Are Minority Children Disproportionately Represented in Early Intervention and Early Childhood Special Education?

Educational Researcher

Volumn 41, Issue 9, 2012, Pages 339-351

  Morgan, Paul L ^a   Farkas, George ^b   Hillemeier, Marianne M ^a   Maczuga, Steve ^a  

^a PENNSYLVANIA STATE UNIVERSITY   (United States)

^b UNIVERSITY OF CALIFORNIA   (United States)

Author keywords

at risk students; demography; early childhood; early intervention; educational policy; longitudinal studies; minorities; minority disproportionate representation; preschool; racial ethnic disparities; regression analyses; special education

Indexed keywords

EID: 84870861005     PISSN: 0013189X     EISSN: 1935102X     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.3102/0013189X12459678     Document Type: Article

References (85)

1. American Academy of Pediatrics. (2008). Recommendations for preventive pediatric health care. Retrieved from http://brightfutures.aap.org/pdfs/AAP%20Bright%20Futures%20Periodicity%20Sched%20101107.pdf.
2. Artiles A. J.,Rueda R.,Salazar J. J.,Higareda I.Within-group diversity in minority disproportionate representation: English language learners in urban school districts.Exceptional Children. 2005;71 (3): 283-300.
3. Aunola K.,Leskinen E.,Lerkkanen M.-K.,Nurmi J.-E.Developmental dynamics of math performance from preschool to Grade 2.Journal of Educational Psychology. 2004;96:699-713.
4. Bahr M. W.,Fuchs D.,Stecker P. M.,Fuchs L. S.Are teachers' perceptions of difficult-to teach students racially biased?.School Psychology Review. 1991;20 (4): 599-608.
5. Baroody A. J.,Lai M.-L.,Mix K. S.Handbook of Research on the Education of Young Children. Spodek B.Saracho O., ed. Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates; 2006:187-221.
6. Blanchett W. J.,Klingner J. K.,Harry B.The intersection of race, culture, language, and disability: Implications for urban education.Urban Education. 2009;44:389-409.
7. Bodovski K.,Farkas G.Mathematics growth in early elementary school: The roles of beginning knowledge, student engagement, and instruction.Elementary School Journal. 2007;108:115-130.
8. Catts H. W.,Fey M. E.,Tomblin J. B.,Zhang X. Y.A longitudinal investigation of reading outcomes in children with language impairments.Journal of Speech Language and Hearing Research. 2002;6:1142-1157.
9. Chen I. C.,Lee H. C.,Yeh G. C.,Lai C. H.,Chen S. C.The relationship between parental concerns and professional assessment in developmental delay in infants and children: A hospital-based study.Journal of the Chinese Medical Association. 2004;67:239-244.
10. Chen I. C.,Lin C. H.,Wen S. H.,Wu C. H.How effectively do parents discern their children's cognitive deficits at a preschool age?.Journal of the Chinese Medical Association. 2007;70:445-450.
11. ChernoffJ. J.FlanaganK. D.McPheeC.ParkJ. (2007). Preschool: First findings from the preschool follow-up of the Early Childhood Longitudinal Study, Birth Cohort (ECLS-B) (NCES 2008-025). Washington, DC: National Center for Education Statistics, Institute of Education Sciences, U.S. Department of Education. Retrieved from http://nces.ed.gov/help/orderinfo.asp.
12. Coll C. G.,Crnic K.,Lamberty G.,Wasik B. H.An integrative model for the study of developmental competencies in minority children.Child Development. 1996;67:1891-1914.
13. Coutinho M.,Oswald D. P.Disproportionate representation in special education: A synthesis and recommendations.Journal of Child and Family Studies. 2000;9:135-156.
14. Coutinho M. J.,Oswald D. P.,Best A. M.The influence of socio-demographics and gender on the disproportionate identification of minority students as learning disabled.Remedial and Special Education. 2002;23:49-59.
15. Danesco E. R.Parental beliefs on childhood disability: Insights on culture, child development, and intervention.International Journal of Disability, Development, and Education. 1997;44:41-52.
16. Delgado C. E. F.,Scott K. G.Comparison of referral rates for preschool children at risk for disabilities using information obtained from birth certificate records.Journal of Special Education. 2006;40:28-35.
17. Delgado C. E. F.,Vagi S. J.,Scott K. G.Early risk factors for speech and language impairments.Exceptionality. 2005;13:173-191.
18. Donovan M. S.,Cross C. T.Minority students in special and gifted education. Washington, DC: National Academy Press; 2002:.
19. Duncan G. J.,Ludwig J.,Magnuson K. A.Reducing poverty through preschool interventions.Future of Children. 2007;17:143-160.
20. Early Childhood Outcomes Center. (2011). Outcomes for children served through IEDA's Early Childhood Program. Retrieved from http://www.fpg.unc.edu/~eco/assets/pdfs/outcomesforchildrenfinal.pdf.
21. Farkas G.Racial disparities and discrimination in education: What do we know, how do we know it, and what do we need to know?.Teachers College Record. 2003;105:1119-1146.
22. Flores G.Devising, implementing, and evaluating successful interventions to eliminate racial/ethnic disparities in children's health and healthcare: Tips, pitfalls, and a research agenda.Pediatrics. 2009;124:214-223.
23. Flores G.,Abreu M.,Chaisson C. E.,Meyers A.,Sachdeva R. C.,Fernandez H., Santos-Guerrero I.A randomized trial of the effectiveness of community-based case management in insuring uninsured Latino children.Pediatrics. 2005;116:1433-1441.
24. Flores G.Technical report: Racial and ethnic disparities in health and health care of children.Pediatrics. 2010;125:979-1020.
25. ForanM. O. (2007). Representational status of minority students in special education in the state of Rhode Island (Unpublished doctoral dissertation). University of Rhode Island, Kingston.
26. Geary D. C.Mathematics and learning disabilities.Journal of Learning Disabilities. 2004;37:4-15.
27. Gersten R.,Jordan N. C.,Flojo J. R.Early identification and interventions for students with mathematics difficulties.Journal of Learning Disabilities. 2005;38:293-304.
28. Glascoe F. P.Using parents' concerns to detect and address developmental and behavioral problems.Journal of the Society of Pediatric Nurses. 1999;4:24-35.
29. Glascoe F. P.,Dworkin P. H.The role of parents in the detection of developmental and behavioral problems.Pediatrics. 1995;95 (6): 829-836.
30. Harry B.Restructuring the participation of African-American parents in special education.Exceptional Children. 1992;59 (2): 123-131.
31. Harry B.The disproportionate representation of minority students in special education: Theories and recommendations. Alexandria, VA: National Association of State Directors of Special Education; 1994:.
32. Harry B.,Arnaiz P.,Klingner J.,Sturges K.Schooling and the construction of identity among minority students in Spain and the United States.Journal of Special Education. 2008;42:15-25.
33. Harwell M.,LeBeau B.Student eligibility for free lunch as an SES measure in education research.Educational Researcher. 2010;39:120-131.
34. Hays D. G.,Prosek E. A.,McLeod A. L.A mixed methodological analysis of the role of culture in the clinical decision-making process.Journal of Counseling. 2010;88:114-121.
35. Hebbeler K.,Spiker D.,Bailey D.,Scarborough A.,Mallik S.,Simeonsson R., Nelson L.Early intervention for infants and toddlers with disabilities and their families: Participants, services, and outcomes. Final report of the National Early Intervention Longitudinal Study (NEILS). Menlo Park, CA: SRI International; 2007:.
36. Heckman J.,Grunewald R.,Reynolds A.The dollar and cents of investing early: Cost-benefit analysis in early care and education.Zero to Three. 2006;26:10-17.
37. Heckman J. J.,Moon S. H.,Pinto R.,Savelyev P. A.,Yavitz A. Q.The rate of return to the High Scope Perry Preschool Program.Journal of Public Economics. 2010;94:114-128.
38. Placing children in special education: A strategy for equity. Heller K. A.Holtzman W. H.Messick S., ed. Washington, DC: National Academy Press; 1982:.
39. Hibel J.,Farkas G.,Morgan P. L.Who is placed into special education?.Sociology of Education. 2010;83:312-332.
40. Hogan D. P.,Park J. M.Family factors and social support in the developmental outcomes of very low birthweight children.Clinical Perinatology. 2000;27:433-459.
41. Hosp J. L.,Reschly D. J.Referral rates for intervention or assessment: A meta-analysis of racial differences.Journal of Special Education. 2003;37:67-80.
42. Hosp J. L.,Reschly D. J.Disproportionate representation of minority students in special education: Academic, demographic, and economic predictors.Exceptional Children. 2004;70 (2): 185-99.
43. Johnson S.,Marlow N.,Wolke D.,Davidson L.,Marston L.,O'Hare A., Schulte J.Validation of a parent report measure of cognitive development in very preterm infants.Developmental Medicine and Child Neurology. 2004;46:389-397.
44. Johnson S.,Wolke D.,Marlow N.Developmental assessments of preterm infants at 2 years: Validity of parent reports.Developmental Medicine and Child Neurology. 2008;50:58-62.
45. Katusic S. K.,Colligan R. C.,Barbaresi W. J.,Schaid D. J.,Jacobsen S. J.Incidence of reading disability in a population-based birth cohort, 1976-1982, Rochester, Minn.Mayo Clinic Proceedings. 2001;76:1081-1092.
46. Mandell D. S.,Listerud J.,Levy S. E.,Pinto-Martin J. A.Race differences in the age at diagnosis among Medicaid-eligible children with autism.Journal of the American Academy of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry. 2002;41:1447-1453.
47. Mann E. A.,McCartney K.,Park J. M.Preschool predictors of the need for early remedial and special education services.Elementary School Journal. 2007;107:273-285.
48. Mannerkoski M. K.,Aberg L. E.,Auti T. H.,Hoikkala M.,Sarna S.,Heiskala H. J.Newborns at risk for special-education placement: A population-based study.European Journal of Pediatric Neurology. 2007;11:223-231.
49. Markowitz J.,Carlson E.,Frey W.,Riley J.,Shimshak A.,Heinzen H., Lee H.Preschoolers with disabilities, characteristics, services, and results: Wave 1 overview report from the Pre-elementary Education Longitudinal Study (PEELS). Washington, DC: U.S. Department of Education; 2006:.
50. Martin J. A.,Hamilton B. E.,Sutton P. D.,Ventura S. J.,Mathews T. J.,Osterman M. J.Births: final data for 2008.National Vital Statistics Report. 2010;59:3-71.
51. Martin S. L.,Ramey C. T.,Ramey S.The prevention of intellectual impairments in children of impoverished families: Findings of a randomized trial of educational daycare.American Journal of Public Health. 1990;80:844-847.
52. Mazzocco M. M. M.,Myers G. F.Complexities in identifying and defining mathematics learning disability in the primary school-age years.Annals of Dyslexia. 2003;53:218-253.
53. McCormick M. C.,Brooks-Gunn J.,Buka S. L.,Goldman J.,Yu J.,Salganik M., Casey P. H.Early intervention in low birth weight premature infants: Results at 18 years of age for the Infant Health and Development Program.Pediatrics. 2006;117:771-780.
54. Merrell K. W.Preschool and Kindergarten Behavior Scales. 2003). Preschool and Kindergarten Behavior Scales (2nd ed.). Austin, TX: Pro-Ed.Austin, TX: Pro-Ed; 2003:.
55. Merrell K. W.,Shinn M. R.Critical variables in the learning disabilities identification process.School Psychology Review. 1990;19 (1): 74-82.
56. Morgan P. L.,Frisco M.,Farkas G.,Hibel J.A propensity score matching analysis of the effects of special education.Journal of Special Education. 2010;43:236-254.
57. Najarian M.,Snow K.,Lennon J.,Kinsey S.Early Childhood Longitudinal Study, Birth Cohort (ECLS-B). Preschool-Kindergarten 2007 psychometric report. Washington, DC: National Center for Health Statistics, Institute of Education Sciences, U.S. Department of Education; 2010:.
58. National Education Association. (2007). Truth in labeling: Disproportionality in special education. Retrieved from http://www.nea.org/assets/docs/HE/EW-TruthinLabeling.pdf.
59. O'Hara J.Learning disabilities and ethnicity: Achieving cultural competence.Advances in Psychiatric Treatment. 2003;9:166-174.
60. Oswald D. P.,Coutinho M. J.,Best A. M.,Singh N. N.Ethnic representation in special education: The influence of school-related economic and demographic variables.Journal of Special Education. 1999;32:194-206.
61. Palfrey J. S.,Singer J. D.,Walker D. K.,Butler J. A.Early identification of children's special needs: A study in five metropolitan communities.Journal of Pediatrics. 1987;111:651-659.
62. Pastor P. N.,Reuben C. A.Racial and ethnic differences in ADHD and LD in young school-age children: Parental reports in the National Health Interview Survey.Public Health Report. 2005;120:383-392.
63. Pena E. D.,Fiestas C.Talking across cultures in early intervention: Finding common ground to meet children's communication needs.Perspectives on Culturally and Linguistically Diverse Populations. 2009;16:79-85.
64. Reynolds A. J.,Temple J. A.,Ou S.-R.,Arteaga I. A.,White B. A. B.School-based early childhood education and age-28 well-being: Effects by timing, dosage, and subgroups.Science. 2011;333:360-364.
65. Reynolds A. J.,Temple J. A.,Robertson D. L.,Mann E. A.Long-term effects of an early childhood intervention on educational achievement and juvenile arrest.Journal of the American Medical Association. 2001;285:2339-2346.
66. Reynolds A. J.,Temple J. A.,White B. A.,Ou S.-R.,Robertson D. L.Age 26 cost-benefit analysis of the Child-parent Center Early Education Program.Child Development. 2011;82:379-404.
67. Rosenberg S. A.,Zhang D.,Robinson C. C.Prevalence of developmental delay and participation in early intervention services for young children.Pediatrics. 2008;121:e1503-e1509.
68. Samson J. F.,Lesaux N. K.Language-minority learners in special education: Rates and predictors of identification for services.Journal of Learning Disabilities. 2009;42:148-162.
69. Scarborough A. A.,Spiker D.,Mallik S.,Hebbeler K. M.,Bailey D. B.,Simeonsson R. J.A national look at children and families entering early intervention.Exceptional Children. 2004;70 (4): 469-483.
70. Scarborough H. S.Very early language deficits in dyslexic children.Child Development. 1990;61 (6): 1728-1743.
71. Shi L.,Stevens G. D.Disparities in access to care and satisfaction among U.S. children: The roles of race/ethnicity and poverty status.Public Health Reports. 2005;120:431-441.
72. Skiba R. J.,Poloni-Staudinger L.,Simmons A. B.,Feggins-Azziz L. R.,Chung C.-G.Unproven links: Can poverty explain ethnic disproportionality in special education?.Journal of Special Education. 2005;39:130-144.
73. Skiba R. J.,Simmons A.,Ritter S.,Kohler K.,Henderson M.,Wu T.The context of minority disproportionality: Practitioner perspectives on special education referral.Teachers College Record. 2006;108:1424-1459.
74. Skiba R. J.,Simmons A. B.,Ritter S.,Gibb A. C.,Rausch M. K.,Cuadrado J.,Chung C.-G.Achieving equity in special education: History, status, and current challenges.Exceptional Children. 2008;74 (3): 264-288.
75. Skibbe L. E.,Grimm K. J.,Stanton-Chapman T. L.,Justice L. M.,Pence K. L.,Bowles R. P.Reading trajectories of children with language difficulties from preschool through fifth grade.Language, Speech, and Hearing Services in Schools. 2008;39:475-486.
76. Unequal treatment: Confronting racial and ethnic disparities in health care. Smedley B. D.Stith A. Y.Nelson A. R., ed. Washington, DC: National Academies Press; 2003:.
77. Annual report to Congress of the Office of Civil Rights: Fiscal Year 2007-2008. Washington, DC: Author; 2009:.
78. U.S. Department of Education (2011a). Fiscal year 2010 president's budget state tables for the U.S. Department of Education. Retrieved from http://www2.ed.gov/about/overview/budget/statetables/index.html#update.
79. U.S. Department of Education (2011b). Individuals with Disabilities Act data: State-level data files. Child count. Retrieved from http://www.ideadata.org/StateLevelFiles.asp.
80. 30th annual report to Congress on the implementation of the Individuals with Disabilities Education Act, 2008. Washington, DC: Author; 2011c:.
81. Waitoller F. R.,Artiles A. J.,Cheney D. A.The miner's canary: A review of overrepresentation research and explanations.Journal of Special Education. 2010;44:29-49.
82. Walker S. P.,Chang S. M.,Vera-Hernandez M.,Grantham-McGregor S.Early childhood stimulation benefits adult competence and reduces violent behavior.Pediatrics. 2011;127 (5): 849-857.
83. Weikart D. P.Changing early childhood development through educational intervention.Preventive Medicine. 1998;27:233-237.
84. Wise J. C.,Sevcik R. A.,Morris R. D.,Lovett M. W.,Wolf M.The relationship among receptive and expressive vocabulary, listening comprehension, pre-reading skills, word identification skills, and reading comprehension by children with reading disabilities.Journal of Speech Language Hearing Research. 2007;50:1093-1109.
85. Zigler E.,Taussing C.,Black K.Early childhood intervention: A promising preventative for juvenile delinquency.American Psychologist. 1992;47 (8): 997-1006.