Applications of nanotechnology for melanoma treatment, diagnosis, and theranostics

International Journal of Nanomedicine

Volumn 8, Issue , 2013, Pages 2677-2688

  Chen, Jiezhong ^a,b   Shao, Renfu ^c   Zhang, Xu Dong ^d   Chen, Chen ^a  

^a UNIVERSITY OF QUEENSLAND   (Australia)

^b UNIVERSITY OF WOLLONGONG   (Australia)

^c UNIVERSITY OF THE SUNSHINE COAST   (Australia)

^d UNIVERSITY OF NEWCASTLE   (Australia)

Author keywords

Early detection; Metastasis; Nanoparticle delivered; PI3K Akt

Indexed keywords

ALUMINUM; ANTIINFECTIVE AGENT; ANTISENSE OLIGONUCLEOTIDE; CARBON NANOPARTICLE; CARBOPLATIN; CISPLATIN; CREMOPHOR; CYCLODEXTRIN; DACARBAZINE; DENDRIMER; DOXORUBICIN; GOLD NANOPARTICLE; HUMAN ALBUMIN; IMATINIB; LIPOSOME; MAGNETITE NANOPARTICLE; MITOGEN ACTIVATED PROTEIN KINASE; NANOPARTICLE; PACLITAXEL; PHOSPHATIDYLINOSITOL 3 KINASE; POLYMER; POLYMERSOME; QUANTUM DOT; SILICON DIOXIDE; SMALL INTERFERING RNA; TEMOZOLOMIDE; UNCLASSIFIED DRUG; UNINDEXED DRUG; VASCULOTROPIN; VINBLASTINE; VINCRISTINE;

ADVANCED MELANOMA; ALLERGIC REACTION; ALOPECIA; ANEMIA; BIOCOMPATIBILITY; BIODEGRADABILITY; BIODEGRADATION; BREAST CANCER; CANCER CHEMOTHERAPY; CANCER COMBINATION CHEMOTHERAPY; CANCER DIAGNOSIS; CARDIOTOXICITY; DRUG ACCUMULATION; DRUG COST; DRUG DELIVERY SYSTEM; DRUG DETOXIFICATION; DRUG EFFICACY; DRUG ERUPTION; DRUG HALF LIFE; DRUG POTENCY; DRUG SAFETY; DRUG SOLUBILITY; DRUG STABILITY; DRUG TOXICITY; DRUG WITHDRAWAL; EARLY DIAGNOSIS; FATIGUE; HAND FOOT SYNDROME; HUMAN; IMMUNOGENICITY; IMMUNOTHERAPY; INFLAMMATION; MELANOMA; METASTASIS; MOLECULARLY TARGETED THERAPY; NANOENCAPSULATION; NANOMEDICINE; NANOTECHNOLOGY; NAUSEA; NEUROPATHY; NEUTROPENIA; NONHUMAN; PAIN; PERCEPTION DEAFNESS; PHOTODYNAMIC THERAPY; PROTEIN TARGETING; REVIEW; SIDE EFFECT; SIGNAL TRANSDUCTION; SKIN REDNESS; SURFACE CHARGE; SWELLING; THERANOSTIC NANOMEDICINE; THROMBOCYTOPENIA; TOXICITY; VOMITING;

EARLY DETECTION; METASTASIS; NANOPARTICLE-DELIVERED; PI3K/AKT;

ANIMALS; BIOMEDICAL RESEARCH; DRUG DELIVERY SYSTEMS; HUMANS; IMMUNOTHERAPY; MELANOMA; MOLECULAR IMAGING; NANOMEDICINE; NANOPARTICLES; PHOTOCHEMOTHERAPY;

EID: 84880754766     PISSN: 11769114     EISSN: 11782013     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.2147/IJN.S45429     Document Type: Review

References (129)

1. Siegel R, DeSantis C, Virgo K, et al. Cancer treatment and survivorship statistics, 2012. CA Cancer J Clin. 2012;62(4):220-241.
2. Siegel R, Naishadham D, Jemal A. Cancer statistics, 2012. CA Cancer J Clin. 2012;62(1):10-29.
3. Jerant AF, Johnson JT, Sheridan CD, Caffrey TJ. Early detection and treatment of skin cancer. Am Fam Physician. 2000;62(2):357-368.
4. American Cancer Society [homepage on the Internet]. Skin cancer facts. Available from: http://www.cancer.org/cancer/cancercauses/sunanduvexposure/skin-cancer-facts. Accessed June 5, 2013.
5. Zitelli JA, Mohs FE, Larson P, Snow S. Mohs micrographic surgery for melanoma. Dermatol Clin. 1989;7(4):833-843.
6. Boyle GM. Therapy for metastatic melanoma: an overview and update. Expert Rev Anticancer Ther. 2011;11(5):725-737.
7. Katipamula R, Markovic SN. Emerging therapies for melanoma. Expert Rev Anticancer Ther. 2008;8(4):553-560.
8. Khan KH, Goody RB, Hameed H, Jalil A, Coyle VM, McAleer JJ. Metastatic melanoma: a regional review and future directions. Tumori. 2012;98(5):575-580.
9. Eigentler TK, Caroli UM, Radny P, Garbe C. Palliative therapy of disseminated malignant melanoma: a systematic review of 41 randomised clinical trials. Lancet Oncol. 2003;4(12):748-759.
10. Serrone L, Zeuli M, Sega FM, Cognetti F. Dacarbazine-based chemotherapy for metastatic melanoma: thirty-year experience overview. J Exp Clin Cancer Res. 2000;19(1):21-34.
11. Brose MS, Volpe P, Feldman M, et al. BRAF and RAS mutations in human lung cancer and melanoma. Cancer Res. 2002;62(23):6997-7000.
12. Davies H, Bignell GR, Cox C, et al. Mutations of the BRAF gene in human cancer. Nature. 2002;417(6892):949-954.
13. Falkson CI, Ibrahim J, Kirkwood JM, Coates AS, Atkins MB, Blum RH. Phase III trial of dacarbazine versus dacarbazine with interferon alpha-2b versus dacarbazine with tamoxifen versus dacarbazine with interferon alpha-2b and tamoxifen in patients with metastatic malignant melanoma: an Eastern Cooperative Oncology Group study. J Clin Oncol. 1998;16(5):1743-1751.
14. Atkins MB, Hsu J, Lee S, et al; Eastern Cooperative Oncology Group. Phase III trial comparing concurrent biochemotherapy with cisplatin, vinblastine, dacarbazine, interleukin-2, and interferon alfa-2b with cisplatin, vinblastine, and dacarbazine alone in patients with metastatic malignant melanoma (E3695): a trial coordinated by the Eastern Cooperative Oncology Group. J Clin Oncol. 2008;26(35):5748-5754.
15. Sharma A, Sharma AK, Madhunapantula SV, et al. Targeting Akt3 signaling in malignant melanoma using isoselenocyanates. Clin Cancer Res. 2009;15(5):1674-1685.
16. Bei D, Meng J, Youan BB. Engineering nanomedicines for improved melanoma therapy: progress and promises. Nanomedicine (Lond). 2010;5(9):1385-1399.
17. Pacheco I, Buzea C, Tron V. Towards new therapeutic approaches for malignant melanoma. Expert Rev Mol Med. 2011;13:e33.
18. Tran MA, Watts RJ, Robertson GP. Use of liposomes as drug delivery vehicles for treatment of melanoma. Pigment Cell Melanoma Res. 2009;22(4):388-399.
19. Langer R. Drug delivery and targeting. Nature. 1998;392(6679 Suppl): S5-S10.
20. Duncan R. The dawning era of polymer therapeutics. Nat Rev Drug Discov. 2003;2(5):347-360.
21. Prabhakar U, Maeda H, Jain RK, et al. Challenges and key considerations of the enhanced permeability and retention effect for nanomedicine drug delivery in oncology. Cancer Res. 2013;73(8):2412-2417.
22. Gabizon A, Catane R, Uziely B, et al. Prolonged circulation time and enhanced accumulation in malignant exudates of doxorubicin encapsulated in polyethylene-glycol coated liposomes. Cancer Res. 1994;54(4):987-992.
23. Moghimi SM, Hunter AC. Capture of stealth nanoparticles by the body's defences. Crit Rev Ther Drug Carrier Syst. 2001;18(6):527-550.
24. Prabhu P, Patravale V. The upcoming field of theranostic nanomedicine: an overview. J Biomed Nanotechnol. 2012;8(6):859-882.
25. Sharifi S, Behzadi S, Laurent S, Forrest ML, Stroeve P, Mahmoudi M. Toxicity of nanomaterials. Chem Soc Rev. 2012;41(6):2323-2343.
26. Liao J, Wang C, Wang Y, Luo F, Qian Z. Recent advances in formation, properties, and applications of polymersomes. Curr Pharm Des. 2012;18(23):3432-3441.
27. Bangham AD. A correlation between surface charge and coagulant action of phospholipids. Nature. 1961;192:1197-1198.
28. Olson F, Hunt CA, Szoka FC, Vail WJ, Papahadjopoulos D. Preparation of liposomes of defined size distribution by extrusion through polycarbonate membranes. Biochim Biophys Acta. 1979;557(1):9-23.
29. Sawant RR, Torchilin VP. Challenges in development of targeted liposomal therapeutics. Aaps J. 2012;14(2):303-315.
30. Al-Jamal WT, Al-Jamal KT, Bomans PH, Frederik PM, Kostarelos K. Functionalized-quantum-dot-liposome hybrids as multimodal nanoparticles for cancer. Small. 2008;4(9):1406-1415.
31. Pearson RM, Sunoqrot S, Hsu HJ, Bae JW, Hong S. Dendritic nanoparticles: the next generation of nanocarriers? Ther Deliv. 2012;3(8):941-959.
32. Schilrreff P, Mundiña-Weilenmann C, Romero EL, Morilla MJ. Selective cytotoxicity of PAMAM G5 core-PAMAM G2.5 shell tecto-dendrimers on melanoma cells. Int J Nanomedicine. 2012;7:4121-4133.
33. Rastogi R, Anand S, Koul V. Flexible polymerosomes-an alternative vehicle for topical delivery. Colloids Surf B Biointerfaces. 2009;72(1): 161-166.
34. Discher BM, Won YY, Ege DS, et al. Polymersomes: tough vesicles made from diblock copolymers. Science. 1999;284(5417):1143-1146.
35. Christian DA, Cai S, Bowen DM, Kim Y, Pajerowski JD, Discher DE. Polymersome carriers: from self-assembly to siRNA and protein therapeutics. Eur J Pharm Biopharm. 2009;71(3):463-474.
36. Pegoraro C, Cecchin D, Gracia LS, et al. Enhanced drug delivery to melanoma cells using PMPC-PDPA polymersomes. Cancer Lett. Epub February 10, 2013.
37. Anilkumar P, Lu F, Cao L, et al. Fullerenes for applications in biology and medicine. Curr Med Chem. 2011;18(14):2045-2059.
38. Chaudhuri P, Soni S, Sengupta S. Single-walled carbon nanotube-conjugated chemotherapy exhibits increased therapeutic index in melanoma. Nanotechnology. 2010;21(2):025102.
39. Yu M, Jambhrunkar S, Thorn P, Chen J, Gu W, Yu C. Hyaluronic acid modified mesoporous silica nanoparticles for targeted drug delivery to CD44-overexpressing cancer cells. Nanoscale. 2013;5(1):178-183.
40. Oh JM, Park DH, Choi SJ, Choy JH. LDH nanocontainers as bio-reservoirs and drug delivery carriers. Recent Pat Nanotechnol. 2012;6(3):200-217.
41. Li A, Qin L, Wang W, et al. The use of layered double hydroxides as DNA vaccine delivery vector for enhancement of anti-melanoma immune response. Biomaterials. 2011;32(2):469-477.
42. Vannucci L, Falvo E, Fornara M, et al. Selective targeting of melanoma by PEG-masked protein-based multifunctional nanoparticles. Int J Nanomedicine. 2012;7:1489-1509.
43. Vader P, Fens MH, Sachini N, et al. Taxol(®)-induced phosphatidylserine exposure and microvesicle formation in red blood cells is mediated by its vehicle Cremophor(®) EL. Nanomedicine (Lond). Epub February 5, 2013.
44. Montana M, Ducros C, Verhaeghe P, Terme T, Vanelle P, Rathelot P. Albumin-bound paclitaxel: the benefit of this new formulation in the treatment of various cancers. J Chemother. 2011;23(2):59-66.
45. Hersh EM, O'Day SJ, Ribas A, et al. A phase 2 clinical trial of nab-paclitaxel in previously treated and chemotherapy-naive patients with metastatic melanoma. Cancer. 2010;116(1):155-163.
46. Feng Z, Zhao G, Yu L, Gough D, Howell SB. Preclinical efficacy studies of a novel nanoparticle-based formulation of paclitaxel that out-performs Abraxane. Cancer Chemother Pharmacol. 2010;65(5):923-930.
47. Vanneman M, Dranoff G. Combining immunotherapy and targeted therapies in cancer treatment. Nat Rev Cancer. 2012;12(4):237-251.
48. Zhang X, Chibli H, Kong D, Nadeau J. Comparative cytotoxicity of gold-doxorubicin and InP-doxorubicin conjugates. Nanotechnology. 2012;23(27):275103.
49. Lo Prete AC, Maria DA, Rodrigues DG, Valduga CJ, Ibañez OC, Maranhão RC. Evaluation in melanoma-bearing mice of an etoposide derivative associated to a cholesterol-rich nano-emulsion. J Pharm Pharmacol. 2006;58(6):801-808.
50. Ndinguri MW, Zheleznyak A, Lauer JL, Anderson CJ, Fields GB. Application of collagen-model triple-helical peptide-amphiphiles for CD44-Targeted drug delivery systems. J Drug Deliv. 2012;2012:592602.
51. Kottschade LA, Suman VJ, Amatruda T 3rd, et al. A phase II trial of nab-paclitaxel (ABI-007) and carboplatin in patients with unresectable stage IV melanoma: a North Central Cancer Treatment Group Study, N057E(1). Cancer. 2011;117(8):1704-1710.
52. Kottschade LA, Suman VJ, Perez DG, et al. A randomized phase 2 study of temozolomide and bevacizumab or nab-paclitaxel, carboplatin, and bevacizumab in patients with unresectable stage IV melanoma: a North Central Cancer Treatment Group study, N0775. Cancer. 2013;119(3):586-592.
53. Ott PA, Chang J, Madden K, et al. Oblimersen in combination with temozolomide and albumin-bound paclitaxel in patients with advanced melanoma: a phase I trial. Cancer Chemother Pharmacol. 2013;71(1):183-191.
54. Chen J. Targeted therapy of obesity-associated colon cancer. Transl Gastrointest Cancer. 2012;1(1):44-57.
55. Inamdar GS, Madhunapantula SV, Robertson GP. Targeting the MAPK pathway in melanoma: why some approaches succeed and other fail. Biochemical Pharmacol. 2010;80(5):624-637.
56. Chen J, Huang XF, Qiao L, Katsifis A. Insulin caused drug resistance to oxaliplatin in colon cancer cell line HT29. J Gastrointest Oncol. 2011;2:27-33.
57. Li Y, South T, Han M, Chen J, Wang R, Huang XF. High-fat diet decreases tyrosine hydroxylase mRNA expression irrespective of obesity susceptibility in mice. Brain Res. 2009;1268:181-189.
58. Chen J. Multiple signal pathways in obesity-associated cancer. Obes Rev. 2011;12(12):1063-1070.
59. Chen J, Wang MB. The roles of miRNA-143 in colon cancer and therapeutic implications. Transl Gastrointest Cancer. 2012;1(2): 169-174.
60. Chen J. Prevention of obesity-associated colon cancer by (-)-epigallocatechin-3 gallate and curcumin. Transl Gastrointest Cancer. 2012;1(3):243-249.
61. Dhomen N, Da Rocha Dias S, Hayward R, et al. Inducible expression of (V600E) Braf using tyrosinase-driven Cre recombinase results in embryonic lethality. Pigment Cell Melanoma Res. 2010;23(1):112-120.
62. Dhomen N, Reis-Filho JS, da Rocha Dias S, et al. Oncogenic Braf induces melanocyte senescence and melanoma in mice. Cancer Cell. 2009;15(4):294-303.
63. Maldonado JL, Fridlyand J, Patel H, et al. Determinants of BRAF mutations in primary melanomas. J Natl Cancer Inst. 2003;95(24): 1878-1890.
64. Cheung M, Sharma A, Madhunapantula SV, Robertson GP. Akt3 and mutant V600E B-Raf cooperate to promote early melanoma development. Cancer Res. 2008;68(9):3429-3439.
65. Chen J, McMillan N, Gu W. Intra-tumor injection of lentiviral-vector delivered shRNA targeting human papillomavirus E6 and E7 oncogenes reduces tumor growth in a xenograft cervical cancer model in mice. Journal of Solid Tumors. 2012;2(4):4-10.
66. Meier F, Busch S, Lasithiotakis K, et al. Combined targeting of MAPK and AKT signalling pathways is a promising strategy for melanoma treatment. Br J Dermatol. 2007;156(6):1204-1213.
67. Basu S, Harfouche R, Soni S, Chimote G, Mashelkar RA, Sengupta S. Nanoparticle-mediated targeting of MAPK signaling predisposes tumor to chemotherapy. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A. 2009;106(19): 7957-7961.
68. Yang Y, Liu X, Zhang D, et al. Chitosan/VEGF-sIRNA nanoparticle for gene silencing. J Control Release. 2011;152 Suppl 1:e160-e161.
69. Yin D, Li Y, Lin H, et al. Functional graphene oxide as a plasmid-based Stat3 siRNA carrier inhibits mouse malignant melanoma growth in vivo. Nanotechnology. 2013;24(10):105102.
70. Xie TX, Huang FJ, Aldape KD, et al. Activation of stat3 in human melanoma promotes brain metastasis. Cancer Res. 2006;66(6):3188-3196.
71. Kong LY, Gelbard A, Wei J, et al. Inhibition of p-STAT3 enhances IFN-alpha efficacy against metastatic melanoma in a murine model. Clin Cancer Res. 2010;16(9):2550-2561.
72. Chen Y, Bathula SR, Yang Q, Huang L. Targeted nanoparticles deliver siRNA to melanoma. J Invest Dermatol. 2010;130(12):2790-2798.
73. Tran MA, Gowda R, Sharma A, et al. Targeting V600EB-Raf and Akt3 using nanoliposomal-small interfering RNA inhibits cutaneous melanocytic lesion development. Cancer Res. 2008;68(18):7638-7649.
74. Hocker TL, Singh MK, Tsao H. Melanoma genetics and therapeutic approaches in the 21st century: moving from the benchside to the bedside. J Invest Dermatol. 2008;128(11):2575-2595.
75. Hersey P, Zhang XD. Treatment combinations targeting apoptosis to improve immunotherapy of melanoma. Cancer Immunol Immunother. 2009;58(11):1749-1759.
76. Reuland SN, Goldstein NB, Partyka KA, et al. ABT-737 synergizes with Bortezomib to kill melanoma cells. Biol Open. 2012;1(2):92-100.
77. Benimetskaya L, Ayyanar K, Kornblum N, et al. Bcl-2 protein in 518A2 melanoma cells in vivo and in vitro. Clin Cancer Res. 2006;12(16):4940-4948.
78. Bedikian AY, Millward M, Pehamberger H, et al. Bcl-2 antisense (oblimersen sodium) plus dacarbazine in patients with advanced melanoma: the Oblimersen Melanoma Study Group. J Clin Oncol. 2006;24(29):4738-4745.
79. Beloor J, Choi CS, Nam HY, et al. Arginine-engrafted biodegradable polymer for the systemic delivery of therapeutic siRNA. Biomaterials. 2012;33(5):1640-1650.
80. Poust JC, Woolery JE, Green MR. Management of toxicities associated with high-dose interleukin-2 and biochemotherapy. Anticancer Drugs. 2013;24(1):1-13.
81. Keilholz U, Eggermont AM. The role of interleukin-2 in the management of stage IV melanoma: the EORTC melanoma cooperative group program. Cancer J Sci Am. 2000;6 Suppl 1:S99-S103.
82. Jha G, Miller JS, Curtsinger JM, Zhang Y, Mescher MF, Dudek AZ. Randomized Phase II study of IL-2 with or without an allogeneic large multivalent immunogen vaccine for the treatment of stage IV melanoma. Am J Clin Oncol. Epub December 13, 2012.
83. Schadendorf D, Vaubel J, Livingstone E, Zimmer L. Advances and perspectives in immunotherapy of melanoma. Ann Oncol. 2012;23 Suppl 10:x104-x108.
84. Mackiewicz-Wysocka M, Zolnierek J, Wysocki PJ. New therapeutic options in systemic treatment of advanced cutaneous melanoma. Expert Opin Investig Drugs. 2013;22(2):181-190.
85. Zhang Z, Tongchusak S, Mizukami Y, et al. Induction of anti-tumor cytotoxic T cell responses through PLGA-nanoparticle mediated antigen delivery. Biomaterials. 2011;32(14):3666-3678.
86. Perche F, Benvegnu T, Berchel M, et al. Enhancement of dendritic cells transfection in vivo and of vaccination against B16F10 melanoma with mannosylated histidylated lipopolyplexes loaded with tumor antigen messenger RNA. Nanomedicine. 2011;7(4):445-453.
87. Yao H, Ng SS, Huo LF, et al. Effective melanoma immunotherapy with interleukin-2 delivered by a novel polymeric nanoparticle. Mol Cancer Ther. 2011;10(6):1082-1092.
88. He H, Grignol V, Karpa V, et al. Use of a nanoporous biodegradable miniature device to regulate cytokine release for cancer treatment. J Control Release. 2011;151(3):239-245.
89. Speiser DE, Schwarz K, Baumgaertner P, et al. Memory and effector CD8 T-cell responses after nanoparticle vaccination of melanoma patients. J Immunother. 2010;33(8):848-858.
90. Stone GW, Barzee S, Snarsky V, et al. Nanoparticle-delivered multimeric soluble CD40L DNA combined with Toll-Like Receptor agonists as a treatment for melanoma. PLoS One. 2009;4(10):e7334.
91. Goldinger SM, Dummer R, Baumgaertner P, et al. Nano-particle vaccination combined with TLR-7 and-9 ligands triggers memory and effector CD8(+) T-cell responses in melanoma patients. Eur J Immunol. 2012;42(11):3049-3061.
92. Baldea I, Filip AG. Photodynamic therapy in melanoma-an update. J Physiol Pharmacol. 2012;63(2):109-118.
93. Camerin M, Magaraggia M, Soncin M, et al. The in vivo efficacy of phthalocyanine-nanoparticle conjugates for the photodynamic therapy of amelanotic melanoma. Eur J Cancer. 2010;46(10):1910-1918.
94. Idris NM, Gnanasammandhan MK, Zhang J, Ho PC, Mahendran R, Zhang Y. In vivo photodynamic therapy using upconversion nanoparticles as remote-controlled nanotransducers. Nat Med. 2012;18(10):1580-1585.
95. Sato M, Yamashita T, Ohkura M, et al. N-propionyl-cysteaminylphenol-magnetite conjugate (NPrCAP/M) is a nanoparticle for the targeted growth suppression of melanoma cells. J Invest Dermatol. 2009;129(9): 2233-2241.
96. de Souza FF, dos Santos MC, dos Passos DC, Lima EC, Guillo LA. Curcumin associated magnetite nanoparticles inhibit in vitro melanoma cell growth. J Nanosci Nanotechnol. 2011;11(9):7603-7610.
97. Chen J, Raymond K. Roles of rifampicin in drug-drug interactions: underlying molecular mechanisms involving the nuclear pregnane X receptor. Ann Clin Microbiol Antimicrob. 2006;5:3.
98. Chen J, Raymond K. Nuclear receptors, bile-acid detoxification, and cholestasis. Lancet. 2006;367(9509):454-456.
99. Dong X, Mattingly CA, Tseng MT, et al. Doxorubicin and paclitaxel-loaded lipid-based nanoparticles overcome multidrug resistance by inhibiting P-glycoprotein and depleting ATP. Cancer Res. 2009;69(9): 3918-3926.
100. Meng H, Mai WX, Zhang H, et al. Codelivery of an optimal drug/siRNA combination using mesoporous silica nanoparticles to overcome drug resistance in breast cancer in vitro and in vivo. ACS Nano. 2013;7(2):994-1005.
101. Ahlgrimm-Siess V, Laimer M, Arzberger E, Hofmann-Wellenhof R. New diagnostics for melanoma detection: from artificial intelligence to RNA microarrays. Future Oncol. 2012;8(7):819-827.
102. Ferris LK, Harris RJ. New diagnostic aids for melanoma. Dermatol Clin. 2012;30(3):535-545.
103. Cooper C, Sorrell J, Gerami P. Update in molecular diagnostics in melanocytic neoplasms. Adv Anat Pathol. 2012;19(6):410-416.
104. Joyce CW, Murphy IG, Rafferty M, Ryan D, McDermott EW, Gallagher WM. Tumor profiling using protein biomarker panels in malignant melanoma: application of tissue microarrays and beyond. Expert Rev Proteomics. 2012;9(4):415-423.
105. Michalet X, Pinaud FF, Bentolila LA, et al. Quantum dots for live cells, in vivo imaging, and diagnostics. Science. 2005;307(5709):538-544.
106. Kim MJ, Lee JY, Nehrbass U, Song R, Choi Y. Detection of melanoma using antibody-conjugated quantum dots in a coculture model for high-throughput screening system. Analyst. 2012;137(6):1440-1445.
107. Morosini V, Bastogne T, Frochot C, et al. Quantum dot-folic acid conjugates as potential photosensitizers in photodynamic therapy of cancer. Photochem Photobiol Sci. 2011;10(5):842-851.
108. Zheng H, Chen G, DeLouise LA, Lou Z. Detection of the cancer marker CD146 expression in melanoma cells with semiconductor quantum dot label. J Biomed Nanotechnol. 2010;6(4):303-311.
109. Fecher LA, Cummings SD, Keefe MJ, Alani RM. Toward a molecular classification of melanoma. J Clin Oncol. 2007;25(12):1606-1620.
110. Ong FS, Das K, Wang J, et al. Personalized medicine and pharmacogenetic biomarkers: progress in molecular oncology testing. Expert Rev Mol Diagn. 2012;12(6):593-602.
111. Yang H, Higgins B, Kolinsky K, et al. Antitumor activity of BRAF inhibitor vemurafenib in preclinical models of BRAF-mutant colorectal cancer. Cancer Res. 2012;72(3):779-789.
112. Bollag G, Tsai J, Zhang J, et al. Vemurafenib: the first drug approved for BRAF-mutant cancer. Nat Rev Drug Discov. 2012;11(11):873-886.
113. Huber F, Lang HP, Backmann N, Rimoldi D, Gerber CH. Direct detection of a BRAF mutation in total RNA from melanoma cells using cantilever arrays. Nat Nanotechnol. 2013;8(2):125-129.
114. Boswell CA, Eck PK, Regino CA, et al. Synthesis, characterization, and biological evaluation of integrin alphavbeta3-targeted PAMAM dendrimers. Mol Pharm. 2008;5(4):527-539.
115. Wang LS, Chuang MC, Ho JA. Nanotheranostics-a review of recent publications. Int J Nanomedicine. 2012;7:4679-4695.
116. Luk BT, Fang RH, Zhang L. Lipid-and polymer-based nanostructures for cancer theranostics. Theranostics. 2012;2(12):1117-1126.
117. Fraix A, Kandoth N, Manet I, et al. An engineered nanoplatform for bimodal anticancer phototherapy with dual-color fluorescence detection of sensitizers. Chem Commun (Camb). 2013;49(40):4459-4461.
118. Ma M, Hao Y, Liu N, et al. A novel lipid-based nanomicelle of docetaxel: evaluation of antitumor activity and biodistribution. Int J Nanomedicine. 2012;7:3389-3398.
119. Fonkem E, Uhlmann EJ, Floyd SR, et al. Melanoma brain metastasis: overview of current management and emerging targeted therapies. Expert Rev Neurother. 2012;12(10):1207-1215.
120. Scully OJ, Bay BH, Yip G, Yu Y. Breast cancer metastasis. Cancer Genomics Proteomics. 2012;9(5):311-320.
121. Trapé AP, Gonzalez-Angulo AM. Breast cancer and metastasis: on the way toward individualized therapy. Cancer Genomics Proteomics. 2012;9(5):297-310.
122. Chen J. Is Src the key to understanding metastasis and developing new treatments for colon cancer? Nat Clin Pract Gastroenterol Hepatol. 2008;5(6):306-307.
123. Cranmer LD, Trevor KT, Bandlamuri S, Hersh EM. Rodent models of brain metastasis in melanoma. Melanoma Res. 2005;15(5):325-356.
124. Kusters B, de Waal RM, Wesseling P, et al. Differential effects of vascular endothelial growth factor A isoforms in a mouse brain metastasis model of human melanoma. Cancer Res. 2003;63(17):5408-5413.
125. Sundstrøm T, Daphu I, Wendelbo I, et al. Automated tracking of nanoparticle-labeled melanoma cells improves the predictive power of a brain metastasis model. Cancer Res. 2013;73(8):2445-2456.
126. Gottesman MM. Mechanisms of cancer drug resistance. Annu Rev Med. 2002;53:615-627.
127. Khdair A, Handa H, Mao G, Panyam J. Nanoparticle-mediated combination chemotherapy and photodynamic therapy overcomes tumor drug resistance in vitro. Eur J Pharm Biopharm. 2009;71(2): 214-222.
128. Tran MA, Smith CD, Kester M, Robertson GP. Combining nanoliposomal ceramide with sorafenib synergistically inhibits melanoma and breast cancer cell survival to decrease tumor development. Clin Cancer Res. 2008;14(11):3571-3581.
129. Guo P, Haque F, Hallahan B, Reif R, Li H. Uniqueness, advantages, challenges, solutions, and perspectives in therapeutics applying RNA nanotechnology. Nucleic Acid Ther. 2012;22(4):226-245.