Cholesterol and late-life cognitive decline

Journal of Alzheimer's Disease

Volumn 30, Issue SUPPL.2, 2012, Pages

  Van Vliet, Peter ^a  

^a LEIDEN UNIVERSITY MEDICAL CENTER   (Netherlands)

Author keywords

Amyloid ; cholesterol; cognitive function; dementia; statins

Indexed keywords

ABC TRANSPORTER A1; AMYLOID BETA PROTEIN; ATORVASTATIN; CHOLESTEROL; HIGH DENSITY LIPOPROTEIN CHOLESTEROL; HYDROXYMETHYLGLUTARYL COENZYME A REDUCTASE INHIBITOR; PRAVASTATIN; SIMVASTATIN;

AGE; ALZHEIMER DISEASE; BRAIN FUNCTION; CARDIOVASCULAR DISEASE; CELL MEMBRANE; CHOLESTEROL BLOOD LEVEL; CHOLESTEROL METABOLISM; DEMENTIA; DIETARY INTAKE; DRUG EFFECT; DSM-IV; FRONTAL CORTEX; GLIA CELL; HIGH RISK POPULATION; HUMAN; INFLAMMATION; MICROGLIA; MILD COGNITIVE IMPAIRMENT; NERVE CELL PLASTICITY; NEUROFIBRILLARY TANGLE; NEUROPSYCHOLOGICAL TEST; NONHUMAN; PRIORITY JOURNAL; PROTEIN AGGREGATION; RANDOMIZED CONTROLLED TRIAL (TOPIC); REGULATORY MECHANISM; REVIEW; RISK FACTOR; SENILE PLAQUE; SIGNAL TRANSDUCTION; SYNAPSE; TEMPORAL CORTEX; TREATMENT OUTCOME; WHITE MATTER;

EID: 84862997074     PISSN: 13872877     EISSN: 18758908     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.3233/JAD-2011-111028     Document Type: Review

References (121)

1. Notkola IL, Sulkava R, Pekkanen J, Erkinjuntti T, Ehn-holm C, Kivinen P, Tuomilehto J, Nissinen A (1998) Serum total cholesterol, apolipoprotein E epsilon 4 allele, and Alzheimer's disease. Neuroepidemiology 17, 14-20. (Pubitemid 28153361)
2. Kivipelto M, Helkala EL, Laakso MP, Hanninen T, Hal-likainen M, Alhainen K, Soininen H, Tuomilehto J, Nissinen A (2001) Midlife vascular risk factors and Alzheimer's disease in later life: Longitudinal, population based study. BMJ 322, 1447-1451. (Pubitemid 32575406)
3. Kivipelto M, Helkala EL, Hanninen T, Laakso MP, Hal-likainen M, Alhainen K, Soininen H, Tuomilehto J, Nissinen A (2001) Midlife vascular risk factors and late-life mild cognitive impairment: A population-based study. Neurology 56, 1683-1689. (Pubitemid 32574567)
4. Kivipelto M, Helkala EL, Laakso MP, Hanninen T, Hallikainen M, Alhainen K, Iivonen S, Mannermaa A, Tuomilehto J, Nissinen A, Soininen H (2002) Apolipopro-tein Eepsilon4 allele, elevated midlife total cholesterol level, and high midlife systolic blood pressure are independent risk factors for late-life Alzheimer disease. Ann Intern Med 137, 149-155. (Pubitemid 34827510)
5. Kivipelto M, Ngandu T, Fratiglioni L, Viitanen M, Kareholt I, Winblad B, Helkala EL, Tuomilehto J, Soininen H, Nissi-nen A (2005) Obesity and vascular risk factorsat midlife and the risk of dementia and Alzheimer disease. Arch Neurol 62, 1556-1560. (Pubitemid 41434560)
6. Whitmer RA, Sidney S, Selby J, Johnston SC, Yaffe K (2005) Midlife cardiovascular risk factors andriskofdemen-tia in late life. Neurology 64, 277-281.
7. Solomon A, Kareholt I, Ngandu T, Winblad B, Nissinen A, Tuomilehto J, Soininen H, Kivipelto M (2007) Serum cholesterol changes after midlife and late-life cognition: Twenty-one-year follow-up study. Neurology 68, 751-756. (Pubitemid 46667900)
8. Solomon A, Kareholt I, Ngandu T, Wolozin B, Macdonald SW, Winblad B, Nissinen A, Tuomilehto J, Soininen H, Kivipelto M (2009) Serum total cholesterol, statins and cognition in non-demented elderly. Neurobiol Aging 30, 1006-1009.
9. Solomon A, Kivipelto M, Wolozin B, Zhou J, Whitmer RA (2009) Midlife serum cholesterol and increased risk of Alzheimer's and vascular dementia three decades later. Dement Geriatr Cogn Disord 28, 75-80.
10. Beydoun MA, Beason-Held LL, Kitner-Triolo MH, Bey-doun HA, Ferrucci L, Resnick SM, Zonderman AB (2010) Statins and serum cholesterol's associations with incident dementia and mild cognitive impairment. J Epidemiol Community Health 65, 949-957.
11. Reynolds CA, Gatz M, Prince JA, Berg S, Pedersen NL (2010) Serum lipid levels and cognitive change in late life. J Am Geriatr Soc 58, 501-509.
12. Zambon D, Quintana M, Mata P, Alonso R, Benavent J, Cruz-Sanchez F, Gich J, Pocovi M, Civeira F, Capurro S, Bachman D, Sambamurti K, Nicholas J, Pappolla MA (2010) Higher incidence of mild cognitive impairment in familial hypercholesterolemia. Am J Med 123, 267-274.
13. Mielke MM, Zandi PP, Shao H, Waern M, Ostling S, Guo X, Bjorkelund C, Lissner L, Skoog I, Gustafson DR (2010) The 32-year relationship between cholesterol and dementia from midlife to late life. Neurology 75, 1888-1895.
14. Kuusisto J, Koivisto K, Mykkanen L, Helkala EL, Vanhanen M, Hanninen T, Kervinen K, Kesaniemi YA, Riekkinen PJ, Laakso M (1997) Associationbetween featuresofthe insulin resistance syndrome and Alzheimer's disease independently of apolipoprotein E4 phenotype: Cross sectional population based study. BMJ 315, 1045-1049. (Pubitemid 27458392)
15. Romas SN, Tang MX, Berglund L, Mayeux R (1999) APOE genotype, plasma lipids, lipoproteins, andADin community elderly. Neurology 53, 517-521. (Pubitemid 29382044)
16. Merched A, Xia Y, Visvikis S, Serot JM, Siest G (2000) Decreased high-density lipoprotein cholesterol and serum apolipoprotein AI concentrations are highly correlated with the severity of Alzheimer's disease. Neurobiol Aging 21, 27-30. (Pubitemid 30224782)
17. Tan ZS, Seshadri S, Beiser A, Wilson PW, Kiel DP, Tocco M, D'Agostino RB, Wolf PA (2003) Plasma total cholesterol levelasarisk factor for Alzheimer disease: The Framingham Study. Arch Intern Med 163, 1053-1057. (Pubitemid 36548931)
18. Reitz C, Tang MX, Luchsinger J, Mayeux R (2004) Relation of plasma lipidstoAlzheimer disease andvascular dementia. Arch Neurol 61, 705-714. (Pubitemid 38637688)
19. Mielke MM, Zandi PP, Sjogren M, Gustafson D, Ostling S, Steen B, Skoog I (2005) High total cholesterol levels in late life associated with a reduced risk of dementia. Neurology 64, 1689-1695. (Pubitemid 40695799)
20. Reitz C, Luchsinger J, Tang MX, Manly J, Mayeux R (2005) Impactof plasma lipids and timeonmemory performance in healthy elderly without dementia. Neurology64, 1378-1383. (Pubitemid 40570505)
21. Li G, Shofer JB, Kukull WA, Peskind ER, Tsuang DW, Breit-ner JC, McCormick W, Bowen JD, Teri L, Schellenberg GD, Larson EB (2005) Serum cholesterol and risk of Alzheimer disease: A community-based cohort study. Neurology 65, 1045-1050. (Pubitemid 41429629)
22. Reitz C, Tang MX, Manly J, Schupf N, Mayeux R, Luchsinger JA (2008) Plasma lipid levels in the elderly are not associated with the risk of mild cognitive impairment. Dement Geriatr Cogn Disord 25, 232-237. (Pubitemid 351363887)
23. van den Kommer TN, Dik MG, Comijs HC, Fassbender K, Lutjohann D, Jonker C (2009) Total cholesterol and oxysterols: Early markers for cognitive decline in elderly? Neurobiol Aging 30, 534-545.
24. Evans RM, Emsley CL, Gao S, Sahota A, Hall KS, Farlow MR, Hendrie H (2000) Serum cholesterol, APOE genotype, and the risk of Alzheimer's disease: A population-based study of African Americans. Neurology 54, 240-242. (Pubitemid 30038771)
25. Hall K, Murrell J, Ogunniyi A, Deeg M, Baiyewu O, Gao S, Gureje O, Dickens J, Evans R, Smith-Gamble V, Unverzagt FW, Shen J, Hendrie H (2006) Cholesterol, APOE genotype, and Alzheimer disease: An epidemiologic study of Nigerian Yoruba. Neurology 66, 223-227. (Pubitemid 43970158)
26. Yaffe K, Barrett-Connor E, Lin F, Grady D (2002) Serum lipoprotein levels, statin use, and cognitive function in older women. Arch Neurol 59, 378-384. (Pubitemid 34208144)
27. Abbott RD, Sharp DS, Burchfiel CM, Curb JD, Rodriguez BL, Hakim AA, Yano K (1997) Cross-sectional and longitudinal changes in total and high-density-lipoprotein cholesterol levels over a 20-year period in elderly men: The Honolulu Heart Program. Ann Epidemiol 7, 417-424.
28. van Vliet P, Oleksik AM, van Heemst D, de Craen AJ, Westendorp RG (2010) Dynamics of traditional metabolic risk factors associate with specific causes of death in old age. J Gerontol A Biol Sci Med Sci 65, 488-494.
29. van Vliet P, Westendorp RG, van Heemst D, de Craen AJ, Oleksik AM (2010) Cognitive decline precedes late-life longitudinal changes in vascular risk factors. J Neurol Neurosurg Psychiatry 81, 1028-1032.
30. Atzmon G, Gabriely I, Greiner W, Davidson D, Schechter C, Barzilai N (2002) Plasma HDL levels highly correlate with cognitive function in exceptional longevity. J Gerontol A Biol Sci Med Sci 57, M712-M715. (Pubitemid 35340550)
31. Bonarek M, Barberger-Gateau P, Letenneur L, Deschamps V, Iron A, Dubroca B, Dartigues JF (2000) Relationships between cholesterol, apolipoprotein E polymorphism and dementia: A cross-sectional analysis from the PAQUID study. Neuroepidemiology 19, 141-148. (Pubitemid 30146444)
32. Launer LJ, White LR, Petrovitch H, Ross GW, Curb JD (2001) Cholesterol and neuropathologic markers of AD: A population-based autopsy study. Neurology 57, 1447-1452. (Pubitemid 32995727)
33. van Exel E, de Craen AJ, Gussekloo J, Houx P, Bootsma-van der Wiel A, MacFarlane PW, Blauw GJ, Westendorp RG (2002) Association between high-density lipoprotein and cognitive impairment in the oldest old. Ann Neurol 51, 716-721. (Pubitemid 34568850)
34. Wolf H, Hensel A, Arendt T, Kivipelto M, Winblad B, Gertz HJ (2004) Serum lipids and hippocampal volume: The link to Alzheimer's disease? Ann Neurol 56, 745-748. (Pubitemid 39540761)
35. Reitz C, Tang MX, Schupf N, Manly JJ, Mayeux R, Luchsinger JA (2010) Association of higher levels of high-density lipoprotein cholesterol in elderly individuals and lower risk of late-onset Alzheimer disease. Arch Neurol 67, 1491-1497.
36. Henderson VW, Guthrie JR, Dennerstein L (2003) Serum lipids and memory in a population based cohort of middle age women. J Neurol Neurosurg Psychiatry 74, 1530-1555.
37. Li G, Shofer JB, Kukull WA, Peskind ER, Tsuang DW, Breit-ner JC, McCormick W, Bowen JD, Teri L, Schellenberg GD, Larson EB (2005) Serum cholesterol and risk of Alzheimer disease: A community-based cohort study. Neurology 65, 1045-1050. (Pubitemid 41429629)
38. Shepherd J, Blauw GJ, Murphy MB, Bollen EL, Buckley BM, Cobbe SM, Ford I, Gaw A, Hyland M, Jukema JW, Kamper AM, MacFarlane PW, Meinders AE, Norrie J, Packard CJ, Perry IJ, Stott DJ, Sweeney BJ, Twomey C, Westendorp RG (2002) Pravastatin in elderly individuals at risk of vascular disease (PROSPER) : A randomised controlled trial. Lancet 360, 1623-1630. (Pubitemid 35379733)
39. Heart Protection Study Collaborative, Group (2002) MRC/BHF Heart Protection Study of cholesterol lowering with simvastatin in 20, 536 high-risk individuals: A randomised placebo-controlled trial. Lancet 360, 7-22.
40. Rockwood K, Kirkland S, Hogan DB, MacKnight C, Merry H, Verreault R, Wolfson C, McDowell I (2002) Use of lipid-lowering agents, indication bias, and the risk of dementia in community-dwelling elderly people. Arch Neurol 59, 223-227. (Pubitemid 34240938)
41. Dufouil C, Richard F, Fievet N, Dartigues JF, Ritchie K, Tzourio C, Amouyel P, Alperovitch A (2005) APOE genotype, cholesterol level, lipid-lowering treatment, and dementia: The Three-City Study. Neurology 64, 1531-1538. (Pubitemid 40617688)
42. Benito-Leon J, Louis ED, Vega S, Bermejo-Pareja F (2010) Statins and cognitive functioning in the elderly: A population-based study. J Alzheimers Dis 21, 95-102.
43. Wolozin B, Wang SW, Li NC, Lee A, Lee TA, Kazis LE (2007) Simvastatin is associated with a reduced incidence of dementia and Parkinson's disease. BMC Med 5, 20.
44. Solomon A, Sippola R, Soininen H, Wolozin B, Tuomile-hto J, Laatikainen T, Kivipelto M (2010) Lipid-lowering treatment is related to decreased risk of dementia: A population-based study (FINRISK). Neurodegener Dis 7, 180-182.
45. Haag MD, Hofman A, Koudstaal PJ, Stricker BH, Breteler MM (2009) Statins are associated with a reduced risk of Alzheimer disease regardless of lipophilicity. The Rotterdam study. J Neurol Neurosurg Psychiatry 80, 13-17.
46. Li G, Higdon R, Kukull WA, Peskind E, Van Valen MK, Tsuang D, van Belle G, McCormick W, Bowen JD, Teri L, Schellenberg GD, Larson EB (2004) Statin therapy and risk of dementia in the elderly: A community-based prospective cohort study. Neurology 63, 1624-1628. (Pubitemid 39507579)
47. Rea TD, Breitner JC, Psaty BM, Fitzpatrick AL, Lopez OL, Newman AB, Hazzard WR, Zandi PP, Burke GL, Lyketsos CG, Bernick C, Kuller LH (2005) Statin use and the risk of incident dementia: The Cardiovascular Health Study. Arch Neurol 62, 1047-1051. (Pubitemid 41043724)
48. Zandi PP, Sparks DL, Khachaturian AS, Tschanz J, Norton M, Steinberg M, Welsh-Bohmer KA, Breitner JC (2005) Do statins reduce risk of incident dementia and Alzheimer disease? The Cache county study. Arch Gen Psychiatry 62, 217-224. (Pubitemid 40189139)
49. Feldman HH, Doody RS, Kivipelto M, Sparks DL, Waters DD, Jones RW, Schwam E, Schindler R, Hey-Hadavi J, DeMicco DA, Breazna A (2010) Randomized controlled trial of atorvastatin in mild to moderate Alzheimer disease: Leade. Neurology 74, 956-964.
50. Parale GP, Baheti NN, Kulkarni PM, Panchal NV (2006) Effects of atorvastatin on higher functions. Eur J Clin Pharmacol 62, 259-265.
51. Sparks DL, Sabbagh MN, Connor DJ, Lopez J, Launer LJ, Browne P, Wasser D, Johnson-Traver S, Lochhead J, Ziol-wolski C (2005) Atorvastatin for the treatment of mild to moderate Alzheimer disease: Preliminary results. Arch Neu-rol 62, 753-757. (Pubitemid 40656090)
52. Buxbaum JD, Geoghagen NS, Friedhoff LT (2001) Cholesterol depletion with physiological concentrations of a statin decreases the formation of the Alzheimer amyloid Abeta peptide. J Alzheimers Dis 3, 221-229. (Pubitemid 32566521)
53. Kirsch C, Eckert GP, Mueller WE (2003) Statin effects on cholesterol micro-domains in brain plasma membranes. Biochem Pharmacol 65, 843-856. (Pubitemid 36293701)
54. Roher AE, Esh C, Kokjohn TA, Kalback W, Luehrs DC, Seward JD, Sue LI, Beach TG (2003) Circle of willis atherosclerosis is a risk factor for sporadic Alzheimer's disease. Arterioscler Thromb Vasc Biol 23, 2055-2062. (Pubitemid 37433200)
55. Acanfora D, Trojano L, Iannuzzi GL, Furgi G, Picone C, Rengo C, Abete P, Rengo F (1996) The brain in congestive heart failure. Arch Gerontol Geriatr 23, 247-256. (Pubitemid 27033919)
56. Breteler MM, Claus JJ, Grobbee DE, Hofman A (1995) Cardiovascular disease and distribution of cognitive function in elderly people: The Rotterdam Study. BMJ 308, 1604-1608. (Pubitemid 24181869)
57. De Ronchi D, Palmer K, Pioggiosi P, Atti AR, Berardi D, Ferrari B, Dalmonte E, Fratiglioni L (2007) The combined effect of age, education, and stroke on dementia and cognitive impairment no dementia in the elderly. Dement Geriatr Cogn Disord 24, 266-273. (Pubitemid 47482073)
58. Elwood PC, Pickering J, Bayer A, Gallacher JE (2002) Vascular disease and cognitive function in older men in the Caerphilly cohort. Age Ageing 31, 43-48. (Pubitemid 34187751)
59. Butterfield DA, Barone E, Mancuso C (2011) Cholesterol-independent neuroprotective and neurotoxic activities of statins: Perspectives for statin use in Alzheimer disease and other age-related neurodegenerative disorders. Pharmacol Res 64, 180-186.
60. Dietschy JM, Turley SD (2001) Cholesterol metabolism in the brain. Curr Opin Lipidol 12, 105-112. (Pubitemid 32242918)
61. Dietschy JM, Turley SD (2004) Thematic review series: Brain Lipids. Cholesterol metabolism in the central nervous system during early development and in the mature animal. J Lipid Res 45, 1375-1397. (Pubitemid 39022664)
62. Dietschy JM (2009) Central nervous system: Cholesterol turnover, brain development and neurodegeneration. Biol Chem 390, 287-293.
63. Snipes GJ, Suter U (1997) Cholesterol and myelin. Subcell Biochem 28, 173-204.
64. Jurevics H, Morell P (1995) Cholesterol for synthesis of myelinismade locally, notimported into brain.J Neurochem 64, 895-901.
65. Fassbender K, Stroick M, Bertsch T, Ragoschke A, Kuehl S, Walter S, Walter J, Brechtel K, Muehlhauser F, Von BK, Lutjohann D (2002) Effects of statins on human cerebral cholesterol metabolism and secretion of Alzheimer amyloid peptide. Neurology 59, 1257-1258. (Pubitemid 35192402)
66. Saito M, Benson EP, Saito M, Rosenberg A (1987) Metabolism of cholesterol and triacylglycerol in cultured chick neuronal cells, glial cells, and fibroblasts: Accumulation of esterified cholesterol in serum-free culture. J Neurosci Res 18, 319-325. (Pubitemid 18016460)
67. Koudinov AR, Koudinova NV (2001) Essential role for cholesterol in synaptic plasticity and neuronal degeneration. FASEB J 15, 1858-1860.
68. Pfrieger FW (2003) Roleofcholesterolinsynapse formation and function. Biochim Biophys Acta 1610, 271-280.
69. Mauch DH, Nagler K, Schumacher S, Goritz C, Muller EC, Otto A, Pfrieger FW (2001) CNS synaptogenesis promoted by glia-derived cholesterol. Science 294, 1354-1357. (Pubitemid 33063104)
70. Pfrieger FW (2003) Outsourcing in the brain: Do neurons depend on cholesterol delivery by astrocytes? Bioessays 25, 72-78. (Pubitemid 36093328)
71. Pfrieger FW (2003) Cholesterol homeostasis and function in neurons of the central nervous system. Cell Mol Life Sci 60, 1158-1171. (Pubitemid 36791918)
72. Simons K, Toomre D (2000) Lipid rafts and signal trans-duction. Nat Rev Mol Cell Biol 1, 31-39.
73. Baulieu EE (1997) Neurosteroids: Of the nervous system, by the nervous system, for the nervous system. Recent Prog Horm Res 52, 1-32. (Pubitemid 127470204)
74. Tsutsui K, Ukena K, Usui M, Sakamoto H, Takase M (2000) Novel brain function: Biosynthesis and actions of neuros-teroids in neurons. Neurosci Res 36, 261-273. (Pubitemid 30193346)
75. Mellon SH, Vaudry H (2001) Biosynthesis of neurosteroids and regulation of their synthesis. Int Rev Neurobiol 46, 33-78. (Pubitemid 33798717)
76. Haines TH (2001) Dosterols reduceproton andsodium leaks through lipid bilayers? Prog Lipid Res 40, 299-324. (Pubitemid 32544960)
77. Bjorkhem I (2002) Do oxysterols control cholesterol home-ostasis? J Clin Invest 110, 725-730.
78. Bjorkhem I, Andersson U, Ellis E, Alvelius G, Ellegard L, Diczfalusy U, Sjovall J, Einarsson C (2001) From brain to bile. Evidence that conjugation and omega-hydroxylation are important for elimination of 24S-hydroxycholesterol (cerebrosterol) in humans. J Biol Chem 276, 37004-37010.
79. Bjorkhem I, Lutjohann D, Diczfalusy U, Stahle L, Ahlborg G, Wahren J (1998) Cholesterol homeostasisinhumanbrain: Turnover of 24S-hydroxycholesterol and evidence for a cerebral origin of most of this oxysterol in the circulation. J Lipid Res 39, 1594-1600. (Pubitemid 28377923)
80. Lutjohann D, Breuer O, Ahlborg G, Nennesmo I, Siden A, Diczfalusy U, Bjorkhem I (1996) Cholesterol homeostasis in human brain: Evidence for an age-dependent flux of 24S-hydroxycholesterol from the brain into the circulation. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A 93, 9799-9804. (Pubitemid 26296689)
81. Hayden MR, Clee SM, Brooks-Wilson A, Genest J Jr, Attie A, Kastelein JJ (2000) Cholesterol efflux regulatory protein, Tangier disease and familial high-density lipoprotein deficiency. Curr Opin Lipidol 11, 117-122. (Pubitemid 30219105)
82. Koldamova RP, Lefterov IM, Ikonomovic MD, Skoko J, Lefterov PI, Isanski BA, DeKosky ST, Lazo JS (2003) 22R-hydroxycholesterol and 9-cis-retinoic acid induce ATP-binding cassette transporter A1 expression and cholesterol efflux in brain cells and decrease amyloid beta secretion. J Biol Chem 278, 13244-13256. (Pubitemid 36800094)
83. Papassotiropoulos A, Lutjohann D, Bagli M, Locatelli S, Jessen F, Buschfort R, Ptok U, Bjorkhem I, Von BK, Heun R (2002) 24S-hydroxycholesterol in cerebrospinal fluid is elevated in early stages of dementia. J Psychiatr Res 36, 27-32. (Pubitemid 34037845)
84. Schonknecht P, Lutjohann D, Pantel J, Bardenheuer H, Hartmann T, Von BK, Beyreuther K, Schroder J (2002) Cerebrospinal fluid 24S-hydroxycholesterol is increased in patients with Alzheimer's disease compared to healthy controls. Neurosci Lett 324, 83-85. (Pubitemid 34442684)
85. Lutjohann D, Papassotiropoulos A, Bjorkhem I, Locatelli S, Bagli M, Oehring RD, Schlegel U, Jessen F, Rao ML, Von BK, Heun R (2000) Plasma 24S-hydroxycholesterol (cere- brosterol) is increased in Alzheimer and vascular demented patients. J Lipid Res 41, 195-198. (Pubitemid 30117859)
86. Kolsch H, Heun R, Kerksiek A, Bergmann KV, Maier W, Lutjohann D (2004) Altered levels of plasma 24S- and 27-hydroxycholesterol in demented patients. Neurosci Lett 368, 303-308. (Pubitemid 39214973)
87. Svennerholm L, Bostrom K, Jungbjer B, Olsson L (1994) Membrane lipids of adult human brain: Lipid composition of frontal and temporal lobe in subjects of age 20 to 100 years. J Neurochem 63, 1802-1811. (Pubitemid 24326224)
88. Kotti TJ, Ramirez DM, Pfeiffer BE, Huber KM, Russell DW (2006) Brain cholesterol turnover required for geranyl-geraniol production and learning in mice. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A 103, 3869-3674.
89. Wolozin B (2001) A fluid connection: Cholesterol and Abeta. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A 98, 5371-5373.
90. Dickson TC, Vickers JC (2001) The morphological phe-notype of beta-amyloid plaques and associated neuritic changes in Alzheimer's disease. Neuroscience 105, 99-107. (Pubitemid 32722097)
91. Sparks DL, Scheff SW, Hunsaker JC III, Liu H, Landers T, Gross DR (1994) Induction of Alzheimer-like beta-amyloid immunoreactivity in the brains of rabbits with dietary cholesterol. Exp Neurol 126, 88-94.
92. Shie FS, Jin LW, Cook DG, Leverenz JB, LeBoeuf RC (2002) Diet-induced hypercholesterolemia enhances brain A beta accumulation in transgenic mice. Neuroreport 13, 455-459. (Pubitemid 34293189)
93. Levin-Allerhand JA, Lominska CE, Smith JD (2002) Increased amyloid- levels in APPSWE transgenic mice treated chronically with a physiological high-fat high-cholesterol diet. J Nutr Health Aging 6, 315-319. (Pubitemid 36118979)
94. Refolo LM, Malester B, LaFrancois J, Bryant-Thomas T, Wang R, Tint GS, Sambamurti K, Duff K, Pappolla MA (2000) Hypercholesterolemia accelerates the Alzheimer's amyloid pathology in a transgenic mouse model. Neurobiol Dis 7, 321-331.
95. Kuo YM, Emmerling MR, Bisgaier CL, Essenburg AD, Lampert HC, Drumm D, Roher AE (1998) Elevated low-density lipoprotein in Alzheimer's disease correlates with brain abeta 1-42 levels. Biochem Biophys Res Commun 252, 711-715. (Pubitemid 28556841)
96. Bodovitz S, Klein WL (1996) Cholesterol modulates alpha-secretase cleavage of amyloid precursor protein. J Biol Chem 271, 4436-4440.
97. Cordy JM, Hussain I, Dingwall C, Hooper NM, Turner AJ (2003) Exclusively targeting beta-secretase to lipid rafts by GPI-anchor addition up-regulates beta-site processingofthe amyloid precursor protein. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A 100, 11735-11740. (Pubitemid 37206004)
98. Ehehalt R, Keller P, Haass C, Thiele C, Simons K (2003) Amyloidogenic processing of the Alzheimer beta-amyloid precursor protein depends on lipid rafts. J Cell Biol 160, 113-123. (Pubitemid 36091721)
99. Koudinov AR, Koudinova NV, Berezov TT (1996) Alzheimer's peptides A beta 1-40 and A beta 1-28 inhibit the plasma cholesterol esterification rate. Biochem Mol Biol Int 38, 747-752. (Pubitemid 26258305)
100. Michikawa M, Gong JS, Fan QW, Sawamura N, Yanagisawa K (2001) A novel action of Alzheimer's amyloid beta-protein (Abeta) : Oligomeric Abeta promotes lipid release. J Neurosci 21, 7226-7235. (Pubitemid 32846970)
101. Michikawa M (2006) Role of cholesterol in amyloid cascade: Cholesterol-dependent modulation of tau phos-phorylation and mitochondrial function. Acta Neurol Scand Suppl 185, 21-26. (Pubitemid 44015221)
102. Michikawa M (2003) Cholesterol paradox: Is high total or low HDL cholesterol level a risk for Alzheimer's disease? J Neurosci Res 72, 141-146. (Pubitemid 36389880)
103. Auer IA, Schmidt ML, Lee VM, Curry B, Suzuki K, Shin RW, Pentchev PG, Carstea ED, Trojanowski JQ (1995) Paired helical filament tau (PHFtau) in Niemann-Pick type C disease is similar to PHFtau in Alzheimer's disease. Acta Neuropathol 90, 547-551.
104. Love S, Bridges LR, Case CP (1995) Neurofibrillary tangles in Niemann-Pick disease type C. Brain 118, 119-129.
105. Distl R, Meske V, Ohm TG (2001) Tangle-bearing neurons contain more free cholesterol than adjacent tangle-free neurons. Acta Neuropathol 101, 547-554. (Pubitemid 32684752)
106. Fan QW, Yu W, Senda T, Yanagisawa K, Michikawa M (2001) Cholesterol-dependent modulation of tau phospho-rylation in cultured neurons. J Neurochem 76, 391-400. (Pubitemid 32097017)
107. Koudinov AR, Koudinova NV (2001) Essential role for cholesterol in synaptic plasticity and neuronal degeneration. FASEB J 15, 1858-1860.
108. Michikawa M (2003) The roleofcholesterolin pathogenesis of Alzheimer's disease: Dual metabolic interaction between amyloid beta-protein and cholesterol. Mol Neurobiol 27, 1-12. (Pubitemid 36515158)
109. Subramanian S, Chait A (2009) The effect of dietary cholesterol on macrophage accumulation in adipose tissue: Implications for systemic inflammation and atherosclerosis. Curr Opin Lipidol 20, 39-44.
110. Liu Y, Hulten LM, Wiklund O (1997) Macrophages isolated from human atherosclerotic plaques produce IL-8, and oxys-terols may have a regulatory function for IL-8 production. Arterioscler Thromb Vasc Biol 17, 317-323. (Pubitemid 27098190)
111. Torocsik D, Szanto A, Nagy L (2009) Oxysterol signaling links cholesterol metabolism and inflammation via the liver X receptor in macrophages. Mol Aspects Med 30, 134-152.
112. Rajamaki K, Lappalainen J, Oorni K, Valimaki E, Matikainen S, Kovanen PT, Eklund KK (2010) Choles- terol crystals activate the NLRP3 inflammasome in human macrophages: A novel link between cholesterol metabolism and inflammation. PLoS ONE 5, e11765.
113. Abela GS (2010) Cholesterol crystals piercing the arterial plaque and intima trigger local and systemic inflammation. J Clin Lipidol 4, 156-164.
114. Masoro EJ (2005) Overview of caloric restriction and ageing. Mech Ageing Dev 126, 913-922. (Pubitemid 41033171)
115. Barrows CH Jr, Kokkonen G (1978) The effect of various dietary restricted regimes on biochemical variables in the mouse. Growth 42, 71-85. (Pubitemid 8324686)
116. Colman RJ, Anderson RM, Johnson SC, Kastman EK, Kos-matka KJ, Beasley TM, Allison DB, Cruzen C, Simmons HA, Kemnitz JW, Weindruch R (2009) Caloric restriction delays disease onset and mortality in rhesus monkeys. Science 325, 201-204.
117. Luchsinger JA, Tang MX, Shea S, Mayeux R (2002) Caloric intake and the risk of Alzheimer disease. Arch Neurol 59, 1258-1263. (Pubitemid 34856378)
118. Kalmijn S, Launer LJ, Ott A, Witteman JC, Hofman A, Breteler MM (1997) Dietary fat intake and the risk of incident dementia in the Rotterdam Study. Ann Neurol 42, 776-782. (Pubitemid 27481550)
119. Engelhart MJ, Geerlings MI, Ruitenberg A, van Swieten JC, Hofman A, Witteman JC, Breteler MM (2002) Diet and risk of dementia: Does fat matter? The Rotterdam Study. Neurology 59, 1915-1921. (Pubitemid 36076564)
120. Eskelinen MH, Ngandu T, Helkala EL, Tuomilehto J, Nissi-nen A, Soininen H, Kivipelto M (2008) Fat intake at midlife and cognitive impairment later in life: A population-based CAIDE study. Int J Geriatr Psychiatry 23, 741-747.
121. Morris MC, Evans DA, Bienias JL, Tangney CC, Wilson RS (2004) Dietary fat intake and 6-year cognitive change in an older biracial community population. Neurology 62, 1573-1579. (Pubitemid 38608198)