004, 39:545-551.
8. Garg M.L., Thomson A.B.R., Clandinin M.T. Interactions of saturated, n-6 and n-3 polyunsaturated fatty acids to modulate arachidonic acid metabolism. J Lipid Res 1990, 31:271-277.
9. Cintra D.E.C., Costa A.G.V., MdCG Peluzio., Matta S.L.P., Silva M.T.C., Costa N.M.B. Lipid profile of rats fed high-fat diets based on flaxseed, peanut, trout, or chicken skin. Nutrition 2006, 22:197-205.
10. Eslick G.D., Howe P.R.C., Smith C., Priest R., Bensoussan A. Benefits of fish oil supplementation in hyperlipidemia: a systematic review and meta-analysis. Int J Cardiol 2009, 136:4-16.
11. Woodman R.J., Mori T.A., Burke V., Puddey I.B., Watts G.F., Beilin L.J. Effects of purified eicosapentaenoic and docosahexaenoic acids on glycemic control, blood pressure, and serum lipids in type 2 diabetic patients with treated hypertension. Am J Clin Nutr 2002, 76:1007-1015.
12. Levy J.R., Clore J.N., Stevens W. Dietary n-3 polyunsaturated fatty acids decrease hepatic triglycerides in fischer 344 rats. Hepatology 2004, 39:608-616.
13. Surette M.E., Whelan K.S., Broughton K.S., Kinsella J.E. Evidence for mechanisms of the hypotriglyceridemic effect of n-3 polyunsaturated fatty acids. Biochim Biophys Acta 1992, 1126:199-205.
14. Lee M.W., Park J.K., Hong J.W., et al. Beneficial effects of omega-3 fatty acids on low density lipoprotein particle size in patients with type 2 diabetes already under statin therapy. Diabetes Metab J 2013, 37:207-211.
15. Maitin V, Andreo U, Guo L, Fisher EA. Docosahexaenoic acid impairs the maturation of very low density lipoproteins in rat hepatic cells. J Lipid Res 2013, in press.
16. Wilkinson J., Higgins J.A., Fitzsimmons C., Bowyer D.E. Dietary fish oils modify the assembly of VLDL and expression of the LDL receptor in rabbit liver. Arterioscler Thromb Vasc Biol 1998, 18:1490-1497.
17. Keys A. Coronary heart disease in seven countries. Circulation 1970, 41(Suppl. 1):1-211.
18. Kromhout D., Menotti A., Bloemberg B., et al. Dietary saturated and trans fatty acids and cholesterol and 25-year mortality from coronary heart disease: the seven coutry study. Prev Med 1995, 24:308-315.
19. Shekelle R.B., Shryock A.M., Paul O., et al. Diet, serum cholesterol, and death from coronary heart disease. N Engl J Med 1981, 304:65-70.
20. Naqvi A.Z., Davis R.B., Mukamal K.J. Dietary fatty acids and peripheral artery disease in adults. Atherosclerosis 2012, 222:545-550.
21. Yamagishi K., Nettleton J.A., Folsom A.R. Plasma fatty acid composition and incident heart failure in middle-aged adults: the atherosclerosis risk in communities (ARIC) study. Am Heart J 2008, 156:965-974.
22. Posner B.M., Cobb J.L., Belanger A.J., Cupples A., D'Agostino R.B., Stokes J. Dietary lipid predictors of coronay heart disease in men. Arch Intern Med 1991, 115:1181-1187.
23. Hu F.B., Stampfer M.J., Manson J.E., et al. Dietary saturated fats and their food sources in relation to the risk of coronary heart disease in women. Am J Clin Nutr 1999, 70:1001-1008.
24. Hu F.B., Stampfer M.J., Manson J.E., et al. Dietary fat intake and the risk of coronary heart disease in women. N Engl J Med 1997, 337:1491-1499.
25. Salmerón J., Hu F.B., Manson J.E., et al. Dietary fat intake and risk of type 2 diabetes in women. Am J Clin Nutr 2001, 73:1019-1026.
26. Oh K., Hu F.B., Manson J.E., Stampfer M.J., Willett W.C. Dietary fat intake and risk of coronary heart disease in women: 20 years of follow-up of the nurses' health study. Am J Epidemiol 2005, 161:672-679.
27. Mirmiran P., Ramezankhani A., Azizi F. Combined effects of saturated fat and cholesterol intakes on serum lipids: Tehran lipid and glucose study. Nutrition 2009, 25:526-531.
28. Houston D.K., Ding J., Lee J.S., et al. Dietary fat and cholesterol and risk of cardiovascular disease in older adults: the health ABC study. Nutr Metab Cardiovasc Dis 2011, 21:430-437.
29. Samuelson G., Bratteby L., Mohsen R., Vessby B. Dietary fat intake in healthy adolescents: inverse relationships between the estimated intake of saturated fatty acids and serum cholesterol. Br J Nutr 2001, 85:333-341.
30. Cho H.P., Nakamura M.T., Clarke S.D. Cloning, expression, and nutritional regulation of the mammalian delta-6 desaturase. J Biol Chem 1999, 1:471-477.
31. Friesen R.W., Innis S.M. Linoleic acid is associated with lower long-chain n-6 and n-3 fatty acids in red blood cell lipids of Canadian pregnant women. Am J Clin Nutr 2010, 91:23-31.
32. Goyens P.L.L., Spilker M.E., Zock P.L., Katan M.B., Mensink R.P. Conversion of alfa-linolenic acid in humans is influenced by the absolute amounts of alfa-linolenic acid and linoleic acid in the diet and not by their ratio. Am J Clin Nutr 2006, 84:44-53.
33. Liou Y.A., Innis S.M. Dietary linoleic acid has no effect on arachidonic acid, but increases n-6 eicosadienoic acid, and lowers dihomo-γ-linolenic and eicosapentaenoic acid in plasma of adult men. Prostaglandins Leukot Essent Fatty Acids 2009, 80:201-206.
34. Novak E.M., Dyer R.A., Innis S.M. High dietary ω-6 fatty acids contribute to reduced docosahexaenoic acid in the developing brain and inhibit secondary neurite growth. Brain Res 2008, 1237:136-145.
35. Novak E.M., King D.J., Innis S.M. Low linoleic acid may facilitate δ6 desaturase activity and docosahexaenoic acid accretion in human fetal development. Prostaglandins Leukot Essent Fatty Acids 2012, 86:93-98.
36. Rahm J.J., Holman D.T. Effect of Linoleic Acid upon the Metabolism of Linolenic Acid. J Nutr 1964, 84:15-19.
37. Rosell M.S., Lloyd-Wright Z., Appleby P.N., Sanders T.A.B., Allen N.E., Key T.J. Long-chain n-3 polyunsaturated fatty acids in plasma in British meat-eating, vegetarian, and vegan men. Am J Clin Nutr 2005, 82:327-334.
38. Schmitz G., Ecker J. The opposing effects of n-3 and n-6 fatty acids. Prog Lipid Res 2008, 47:147-155.
39. Ramsden C.E., Zamora D., Leelarthaepin B., et al. Use of dietary linoleic acid for secondary prevention of coronary heart disease and death: evaluation of recovered data from the Sydney diet heart study and updated meta-analysis. BMJ 2013, 346.
40. Ueshima H., Okayama A., Saitoh S., et al. Differences in cardiovascular disease risk factors between Japanese in Japan and Japanese-Americans in Hawaii: the INTERLIPID study. J Hum Hypertens 2003, 17:631-639.
41. Abedin L., Lien E.L., Vingrys A.J., Sinclair A.J. The effects of dietary α-linolenic acid compared with docosahexaenoic acid on brain, retina, liver, and heart in the guinea pig. Lipids 1999, 34:475-482.
42. Childs C.E., Romeu-Nadal M., Burdge G.C., Calder P.C. Gender differences in the n-3 fatty acid content of tissues. Proc Nutr Soc 2008, 67:19-27.
43. Wang C., Harris W.S., Chung M., et al. n-3 fatty acids from fish or fish-oil supplements, but not α-linolenic acid, benefit cardiovascular disease outcomes in primary- and secondary-prevention studies: a systematic review. Am J Clin Nutr 2006, 84:5-17.
44. Phang M., Lincz L.F., Garg M.L. Eicosapentaenoic and docosahexaenoic acid supplementations reduce platelet aggregation and hemostatic markers differentially in men and women. J Nutr 2013, 143:457-463.
45. Phang M., Sinclair A.J., Lincz L.F., Garg M.L. Gender-specific inhibition of platelet aggregation following omega-3 fatty acid supplementation. Nutr Metab Cardiovasc Dis 2012, 22:109-114.
46. Ahrens E.H., Insull W., Blomstrand R., Hirsch J., Tsaltas T., Peterson M. The influence of dietary fats on serum lipid levels in man. Lancet 1957, 1:944-953.
47. Khosla P., Sundram K. Effects of dietary fatty acid composition on plasma cholesterol. Prog Lipid Res 1996, 35:93-132.
48. Yu H., Bi Y., Ma W., et al. Long-term effects of high lipid and high energy diet on serum lipid, brain fatty acid composition, and memory and learning ability in mice. Int J Dev Neurosci 2010, 28:271-276.
49. Lin E.C.K., Fernandez M.L., McNamara D.J. High density lipoprotein metabolism is altered by dietary cholesterol but not fat saturation in guinea pigs. Atherosclerosis 1995, 112:161-175.
50. Tholstrup T., Marckmann P., Jespersen J., Vessby B., Jart A., Brittmarie S. Effect on blood lipids, coagulation, and fibrinolysis of a fat high in myristic acid and a fat high in palmitic acid. Am J Clin Nutr 1994, 60:919-925.
51. Hayes K.C. Saturated fats and blood lipids: new slant on an old story. Can J Cardiol 1995, 11:39G-46G.
52. Shepherd J., Packard C.J., Grundy S.M., Yeshurun D., Gotto J., Antonio M., et al. Effects of saturated and polyunsaturated fat diets on the chemical composition and metabolism of low density lipoproteins in man. J Lipid Res 1980, 21:91-99.
53. Wilson T.A., Kritchevsky D., Kotyla T., Nicolosi R.J. Structured triglycerides containing caprylic (8:0) and oleic (18:1) fatty acids reduce blood cholesterol concentrations and aortic cholesterol accumulation in hamsters. Biochim Biophys Acta 2006, 1761:345-349.
54. Newens K.J., Thompson A.K., Jackson K.G., Wright J., Williams C.M. DHA-rich fish oil reverses the detrimental effects of saturated fatty acids on postprandial vascular reactivity. Am J Clin Nutr 2011, 94:742-748.
55. Rivellese A.A., Maffettone A., Vessby B., et al. Effects of dietary saturated, monounsaturated and n-3 fatty acids on fasting lipoproteins, LDL size and post-prandial lipid metabolism in healthy subjects. Atherosclerosis 2003, 167:149-158.
56. Dabadie H., Peuchant E., Bernard M., LeRuyet P., Mendy F. Moderate intake of myristic acid in sn-2 position has beneficial lipidic effects and enhances DHA of cholesteryl esters in an interventional study. J Nutr Biochem 2005, 16:375-382.
57. Garg M.L., Snoswell A.M., Sabine J.R. Influences of dietary cholesterol on desaturase enzymes of rat liver microsomes. Prog Lipid Res 1986, 25:639-644.
58. 9-desaturase activity in rat liver microsomes. Biochim Biophys Acta 1988, 962:330-336.
59. Martinez-Micaelo N., González-Abuín N., Terra X., et al. Omega-3 docosahexaenoic acid and procyanidins inhibit cyclo-oxygenase activity and attenuate NF-κB activation through a p105/p50 regulatory mechanism in macrophage inflammation. Biochem J 2012, 441:653-663.
60. McGandy R.B., Hegsted D.M., Myers M.L. Use of semisynthetic fats in determining effects of specific dietary fatty acids on serum lipids in man. Am J Clin Nutr 1970, 23:1288-1298.