Molecular and Cellular Basis of Cardiac Electrophysiology

Electrophysiological Disorders of the Heart

Volumn , Issue , 2005, Pages 1,cp1-31,cp1

  Tomaselli, Gordon ^a,b   Roden, Dan M ^c,d  

^a JOHNS HOPKINS UNIVERSITY SCHOOL OF MEDICINE   (United States)

^b JOHNS HOPKINS HOSPITAL   (United States)

^c VANDERBILT UNIVERSITY SCHOOL OF MEDICINE   (United States)

^d VANDERBILT UNIVERSITY HOSPITAL   (United States)

Author keywords

[No Author keywords available]

Indexed keywords

EID: 84882901009     PISSN: None     EISSN: None     Source Type: Book    
DOI: 10.1016/B978-0-443-06570-5.50007-1     Document Type: Chapter

References (257)

1. S Weidmann (1951) Effect of current flow on the membrane potential of cardiac muscle. J Physiol (Lond) 115 227-236.
2. IJ LeGrice, BH Smaill, LZ Chai, et al. (1995) Laminar structure of the heart: Ventricular myocyte arrangement and connective tissue architecture in the dog. Am J Physiol 269 H571-H582.
3. MS Spach and JF Heidlage (1995) The stochastic nature of cardiac propagation at a microscopic level. Electrical description of myocardial architecture and its application to conduction. Circ Res 76 366-380.
4. MS Spach, JM Kootsey and JD Sloan (1982) Active modulation of electrical coupling between cardiac cells of the dog. A mechanism for transient and steady state variations in conduction velocity. Circ Res 51 347-362.
5. G Marmont (1949) Studies on the axon membrane. I. A new method. J Cell Comp Physiol 34 351-382.
6. KS Cole (1949) Dynamic electrical characteristics of the squid axon membrane. Arch Sci Physiol 3 253-258.
7. AL Hodgkin, AF Huxley and B Katz (1949) Ionic currents underlying activity in the axon of the squid. Arch Sci Physiol 3 129-150.
8. OP Hamill, A Marty, E Neher, et al. (1981) Improved patch-clamp techniques for high-resolution current recording from cells and cell-free membrane patches. Pflugers Arch 391 85-100.
9. C Antzelevitch, S Sicouri, SH Litovsky, et al. (1991) Heterogeneity within the ventricular wall. Electrophysiology and pharmacology of epicardial, endocardial, and M cells. Circ Res 69 1427-1449.
10. E Drouin, F Charpentier, C Gauthier, et al. (1995) Electrophysiologic characteristics of cells spanning the left ventricular wall of human heart: Evidence for presence of M cells [see comments]. J Am Coll Cardiol 26 185-192.
11. W Stühmer, F Conti, H Suzuki, et al. (1989) Structural parts involved in activation and inactivation of the sodium channel. Nature 339 597-603.
12. J Makielski, M Sheets, D Hanck, et al. (1987) Sodium current in voltage clamped internally perfused canine cardiac Purkinje cells. Biophys J 52 1-11.
13. W Rose, C Balke, W Wier and E Marban (1992) Macroscopic and unitary properties of physiological ion flux through L-type Ca 2+ channels in guinea-pig heart cells. J Physiol (Lond) 456 267-284.
14. M Noda, S Shimizu, T Tanabe, et al. (1984) Primary structure of Electrophorus electricus sodium channel deduced from cDNA sequence. Nature 312 121-127.
15. CM Ahmed, DH Ware, SC Lee, et al. (1992) Primary structure, chromosomal localization, and functional expression of a voltage-gated sodium channel from human brain. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A 89 8220-8224.
16. ME Gellens, AL George Jr, LQ Chen, et al. (1992) Primary structure and functional expression of the human cardiac tetrodotoxin-insensitive voltage-dependent sodium channel. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A 89 554-558.
17. AL George, TJ Knittle and MM Tamkun (1992) Molecular cloning of an atypical voltage-gated sodium channel expressed in human heart and uterus: Evidence for a distinct gene family. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A 89 4893-4897.
18. G Yellen, ME Jurman, T Abramson and R MacKinnon (1991) Mutations affecting internal TEA blockade identify the probable poreforming region of a K + channel. Science 251 939-942.
19. N Chiamvimonvat, M Perez-Garcia, R Ranjan, et al. (1996) Depth asymmetries of the pore-lining segments of the Na + channel revealed by cysteine mutagenesis. Neuron 16 1037-1047.
20. S Heinemann, H Terlau, W Stuhmer, et al. (1992) Calcium channel characteristics conferred on the sodium channel by single mutations. Nature 356 441-443.
21. AL Hodgkin and AF Huxley (1952) A quantitative description of membrane current and its application to conduction and excitation in nerve. J Physiol (Lond) 117 500-544.
22. N Yang and R Horn (1995) Evidence for voltage-dependent S4 movement in sodium channels. Neuron 15 213-218.
23. N Yang, A George Jr and R Horn (1996) Molecular basis of charge movement in voltage-gated sodium channels. Neuron 16 113-122.
24. N Yang, A George and R Horn (1997) Probing the outer vestibule of a sodium channel voltage sensor. Biophys J 73 2260-2268.
25. L Chen, V Santarelli, R Horn and R Kallen (1996) A unique role for the S4 segment of domain 4 in the inactivation of sodium channels. J Gen Physiol 108 549-556.
26. K Kontis, A Rounaghi and A Goldin (1997) Sodium channel activation gating is affected by substitutions of voltage sensor positive charges in all four domains. J Gen Physiol 110 391-401.
27. RW Aldrich, DP Corey and CF Stevens (1983) A reinterpretation of mammalian sodium channel gating based on single channel recording. Nature 306 436-441.
28. D Yue, J Lawrence and E Marban (1989) Two molecular transitions influence cardiac sodium channel gating. Science 244 349-352.
29. WJ Adelman and Y Palti (1969) The effects of external potassium and long duration voltage conditioning on the amplitude of sodium currents in the giant axon of the squid, Loligo pealei. J Gen Physiol 54 589-606.
30. WK Chandler and H Meves (1970) Slow changes in membrane permeability and long lasting action potentials in axons perfused with fluoride solutions. J Physiol 211 707-728.
31. JR Moorman, GE Kirsch, AM Brown and RH Joho (1990) Changes in sodium channel gating produced by point mutations in a cytoplasmic linker. Science 250 688-691.
32. D Patton, J West, W Catterall and A Goldin (1992) Amino acid residues required for fast Na +-channel inactivation: Charge neutralizations and deletions in the III-IV linker. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A 89 10905-10909.
33. J West, D Patton, T Scheuer, et al. (1992) A cluster of hydrophobic amino acid residues required for fast Na +-channel inactivation. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A 89 10910-10914.
34. JC McPhee, DS Ragsdale, T Scheuer and WA Catterall (1996) A role for intracellular loop IVS4-S5 of the Na + channel α subunit in fast inactivation. Biophys J 70 318a.
35. G Tomaselli, N Chiamvimonvat, H Nuss, J Balser, M Perez-Garcia, R Xu, D Orias, P Backx and E Marban (1995) A mutation in the pore of the sodium channel alters gating. Biophys J 68 1814-1827.
36. J Balser, H Nuss, N Chiamvimonvat, et al. (1996) External pore residue mediates slow inactivation in mu 1 rat skeletal muscle sodium channels. J Physiol 494 431-442.
37. L Hayward, R Brown Jr and S Cannon (1997) Slow inactivation differs among mutant Na channels associated with myotonia and periodic paralysis. Biophys J 72 1204-1219.
38. D Ragsdale, J McPhee, T Scheuer and W Catterall (1994) Molecular determinants of state-dependent block of Na+ channels by local anesthetics. Science 265 1724-1728.
39. J Balser, H Nuss, D Orias, et al. (1996) Local anesthetics as effectors of allosteric gating. Lidocaine effects on inactivation-deficient rat skeletal muscle Na channels. J Clin Invest 98 2874-2886.
40. J McPhee, D Ragsdale, T Scheuer and W Catterall (1994) A mutation in segment IVS6 disrupts fast inactivation of sodium channels. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A 91 12346-12350.
41. J McPhee, D Ragsdale, T Scheuer and W Catterall (1995) A critical role for transmembrane segment IVS6 of the sodium channel alpha subunit in fast inactivation. J Biol Chem 270 12025-12034.
42. J Satin, J Kyle, M Chen, et al. (1992) A mutant of TTX-resistant cardiac sodium channels with TTX-sensitive properties. Science 256 1202-1205.
43. P Backx, D Yue, J Lawrence, et al. (1992) Molecular localization of an ion-binding site within the pore of mammalian sodium channels. Science 257 248-251.
44. G Lipkind and H Fozzard (1994) A structural model of the tetrodotoxin and saxitoxin binding site of the Na+ channel. Biophys J 66 1-13.
45. R Hartshorne, D Messner, J Coppersmith and W Catterall (1982) The saxitoxin receptor of the sodium channel from rat brain. Evidence for two nonidentical beta subunits. J Biol Chem 257 13888-13891.
46. D Messner and W Catterall (1985) The sodium channel from rat brain. Separation and characterization of subunits. J Biol Chem 260 10597-10604.
47. R Roberts and R Barchi (1987) The voltage-sensitive sodium channel from rabbit skeletal muscle. Chemical characterization of subunits. J Biol Chem 262 2298-2303.
48. L Isom, K De Jongh, D Patton, et al. (1992) Primary structure and functional expression of the beta 1 subunit of the rat brain sodium channel. Science 256 839-842.
49. L Isom, D Ragsdale, K De Jongh, et al. (1995) Structure and function of the beta 2 subunit of brain sodium channels, a transmembrane glycoprotein with a CAM motif. Cell 83 433-442.
50. P Bennett Jr, N Makita and A George Jr (1993) A molecular basis for gating mode transitions in human skeletal muscle Na+ channels. FEBS Letters 326 21-24.
51. S Cannon, A McClatchey and J Gusella (1993) Modification of the Na+ current conducted by the rat skeletal muscle alpha subunit by coexpression with a human brain beta subunit. Pflugers Arch 423 155-157.
52. D Patton, L Isom, W Catterall and A Goldin (1994) The adult rat brain beta 1 subunit modifies activation and inactivation gating of multiple sodium channel alpha subunits. J Biol Chem 269 17649-17655.
53. M Li, J West, R Numann, et al. (1993) Convergent regulation of sodium channels by protein kinase C and cAMP-dependent protein kinase. Science 261 1439-1442.
54. B Murphy, J Rogers, A Perdichizzi, et al. (1996) cAmp-Dependent phosphorylation of two sites in the alpha subunit of the cardiac sodium channel. J Biol Chem 271 28837-28843.
55. B Frohnwieser, L Chen, W Schreibmayer and R Kallen (1997) Modulation of the human cardiac sodium channel alpha-subunit by cAMP-dependent protein kinase and the responsible sequence domain. J Physiol 498 309-318.
56. J West, R Numann, B Murphy, et al. (1991) A phosphorylation site in the Na + channel required for modulation by protein kinase C. Science 254 866-868.
57. Y Qu, J Rogers, T Tanada, et al. (1996) Phosphorylation of S1505 in the cardiac Na + channel inactivation gate is required for modulation by protein kinase C. J Gen Physiology 108 375-379.
58. S Cohen and L Levitt (1993) Partial characterization of the rH1 sodium channel protein from rat heart using subtype-specific antibodies. Circ Res 73 735-742.
59. S Cannon (1996) Sodium channel defects in myotonia and periodic paralysis. Annu Rev Neurosci 19 141-164.
60. GG Celesia (2001) Disorders of membrane channels or channelopathies. Clin Neurophysiol 112 2-18.
61. Q Wang, J Shen, I Splawski, et al. (1995) SCN5A mutations associated with an inherited cardiac arrhythmia, long QT syndrome. Cell 80 805-811.
62. K Haug, T Sander, K Hallmann, et al. (2000) The voltage-gated sodium channel beta2-subunit gene and idiopathic generalized epilepsy. Neuroreport 11 2687-2689.
63. Q Chen, GE Kirsch, D Zhang, et al. (1998) Genetic basis and molecular mechanism for idiopathic ventricular fibrillation. Nature 392 293-296.
64. C Antzelevitch, GX Yan and W Shimizu (1999) Transmural dispersion of repolarization and arrhythmogenicity: The Brugada syndrome versus the long QT syndrome. J Electrocardiol 32 158-165.
65. T Tanabe, H Takeshima, A Mikami, et al. (1987) Primary structure of the receptor for calcium channel blockers from skeletal muscle. Nature 328 313-318.
66. EA Ertel, KP Campbell, MM Harpold, et al. (2000) Nomenclature of voltage-gated calcium channels [letter]. Neuron 25 533-535.
67. WJ Koch, PT Ellinor and A Schwartz (1990) cDNA cloning of a dihydropyridine-sensitive calcium channel from rat aorta. Evidence for the existence of alternatively spliced forms. J Biol Chem 265 17786-17791.
68. M Biel, R Hullin, S Freundner, et al. (1991) Tissue-specific expression of high-voltage-activated dihydropyridine-sensitive L-type calcium channels. Eur J Biochem 200 81-88.
69. RJ Diebold, WJ Koch, PT Ellinor, et al. (1992) Mutually exclusive exon splicing of the cardiac calcium channel alpha 1 subunit gene generates developmentally regulated isoforms in the rat heart. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A 89 1497-1501.
70. U Klockner, G Mikala, J Eisfeld, et al. (1997) Properties of three COOH-terminal splice variants of a human cardiac L-type Ca 2+-channel alpha1-subunit. Am J Physiol Cell Physiol 272 H1372-H1381.
71. J Yang, PT Ellinor, WA Sather, et al. (1993) Molecular determinants of Ca 2+ selectivity and ion permeation in L-type Ca 2+ channels [see comments]. Nature 366 158-161.
72. D Singer, M Biel, I Lotan, et al. (1991) The roles of the subunits in the function of the calcium channel. Science 253 1553-1557.
73. XY Wei, E Perez-Reyes, AE Lacerda, et al. (1991) Heterologous regulation of the cardiac Ca 2+ channel alpha 1 subunit by skeletal muscle beta and gamma subunits. Implications for the structure of cardiac L-type Ca 2+ channels. J Biol Chem 266 21943-21947.
74. P Lory, G Varadi, DF Slish, et al. (1993) Characterization of beta subunit modulation of a rabbit cardiac L-type Ca2 + channel alpha 1 subunit as expressed in mouse L cells. FEBS Lett 315 167-172.
75. E Perez-Reyes, A Castellano, HS Kim, et al. (1992) Cloning and expression of a cardiac/brain beta subunit of the L-type calcium channel. J Biol Chem 267 1792-1797.
76. TJ Kamp, MT Perez-Garcia and E Marban (1996) Enhancement of ionic current and charge movement by coexpression of calcium channel beta 1A subunit with alpha 1C subunit in a human embryonic kidney cell line. J Physiol (Lond) 492 89-96.
77. AJ Chien, X Zhao, RE Shirokov, et al. (1995) Roles of a membranelocalized beta subunit in the formation and targeting of functional L-type Ca 2+ channels. J Biol Chem 270 30036-30044.
78. H Haase, A Kresse, A Hohaus, et al. (1996) Expression of calcium channel subunits in the normal and diseased human myocardium. J Mol Med 74 99-104.
79. N Klugbauer, S Dai, V Specht, et al. (2000) A family of gamma-like calcium channel subunits. FEBS Lett 470 189-197.
80. O Wiser, M Trus, D Tobi, et al. (1996) The alpha 2/delta subunit of voltage sensitive Ca 2+ channels is a single transmembrane extracellular protein which is involved in regulated secretion. FEBS Lett 379 15-20.
81. CA Gurnett, M De Waard and KP Campbell (1996) Dual function of the voltage-dependent Ca 2+ channel alpha 2 delta subunit in current stimulation and subunit interaction. Neuron 16 431-440.
82. R Bangalore, G Mehrke, K Gingrich, et al. (1996) Influence of L-type Ca channel alpha 2/delta-subunit on ionic and gating current in transiently transfected HEK 293 cells. Am J Physiol 270 H1521-H1528.
83. T Tanabe, BA Adams, S Numa and KG Beam (1991) Repeat I of the dihydropyridine receptor is critical in determining calcium channel activation kinetics. Nature 352 800-803.
84. RD Zuhlke, GS Pitt, K Deisseroth, et al. (1999) Calmodulin supports both inactivation and facilitation of L-type calcium channels [see comments]. Nature 399 159-162.
85. BZ Peterson, CD DeMaria, JP Adelman and DT Yue (1999) Calmodulin is the Ca 2+ sensor for Ca 2+-dependent inactivation of L-type calcium channels [published erratum appears in Neuron 1999 Apr; 22:following 893]. Neuron 22 549-558.
86. BZ Peterson, JS Lee, JG Mulle, et al. (2000) Critical determinants of Ca 2+-dependent inactivation within an EF-hand motif of L-type Ca2 + channels [in process citation]. Biophys J 78 1906-1920.
87. H Irisawa, HF Brown and W Giles (1993) Cardiac pacemaking in the sinoatrial node. Physiol Rev 73 197-227.
88. DR Van Wagoner, AL Pond, M Lamorgese, et al. (1999) Atrial L-type Ca 2+ currents and human atrial fibrillation [see comments]. Circ Res 85 428-436.
89. G Vassort and J Alvarez (1994) Cardiac T-type calcium current: Pharmacology and roles in cardiac tissues. J Cardiovasc Electrophysiol 5 376-393.
90. DM Bers and E Perez-Reyes (1999) Ca channels in cardiac myocytes: Structure and function in Ca influx and intracellular Ca release. Cardiovasc Res 42 339-360.
91. DJ Beuckelmann, M Nabauer and E Erdmann (1991) Characteristics of calcium-current in isolated human ventricular myocytes from patients with terminal heart failure. J Mol Cell Cardiol 23 929-937.
92. DJ Beuckelmann, M Nabauer and E Erdmann (1992) Intracellular calcium handling in isolated ventricular myocytes from patients with terminal heart failure. Circulation 85 1046-1055.
93. E Perez-Reyes, LL Cribbs, A Daud, et al. (1998) Molecular characterization of a neuronal low-voltage-activated T-type calcium channel [see comments]. Nature 391 896-900.
94. LL Cribbs, JH Lee, J Yang, et al. (1998) Cloning and characterization of alpha1H from human heart, a member of the T-type Ca 2+ channel gene family. Circ Res 83 103-109.
95. GH Hockerman, BZ Peterson, BD Johnson and WA Catterall (1997) Molecular determinants of drug binding and action on L-type calcium channels. Annu Rev Pharmacol Toxicol 37 361-396.
96. A Welling, YW Kwan, E Bosse, et al. (1993) Subunit-dependent modulation of recombinant L-type calcium channels. Molecular basis for dihydropyridine tissue selectivity. Circ Res 73 974-980.
97. L Heginbotham, T Abramson and R MacKinnon (1992) A functional connection between the pores of distantly related ion channels as revealed by mutant K+ channels. Science 258 1152-1155.
98. BL Tempel, DM Papazian, TL Schwarz, et al. (1987) Sequence of a probable potassium channel component encoded at Shaker locus of Drosophila. Science 237 770-775.
99. SW Yeola, TC Rich, VN Uebele, et al. (1996) Molecular analysis of a binding site for quinidine in a human cardiac delayed rectifier K+ channel. Role of S6 in antiarrhythmic drug binding [see comments]. Circ Res 78 1105-1114.
100. DJ Snyders (1999) Structure and function of cardiac potassium channels. Cardiovasc Res 42 377-390.
101. JM Gulbis, M Zhou, S Mann and R MacKinnon (2000) Structure of the cytoplasmic beta subunit-T1 assembly of voltage-dependent K+ channels. Science 289 123-127.
102. JM Gulbis, S Mann and R MacKinnon (1999) Structure of a voltagedependent K+ channel beta subunit. Cell 97 943-952.
103. MT Perez-Garcia, JR Lopez-Lopez and C Gonzalez (1999) Kvbeta1.2 subunit coexpression in HEK293 cells confers O2 sensitivity to kv4.2 but not to Shaker channels. J Gen Physiol 113 897-907.
104. WF An, MR Bowlby, M Betty, et al. (2000) Modulation of A-type potassium channels by a family of calcium sensors. Nature 403 553-556.
105. KK Tai and SA Goldstein (1998) The conduction pore of a cardiac potassium channel. Nature 391 605-608.
106. T Murai, A Kakizuka, T Takumi, et al. (1989) Molecular cloning and sequence analysis of human genomic DNA encoding a novel membrane protein which exhibits a slowly activating potassium channel activity. Biochem Biophys Res Commun 161 176-181.
107. MC Sanguinetti, ME Curran, A Zou, et al. (1996) Coassembly of K(V)LQT1 and minK (IsK) proteins to form cardiac I(Ks) potassium channel [see comments]. Nature 384 80-83.
108. J Barhanin, F Lesage, E Guillemare, et al. (1996) K(V)LQT1 and lsK (minK) proteins associate to form the I(Ks) cardiac potassium current [see comments]. Nature 384 78-80.
109. GW Abbott, F Sesti, I Splawski, et al. (1999) MiRP1 forms IKr potassium channels with HERG and is associated with cardiac arrhythmia. Cell 97 175-187.
110. M Salinas, F Duprat, C Heurteaux, et al. (1997) New modulatory alpha subunits for mammalian Shab K+ channels. J Biol Chem 272 24371-24379.
111. CM Armstrong (1969) Inactivation of the potassium conductance and related phenomena caused by quaternary ammonium ion injection in squid axons. J Gen Physiol 54 553-575.
112. T Hoshi, WN Zagotta and RW Aldrich (1990) Biophysical and molecular mechanisms of Shaker potassium channel inactivation [see comments]. Science 250 533-538.
113. WN Zagotta, T Hoshi and RW Aldrich (1990) Restoration of inactivation in mutants of Shaker potassium channels by a peptide derived from ShB [see comments]. Science 250 568-571.
114. J Lopez-Barneo, T Hoshi, SH Heinemann and RW Aldrich (1993) Effects of external cations and mutations in the pore region on C-type inactivation of Shaker potassium channels. Receptors Channels 1 61-71.
115. GN Tseng and BF Hoffman (1989) Two components of transient outward current in canine ventricular myocytes. Circ Res 64 633-647.
116. AC Zygmunt and WR Gibbons (1991) Calcium-activated chloride current in rabbit ventricular myocytes. Circ Res 68 424-437.
117. M Nabauer and S Kaab (1998) Potassium channel down-regulation in heart failure. Cardiovasc Res 37 324-334.
118. JE Dixon, W Shi, HS Wang, et al. (1996) Role of the Kv4.3 K+ channel in ventricular muscle. A molecular correlate for the transient outward current [published erratum appears in Circ Res 1997 Jan; 80:147]. Circ Res 79 659-668.
119. S Kaab, J Dixon, J Duc, et al. (1998) Molecular basis of transient outward potassium current downregulation in human heart failure: A decrease in Kv4.3 mRNA correlates with a reduction in current density. Circulation 98 1383-1393.
120. S Po, S Roberds, DJ Snyders, et al. (1993) Heteromultimeric assembly of human potassium channels. Molecular basis of a transient outward current? Circ Res 72 1326-1336.
121. SW Yeola and DJ Snyders (1997) Electrophysiological and pharmacological correspondence between Kv4.2 current and rat cardiac transient outward current. Cardiovasc Res 33 540-547.
122. JE Dixon and D McKinnon (1994) Quantitative analysis of potassium channel mRNA expression in atrial and ventricular muscle of rats. Circ Res 75 252-260.
123. G Juang, M Burysek, A Ohler, et al. (2000) Regional alterations of K channel subunit expression in canine pacing-tachycardia heart failure. Circulation 102 1281a.
124. E Wettwer, GJ Amos, H Posival and U Ravens (1994) Transient outward current in human ventricular myocytes of subepicardial and subendocardial origin. Circ Res 75 473-482.
125. M Nabauer, DJ Beuckelmann, P Uberfuhr and G Steinbeck (1996) Regional differences in current density and rate-dependent properties of the transient outward current in subepicardial and subendocardial myocytes of human left ventricle. Circulation 93 168-177.
126. J Feng, B Wible, GR Li, et al. (1997) Antisense oligodeoxynucleotides directed against Kv1.5 mRNA specifically inhibit ultrarapid delayed rectifier K+ current in cultured adult human atrial myocytes. Circ Res 80 572-579.
127. L Yue, J Feng, GR Li and S Nattel (1996) Characterization of an ultrarapid delayed rectifier potassium channel involved in canine atrial repolarization. J Physiol (Lond) 496 647-662.
128. Z Wang, B Fermini and S Nattel (1993) Sustained depolarization-induced outward current in human atrial myocytes. Evidence for a novel delayed rectifier K + current similar to Kv1.5 cloned channel currents. Circ Res 73 1061-1076.
129. DJ Mays, JM Foose, LH Philipson and MM Tamkun (1995) Localization of the Kv1.5 K+ channel protein in explanted cardiac tissue. J Clin Invest 96 282-292.
130. MC Sanguinetti and NK Jurkiewicz (1990) Two components of cardiac delayed rectifier K+ current. Differential sensitivity to block by class III antiarrhythmic agents. J Gen Physiol 96 195-215.
131. MD Varnum, AE Busch, CT Bond, et al. (1993) The min K channel underlies the cardiac potassium current IKs and mediates species-specific responses to protein kinase C. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A 90 11528-11532.
132. Q Wang, ME Curran, I Splawski, et al. (1996) Positional cloning of a novel potassium channel gene: KVLQT1 mutations cause cardiac arrhythmias. Nat Genet 12 17-23.
133. S Demolombe, I Baro, Y Pereon, et al. (1998) A dominant negative iso-form of the long QT syndrome 1 gene product. J Biol Chem 273 6837-6843.
134. ME Curran, I Splawski, KW Timothy, et al. (1995) A molecular basis for cardiac arrhythmia: HERG mutations cause long QT syndrome. Cell 80 795-803.
135. GA Gintant (2000) Characterization and functional consequences of delayed rectifier current transient in ventricular repolarization. Am J Physiol Heart Circ Physiol 278 H806-H817.
136. JP Lees-Miller, C Kondo, L Wang and HJ Duff (1997) Electrophysiological characterization of an alternatively processed ERG K+ channel in mouse and human hearts. Circ Res 81 719-726.
137. B London, MC Trudeau, KP Newton, et al. (1997) Two isoforms of the mouse ether-a-go-go-related gene coassemble to form channels with properties similar to the rapidly activating component of the cardiac delayed rectifier K+ current. Circ Res 81 870-878.
138. DA Doyle, JM Cabral, RA Pfuetzner, et al. (1998) The structure of the potassium channel: molecular basis of K+ conduction and selectivity [see comments]. Science 280 69-77.
139. B Hille, CM Armstrong and R MacKinnon (1999) Ion channels: From idea to reality. Nat Med 5 1105-1109.
140. Y Kubo, TJ Baldwin, YN Jan and LY Jan (1993) Primary structure and functional expression of a mouse inward rectifier potassium channel [see comments]. Nature 362 127-133.
141. MD Ashen, B O'Rourke, KA Kluge, et al. (1995) Inward rectifier K+ channel from human heart and brain: Cloning and stable expression in a human cell line. Am J Physiol 268 H506-H511.
142. BA Wible, M De Biasi, K Majumder, et al. (1995) Cloning and functional expression of an inwardly rectifying K+ channel from human atrium. Circ Res 76 343-350.
143. Y Kubo, E Reuveny, PA Slesinger, et al. (1993) Primary structure and functional expression of a rat G-protein-coupled muscarinic potassium channel [see comments]. Nature 364 802-806.
144. G Krapivinsky, EA Gordon, K Wickman, et al. (1995) The G-protein-gated atrial K+ channel IKACh is a heteromultimer of two inwardly rectifying K(+)-channel proteins. Nature 374 135-141.
145. S Corey, G Krapivinsky, L Krapivinsky and DE Clapham (1998) Number and stoichiometry of subunits in the native atrial G-protein-gated K+ channel, IKACh. J Biol Chem 273 5271-5278.
146. DE Logothetis, Y Kurachi, J Galper, et al. (1987) The beta gamma subunits of GTP-binding proteins activate the muscarinic K+ channel in heart. Nature 325 321-326.
147. B O'Rourke (2000) Myocardial K(ATP) channels in preconditioning [in process citation]. Circ Res 87 845-855.
148. N Inagaki, T Gonoi, JP Clement, et al. (1995) Reconstitution of IKATP: An inward rectifier subunit plus the sulfonylurea receptor [see comments]. Science 270 1166-1170.
149. S Seino (1999) ATP-sensitive potassium channels: A model of heteromultimeric potassium channel/receptor assemblies. Annu Rev Physiol 61 337-362.
150. F Duprat, F Lesage, M Fink, et al. (1997) TASK, a human background K+ channel to sense external pH variations near physiological pH. EMBO J 16 5464-5471.
151. D DiFrancesco (1995) Cardiac pacemaker: 15 years of “new” interpretation. Acta Cardiol 50 413-427.
152. A Ludwig, X Zong, M Jeglitsch, et al. (1998) A family of hyperpolarization-activated mammalian cation channels. Nature 393 587-591.
153. B Santoro and GR Tibbs (1999) The HCN gene family: Molecular basis of the hyperpolarization-activated pacemaker channels. Ann N Y Acad Sci 868 741-764.
154. A Ludwig, X Zong, J Stieber, et al. (1999) Two pacemaker channels from human heart with profoundly different activation kinetics. EMBO J 18 2323-2329.
155. K Baker, KS Warren, G Yellen and MC Fishman (1997) Defective “pacemaker” current (Ih) in a zebra fish mutant with a slow heart rate. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A 94 4554-4559.
156. DA Nicoll, S Longoni and KD Philipson (1990) Molecular cloning and functional expression of the cardiac sarcolemmal Na +-Ca 2+ exchanger. Science 250 562-565.
157. I Komuro, KE Wenninger, KD Philipson and S Izumo (1992) Molecular cloning and characterization of the human cardiac Na+/Ca 2+ exchanger cDNA. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A 89 4769-4773.
158. DA Nicoll, M Ottolia, L Lu, et al. (1999) A new topological model of the cardiac sarcolemmal Na+-Ca 2+ exchanger. J Biol Chem 274 910-917.
159. Z Li, DA Nicoll, A Collins, et al. (1991) Identification of a peptide inhibitor of the cardiac sarcolemmal Na +-Ca 2+ exchanger. J Biol Chem 266 1014-1020.
160. HA Fozzard (1992) Afterdepolarizations and triggered activity. Basic Res Cardiol 87 105-113.
161. RS Kass, RW Tsien and R Weingart (1978) Ionic basis of transient inward current induced by strophanthidin in cardiac Purkinje fibres. J Physiol (Lond) 281 209-226.
162. K Benndorf, M Friedrich and H Hirche (1991) Reoxygenation-induced arrhythmogenic transient inward currents in isolated cells of the guinea-pig heart. Pflugers Arch 418 248-260.
163. CT January and HA Fozzard (1988) Delayed afterdepolarizations in heart muscle: Mechanisms and relevance. Pharmacol Rev 40 219-227.
164. G Blanco and RW Mercer (1998) Isozymes of the Na-K-ATPase: Heterogeneity in structure, diversity in function. Am J Physiol 275 F633-F650.
165. B. Forbush Bd, JH Kaplan and JF Hoffman (1978) Characterization of a new photoaffinity derivative of ouabain: Labeling of the large polypeptide and of a proteolipid component of the Na, K-ATPase. Biochemistry 17 3667-3676.
166. RW Mercer, D Biemesderfer, DP Bliss Jr, et al. (1993) Molecular cloning and immunological characterization of the gamma polypeptide, a small protein associated with the Na, K-ATPase. J Cell Biol 121 579-586.
167. CJ Palmer, BT Scott and LR Jones (1991) Purification and complete sequence determination of the major plasma membrane substrate for cAMP-dependent protein kinase and protein kinase C in myocardium. J Biol Chem 266 11126-11130.
168. J Wang, RH Schwinger, K Frank, et al. (1996) Regional expression of sodium pump subunits isoforms and Na +-Ca ++ exchanger in the human heart. J Clin Invest 98 1650-1658.
169. RH Schwinger, M Bohm and E Erdmann (1990) Effectiveness of cardiac glycosides in human myocardium with and without “downregulated” beta-adrenoceptors. J Cardiovasc Pharmacol 15 692-697.
170. NM Kumar and NB Gilula (1996) The gap junction communication channel. Cell 84 381-388.
171. S Dhein (1998) Gap junction channels in the cardiovascular system: Pharmacological and physiological modulation. Trends Pharmacol Sci 19 229-241.
172. VM Unger, NM Kumar, NB Gilula and M Yeager (1999) Three-dimensional structure of a recombinant gap junction membrane channel. Science 283 1176-1180.
173. B Risek, FG Klier and NB Gilula (1994) Developmental regulation and structural organization of connexins in epidermal gap junctions. Dev Biol 164 183-196.
174. JX Jiang and DA Goodenough (1996) Heteromeric connexons in lens gap junction channels. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A 93 1287-1291.
175. CG Bevans, M Kordel, SK Rhee and AL Harris (1998) Isoform composition of connexin channels determines selectivity among second messengers and uncharged molecules. J Biol Chem 273 2808-2816.
176. PR Brink, K Cronin, K Banach, E Peterson, et al. (1997) Evidence for heteromeric gap junction channels formed from rat connexin43 and human connexin37. Am J Physiol 273 C1386-C1396.
177. TW White, DL Paul, DA Goodenough and R Bruzzone (1995) Functional analysis of selective interactions among rodent connexins. Mol Biol Cell 6 459-470.
178. HL Kanter, JE Saffitz and EC Beyer (1992) Cardiac myocytes express multiple gap junction proteins. Circ Res 70 438-444.
179. HL Kanter, JG Laing, EC Beyer, et al. (1993) Multiple connexins colocalize in canine ventricular myocyte gap junctions. Circ Res 73 344-350.
180. RG Gourdie, NJ Severs, CR Green, et al. (1993) The spatial distribution and relative abundance of gap-junctional connexin40 and connexin43 correlate to functional properties of components of the cardiac atrioventricular conduction system. J Cell Sci 105 985-991.
181. RD Veenstra (1996) Size and selectivity of gap junction channels formed from different connexins. J Bioenerg Biomembr 28 327-337.
182. JE Saffitz, HL Kanter, KG Green, et al. (1994) Tissue-specific determinants of anisotropic conduction velocity in canine atrial and ventricular myocardium. Circ Res 74 1065-1070.
183. JE Saffitz, KG Green and RB Schuessler (1997) Structural determinants of slow conduction in the canine sinus node. J Cardiovasc Electrophysiol 8 738-744.
184. A Kadish, M Shinnar, EN Moore, et al. (1988) Interaction of fiber orientation and direction of impulse propagation with anatomic barriers in anisotropic canine myocardium. Circulation 78 1478-1494.
185. MS Spach, WT Miller, DB Geselowitz, et al. (1981) The discontinuous nature of propagation in normal canine cardiac muscle. Evidence for recurrent discontinuities of intracellular resistance that affect the membrane currents. Circ Res 48 39-54.
186. RG Gourdie (1995) A map of the heart: Gap junctions, connexin diversity and retroviral studies of conduction myocyte lineage. Clin Sci (Colch) 88 257-262.
187. AC Zygmunt and WR Gibbons (1992) Properties of the calcium-activated chloride current in heart. J Gen Physiol 99 391-414.
188. M Courtemanche, RJ Ramirez and S Nattel (1999) Ionic targets for drug therapy and atrial fibrillation-induced electrical remodeling: Insights from a mathematical model. Cardiovasc Res 42 477-489.
189. AL Hodgkin (1954) A note on conduction velocity. J Physiol (Lond) 125 221-224.
190. JW Buchanan Jr, T Saito and LS Gettes (1985) The effects of antiarrhythmic drugs, stimulation frequency, and potassium-induced resting membrane potential changes on conduction velocity and dV/dtmax in guinea pig myocardium. Circ Res 56 696-703.
191. H Sugiura and RW Joyner (1992) Action potential conduction between guinea pig ventricular cells can be modulated by calcium current. Am J Physiol 263 H1591-H1604.
192. RM Shaw and Y Rudy (1997) Ionic mechanisms of propagation in cardiac tissue. Roles of the sodium and L-type calcium currents during reduced excitability and decreased gap junction coupling. Circ Res 81 727-741.
193. MS Spach, WT Miller, PC Dolber, et al. (1982) The functional role of structural complexities in the propagation of depolarization in the atrium of the dog. Cardiac conduction disturbances due to discontinuities of effective axial resistivity. Circ Res 50 175-191.
194. C Mendez, WJ Mueller and X Urguiaga (1970) Propagation of impulses across the Purkinje fiber-muscle junctions in the dog heart. Circ Res 26 135-150.
195. VG Fast and AG Kleber (1997) Role of wavefront curvature in propagation of cardiac impulse. Cardiovasc Res 33 258-271.
196. S Rohr and JP Kucera (1997) Involvement of the calcium inward current in cardiac impulse propagation: Induction of unidirectional conduction block by nifedipine and reversal by Bay K 8644. Biophys J 72 754-766.
197. JF Spear and EN Moore (1974) Supernormal excitability and conduction in the His-Purkinje system of the dog. Circ Res 35 782-792.
198. D DiFrancesco (1981) A new interpretation of the pace-maker current in calf Purkinje fibres. J Physiol (Lond) 314 359-376.
199. H Yu, F Chang and IS Cohen (1993) Pacemaker current exists in ventricular myocytes. Circ Res 72 232-236.
200. B Sakmann, A Noma and W Trautwein (1983) Acetylcholine activation of single muscarinic K+ channels in isolated pacemaker cells of the mammalian heart. Nature 303 250-253.
201. DT Yue, S Herzig and E Marban (1990) Beta-adrenergic stimulation of calcium channels occurs by potentiation of high-activity gating modes. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A 87 753-757.
202. KR Courtney and PG Sokolove (1979) Importance of electrogenic sodium pump in normal and overdriven sinoatrial pacemaker. J Mol Cell Cardiol 11 787-794.
203. MR Boyett and D Fedida (1984) Changes in the electrical activity of dog cardiac Purkinje fibres at high heart rates. J Physiol (Lond) 350 361-391.
204. BG Katzung and JA Morgenstern (1977) Effects of extracellular potassium on ventricular automaticity and evidence for a pacemaker current in mammalian ventricular myocardium. Circ Res 40 105-111.
205. MJ Janse and AL Wit (1989) Electrophysiological mechanisms of ventricular arrhythmias resulting from myocardial ischemia and infarction. Physiol Rev 69 1049-1169.
206. KH Dangman and BF Hoffman (1983) Studies on overdrive stimulation of canine cardiac Purkinje fibers: Maximal diastolic potential as a determinant of the response. J Am Coll Cardiol 2 1183-1190.
207. EI Watanabe, H Honjo, MR Boyett, et al. (1996) Inactivation of the calcium current is involved in overdrive suppression of rabbit sinoatrial node cells. Am J Physiol 271 H2097-H2107.
208. PF Cranefield (1977) Action potentials, afterpotentials, and arrhythmias. Circ Res 41 415-423.
209. MR Rosen, H Gelband, C Merker and BF Hoffman (1973) Mechanisms of digitalis toxicity. Effects of ouabain on phase four of canine Purkinje fiber transmembrane potentials. Circulation 47 681-689.
210. GR Ferrier and GK Moe (1973) Effect of calcium on acetylstrophanthidin-induced transient depolarizations in canine Purkinje tissue. Circ Res 33 508-515.
211. E Marban, SW Robinson and WG Wier (1986) Mechanisms of arrhythmogenic delayed and early afterdepolarizations in ferret ventricular muscle. J Clin Invest 78 1185-1192.
212. WJ Lederer and RW Tsien (1976) Transient inward current underlying arrhythmogenic effects of cardiotonic steroids in Purkinje fibres. J Physiol (Lond) 263 73-100.
213. X Han and GR Ferrier (1995) Contribution of Na +-Ca 2+ exchange to stimulation of transient inward current by isoproterenol in rabbit cardiac Purkinje fibers. Circ Res 76 664-674.
214. SM Pogwizd, JR Onufer, JB Kramer, et al. (1986) Induction of delayed afterdepolarizations and triggered activity in canine Purkinje fibers by lysophosphoglycerides. Circ Res 59 416-426.
215. HEDJ Ter Keurs and PA Boyden (2001) Ca 2+ and arrhythmias. P Spooner, MR Rosen (Eds) Foundations of Cardiac Arrhythmias—Basic Concepts and Clinical Approaches New York: Marcel Dekker 287-317.
216. JA Wasserstrom and GR Ferrier (1981) Voltage dependence of digitalis afterpotentials, aftercontractions, and inotropy. Am J Physiol 241 H646-H653.
217. SG Priori, C Napolitano, N Tiso, et al. (2001) Mutations in the cardiac ryanodine receptor gene (hRyR2) underlie catecholaminergic polymorphic ventricular tachycardia. Circulation 103 196-200.
218. Y Wu, LB MacMillan, RB McNeill, et al. (1999) CaM kinase augments cardiac L-type Ca 2+ current: A cellular mechanism for long Q-T arrhythmias. Am J Physiol 276 H2168-H2178.
219. CT January and JM Riddle (1989) Early afterdepolarizations: Mechanism of induction and block. A role for L-type Ca 2+ current. Circ Res 64 977-990.
220. B Szabo, R Sweidan, CV Rajagopalan and R Lazzara (1994) Role of Na+:Ca 2+ exchange current in Cs +-induced early afterdepolarizations in Purkinje fibers. J Cardiovasc Electrophysiol 5 933-944.
221. BP Damiano and MR Rosen (1984) Effects of pacing on triggered activity induced by early afterdepolarizations. Circulation 69 1013-1025.
222. D Roden, R Lazzara, M Rosen, et al. (1996) Multiple mechanisms in the long-QT syndrome. Current knowledge, gaps, and future directions. Circulation 94 1202.
223. T Shibasaki (1987) Conductance and kinetics of delayed rectifier potassium channels in nodal cells of the rabbit heart. J Physiol (Lond) 387 227-250.
224. MC Sanguinetti and NK Jurkiewicz (1992) Role of external Ca 2+ and K+ in gating of cardiac delayed rectifier K+ currents. Pflugers Arch 420 180-186.
225. SJ Compton, RL Lux, MR Ramsey, et al. (1996) Genetically defined therapy of inherited long-QT syndrome. Correction of abnormal repolarization by potassium [see comments]. Circulation 94 1018-1022.
226. AM Choy, CC Lang, DM Chomsky, et al. (1997) Normalization of acquired QT prolongation in humans by intravenous potassium. Circulation 96 2149-2154.
227. GF Tomaselli, DJ Beuckelmann, HG Calkins, et al. (1994) Sudden cardiac death in heart failure. The role of abnormal repolarization [see comments]. Circulation 90 2534-2539.
228. GR Mines (1914) On circulating excitations in heart muscles and their possible relation to tachycardia and fibrillation. Trans R Soc Can IV 43-52.
229. S Rohr, JP Kucera, VG Fast and AG Kleber (1997) Paradoxical improvement of impulse conduction in cardiac tissue by partial cellular uncoupling. Science 275 841-844.
230. MS Spach and PC Dolber (1986) Relating extracellular potentials and their derivatives to anisotropic propagation at a microscopic level in human cardiac muscle. Evidence for electrical uncoupling of side-to-side fiber connections with increasing age. Circ Res 58 356-371.
231. MA Allessie, FI Bonke and FJ Schopman (1973) Circus movement in rabbit atrial muscle as a mechanism of trachycardia. Circ Res 33 54-62.
232. RH Hoyt, ML Cohen, PB Corr and JE Saffitz (1990) Alterations of inter-cellular junctions induced by hypoxia in canine myocardium. Am J Physiol 258 H1439-H1448.
233. NS Peters, CR Green, PA Poole-Wilson and NJ Severs (1993) Reduced content of connexin43 gap junctions in ventricular myocardium from hypertrophied and ischemic human hearts. Circulation 88 864-875.
234. PA Guerrero, RB Schuessler, LM Davis, et al. (1997) Slow ventricular conduction in mice heterozygous for a connexin43 null mutation. J Clin Invest 99 1991-1998.
235. JH Smith, CR Green, NS Peters, et al. (1991) Altered patterns of gap junction distribution in ischemic heart disease. An immunohistochemical study of human myocardium using laser scanning confocal microscopy. Am J Pathol 139 801-821.
236. NS Peters, J Coromilas, NJ Severs and AL Wit (1997) Disturbed connexin43 gap junction distribution correlates with the location of reentrant circuits in the epicardial border zone of healing canine infarcts that cause ventricular tachycardia. Circulation 95 988-996.
237. JW Warmke and B Ganetzky (1994) A family of potassium channel genes related to eag in Drosophila and mammals. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A 91 3438-3442.
238. LH Philipson, K Schaefer, J LaMendola, et al. (1990) Sequence of a human fetal skeletal muscle potassium channel cDNA related to RCK4. Nucleic Acids Res 18 7160.
239. MM Tamkun, KM Knoth, JA Walbridge, et al. (1991) Molecular cloning and characterization of two voltage-gated K+ channel cDNAs from human ventricle. FASEB J 5 331-337.
240. W Kong, S Po, T Yamagishi, et al. (1998) Isolation and characterization of the human gene encoding the transient outward potassium current: Further diversity by alternative mRNA splicing. Am J Physiol 275 H1963-H1970.
241. ML Ashford, CT Bond, TA Blair and JP Adelman (1994) Cloning and functional expression of a rat heart KATP channel. Nature 370 456-459.
242. KW Chan, MN Langan, JL Sui, et al. (1996) A recombinant inwardly rectifying potassium channel coupled to GTP-binding proteins. J Gen Physiol 107 381-397.
243. T Vaccari, A Moroni, M Rocchi, et al. (1999) The human gene coding for HCN2, a pacemaker channel of the heart. Biochim Biophys Acta 1446 419-425.
244. N Inagaki, T Gonoi, JP Clement, et al. (1996) A family of sulfonylurea receptors determines the pharmacological properties of ATP-sensitive K+ channels. Neuron 16 1011-1017.
245. PA Powers, RG Gregg, PA Lalley, et al. (1991) Assignment of the human gene for the alpha 1 subunit of the cardiac DHP-sensitive Ca 2+ channel (CCHL1A1) to chromosome 12p12-pter. Genomics 10 835-839.
246. PA Powers, S Liu, K Hogan and RG Gregg (1992) Skeletal muscle and brain isoforms of a beta-subunit of human voltage-dependent calcium channels are encoded by a single gene. J Biol Chem 267 22967-22972.
247. MR Rosenfeld, E Wong, J Dalmau, et al. (1993) Cloning and characterization of a Lambert-Eaton myasthenic syndrome antigen. Ann Neurol 33 113-120.
248. T Nagase, K Ishikawa, N Miyajima, et al. (1998) Prediction of the coding sequences of unidentified human genes. IX. The complete sequences of 100 new cDNA clones from brain which can code for large proteins in vitro. DNA Res 5 31-39.
249. N Makita, PB Bennett Jr and AL George Jr (1994) Voltage-gated Na+ channel beta 1 subunit mRNA expressed in adult human skeletal muscle, heart, and brain is encoded by a single gene. J Biol Chem 269 7571-7578.
250. J Eubanks, J Srinivasan, MB Dinulos, et al. (1997) Structure and chromosomal localization of the beta2 subunit of the human brain sodium channel. Neuroreport 8 2775-2779.
251. GI Fishman, DC Spray and LA Leinwand (1990) Molecular characterization and functional expression of the human cardiac gap junction channel. J Cell Biol 111 589-598.
252. HL Kanter, JE Saffitz and EC Beyer (1994) Molecular cloning of two human cardiac gap junction proteins, connexin40 and connexin45. J Mol Cell Cardiol 26 861-868.
253. K Kawakami, T Ohta, H Nojima and K Nagano (1986) Primary structure of the alpha-subunit of human Na, K-ATPase deduced from cDNA sequence. J Biochem (Tokyo) 100 389-397.
254. TL Yang-Feng, JW Schneider, V Lindgren, et al. (1988) Chromosomal localization of human Na+, K+ -ATPase alpha- and beta-subunit genes. Genomics 2 128-138.
255. A Ovchinnikov Yu, GS Monastyrskaya, NE Broude, et al. (1988) Family of human Na+, K+ -ATPase genes. Structure of the gene for the catalytic subunit (alpha III-form) and its relationship with structural features of the protein. FEBS Lett 233 87-94.
256. K Kawakami, H Nojima, T Ohta and K Nagano (1986) Molecular cloning and sequence analysis of human Na, K-ATPase beta-subunit. Nucleic Acids Res 14 2833-2844.
257. P Martin-Vasallo, W Dackowski, JR Emanuel and R Levenson (1989) Identification of a putative isoform of the Na, K-ATPase beta subunit. Primary structure and tissue-specific expression. J Biol Chem 264 4613-4618.