HPA Axis Alterations in Mental Disorders: Impact on Memory and its Relevance for Therapeutic Interventions

CNS Neuroscience and Therapeutics

Volumn 17, Issue 6, 2011, Pages 714-722

  Wingenfeld, Katja ^a   Wolf, Oliver T ^b  

^a UNIVERSITY MEDICAL CENTER HAMBURG EPPENDORF   (Germany)

^b RUHR UNIVERSITY BOCHUM   (Germany)

Author keywords

Borderline personality disorder; Cognition; Cortisol; Depression; HPA axis; PTSD

Indexed keywords

GLUCOCORTICOID;

BORDERLINE STATE; HUMAN; HYPOTHALAMUS HYPOPHYSIS ADRENAL SYSTEM; MAJOR DEPRESSION; MEMORY; MEMORY CONSOLIDATION; MEMORY DISORDER; MENTAL DISEASE; POSTTRAUMATIC STRESS DISORDER; REVIEW;

ANIMALS; BIPOLAR DISORDER; DEPRESSIVE DISORDER, MAJOR; HUMANS; HYPOTHALAMO-HYPOPHYSEAL SYSTEM; MEMORY; MENTAL DISORDERS; PITUITARY-ADRENAL SYSTEM; STRESS DISORDERS, POST-TRAUMATIC;

EID: 82355175407     PISSN: 17555930     EISSN: 17555949     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1111/j.1755-5949.2010.00207.x     Document Type: Review

References (147)

1. Carrasco GA, Van de Kar LD. Neuroendocrine pharmacology of stress. Eur J Pharmacol 2003;463:235-272.
2. de Kloet ER, Joels M, Holsboer F. Stress and the brain: From adaptation to disease. Nat Rev 2005;6:463-475.
3. Joels M, Karst H, DeRijk R, de Kloet ER. The coming out of the brain mineralocorticoid receptor. Trends Neurosci 2008;31:1-7.
4. de Kloet ER. Hormones, brain and stress. Endocr Regul 2003;37:51-68.
5. Lupien SJ, Lepage M. Stress, memory, and the hippocampus: Can't live with it, can't live without it. Behav Brain Res 2001;127:137-158.
6. Buchanan TW. Retrieval of emotional memories. Psychol Bull 2007;133:761-779.
7. Roozendaal B. Stress and memory: Opposing effects of glucocorticoids on memory consolidation and memory retrieval. Neurobiol Learn Mem 2002;78:578-595.
8. Het S, Ramlow G, Wolf OT. A meta-analytic review of the effects of acute cortisol administration on human memory. Psychoneuroendocrinology 2005;30:771-784.
9. Elzinga BM, Bakker A, Bremner JD. Stress-induced cortisol elevations are associated with impaired delayed, but not immediate recall. Psychiatry Res 2005;134:211-223.
10. Kuhlmann S, Piel M, Wolf OT. Impaired memory retrieval after psychosocial stress in healthy young men. J Neurosci 2005;25:2977-2982.
11. Wolf OT. Stress and memory in humans: Twelve years of progress? Brain Res 2009;1293:142-154.
12. Schwabe L, Wolf OT, Oitzl MS. Memory formation under stress: quantity and quality. Neurosci Biobehav Rev 2010;34:584-591.
13. Wolf OT. The influence of stress hormones on emotional memory: Relevance for psychopathology. Acta Psychol 2008;127:513-531.
14. Leppanen JM. Emotional information processing in mood disorders: A review of behavioral and neuroimaging findings. Curr Opin Psychiatry 2006;19:34-39.
15. Nemeroff CB, Bremner JD, Foa EB, Mayberg HS, North CS, Stein MB. Posttraumatic stress disorder: A state-of-the-science review. J Psychiatric Res 2006;40:1-21.
16. Ruocco AC. The neuropsychology of borderline personality disorder: A meta-analysis and review. Psychiatry Res 2005;137:191-202.
17. Wingenfeld K, Spitzer C, Rullkotter N, Lowe B. Borderline personality disorder: Hypothalamus pituitary adrenal axis and findings from neuroimaging studies. Psychoneuroendocrinology 2010;35:154-170.
18. Mannie ZN, Harmer CJ, Cowen PJ. Increased waking salivary cortisol levels in young people at familial risk of depression. Am J Psychiatry 2007;164:617-621.
19. Goodyer IM, Herbert J, Tamplin A. Psychoendocrine antecedents of persistent first-episode major depression in adolescents: A community-based longitudinal enquiry. Psychol Med 2003;33:601-610.
20. Juruena MF, Pariante CM, Papadopoulos AS, Poon L, Lightman S, Cleare AJ. Prednisolone suppression test in depression: Prospective study of the role of HPA axis dysfunction in treatment resistance. Br J Psychiatry 2009;194:342-349.
21. Markianos M, Tripodianakis J, Istikoglou C, et al. Suicide attempt by jumping: A study of gonadal axis hormones in male suicide attempters versus men who fell by accident. Psychiatry Res 2009;170:82-85.
22. Kessler RC, Chiu WT, Demler O, Merikangas KR, Walters EE. Prevalence, severity, and comorbidity of 12-month DSM-IV disorders in the National Comorbidity Survey Replication. Arch Gen Psychiatry 2005;62:617-627.
23. Widiger TA, Frances AJ, Pincus HA, et al., editors. Diagnostic and statistical manual of mental disorders (DSM-IV). Sourcebook, Vol. 4. Washington, DC: American Psychiatric Association, 1998.
24. Heim C, Newport DJ, Mletzko T, Miller AH, Nemeroff CB. The link between childhood trauma and depression: Insights from HPA axis studies in humans. Psychoneuroendocrinology 2008;33:693-710.
25. Bhagwagar Z, Hafizi S, Cowen PJ. Increased salivary cortisol after waking in depression. Psychopharmacology (Berl) 2005;182:54-57.
26. Strickland PL, Deakin JF, Percival C, Dixon J, Gater RA, Goldberg DP. Bio-social origins of depression in the community. Interactions between social adversity, cortisol and serotonin neurotransmission. Br J Psychiatry 2002;180:168-173.
27. Deuschle M, Schweiger N, Weber B, et al. Diurnal activity and pulsatility of the hypothalamus-pituitary-adrenal system in male depressed patients and healthy controls. J Clin Endocrinol Metab 1997;82:234-238.
28. Vreeburg SA, Hoogendijk WJ, van Pelt J, et al. Major depressive disorder and hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal axis activity: Results from a large cohort study. Arch Gen Psychiatry 2009;66:617-626.
29. Burke HM, Davis MC, Otte C, Mohr DC. Depression and cortisol responses to psychological stress: A meta-analysis. Psychoneuroendocrinology 2005;30:846-856.
30. Gold PW, Chrousos GP. Organization of the stress system and its dysregulation in melancholic and atypical depression: High vs low CRH/NE states. Mol Psychiatry 2002;7:254-275.
31. Posener JA, DeBattista C, Williams GH, Chmura Kraemer H, Kalehzan BM, Schatzberg AF. 24-Hour monitoring of cortisol and corticotropin secretion in psychotic and nonpsychotic major depression. Arch Gen Psychiatry 2000;57:755-760.
32. Ising M, Kunzel HE, Binder EB, Nickel T, Modell S, Holsboer F. The combined dexamethasone/CRH test as a potential surrogate marker in depression. Prog Neuropsychopharmacol Biol Psychiatry 2005;29:1085-1093.
33. Posener JA, DeBattista C, Williams GH, Schatzberg AF. Cortisol feedback during the HPA quiescent period in patients with major depression. Am J Psychiatry 2001;158:2083-2085.
34. Gold PW, Gabry KE, Yasuda MR, Chrousos GP. Divergent endocrine abnormalities in melancholic and atypical depression: Clinical and pathophysiologic implications. Endocrinol Metab Clin North Am 2002;31:37-62, vi.
35. Young EA, Abelson JL, Cameron OG. Effect of comorbid anxiety disorders on the hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal axis response to a social stressor in major depression. Biol Psychiatry 2004;56:113-120.
36. Bremmer MA, Deeg DJ, Beekman AT, Penninx BW, Lips P, Hoogendijk WJ. Major depression in late life is associated with both hypo- and hypercortisolemia. Biol Psychiatry 2007;62:479-486.
37. Chopra KK, Ravindran A, Kennedy SH, et al. Sex differences in hormonal responses to a social stressor in chronic major depression. Psychoneuroendocrinology 2009;34:1235-1241.
38. Heim C, Mletzko T, Purselle D, Musselman DL, Nemeroff CB. The dexamethasone/corticotropin-releasing factor test in men with major depression: Role of childhood trauma. Biol Psychiatry 2008;63:398-405.
39. Nemeroff CB. The corticotropin-releasing factor (CRF) hypothesis of depression: New findings and new directions. Mol Psychiatry 1996;1:336-342.
40. Pariante CM, Miller AH. Glucocorticoid receptors in major depression: Relevance to pathophysiology and treatment. Biol Psychiatry 2001;49:391-404.
41. Holsboer F. The corticosteroid receptor hypothesis of depression. Neuropsychopharmacology 2000;23:477-501.
42. Webster MJ, Knable MB, O'Grady J, Orthmann J, Weickert CS. Regional specificity of brain glucocorticoid receptor mRNA alterations in subjects with schizophrenia and mood disorders. Mol Psychiatry 2002;7:985-994, 24.
43. McGowan PO, Sasaki A, D'Alessio AC, et al. Epigenetic regulation of the glucocorticoid receptor in human brain associates with childhood abuse. Nat Neurosci 2009;12:342-348.
44. Otte C, Wust S, Zhao S, Pawlikowska L, Kwok PY, Whooley MA. Glucocorticoid receptor gene and depression in patients with coronary heart disease: The Heart and Soul Study-2009 Curt Richter Award Winner. Psychoneuroendocrinology 2009;34:1574-1581.
45. Binder EB, Salyakina D, Lichtner P, et al. Polymorphisms in FKBP5 are associated with increased recurrence of depressive episodes and rapid response to antidepressant treatment. Nat Genet 2004;36:1319-1325.
46. Otte C, Hinkelmann K, Moritz S, et al. Modulation of the mineralocorticoid receptor as add-on treatment in depression: A randomized, double-blind, placebo-controlled proof-of-concept study. J Psychiatr Res 2010;44:339-346.
47. Rohleder N, Wolf JM, Wolf OT. Glucocorticoid sensitivity of cognitive and inflammatory processes in depression and posttraumatic stress disorder. Neurosci Biobehav Rev 2010;35:104-114.
48. Chamberlain SR, Sahakian BJ. The neuropsychology of mood disorders. Curr Psychiatry Rep 2006;8:458-463.
49. Veiel HO. A preliminary profile of neuropsychological deficits associated with major depression. J Clin Exp Neuropsychol 1997;19:587-603.
50. Porter RJ, Bourke C, Gallagher P. Neuropsychological impairment in major depression: Its nature, origin and clinical significance. Aust N Z J Psychiatry 2007;41:115-128.
51. Williams JM, Mathews A, MacLeod C. The emotional Stroop task and psychopathology. Psychol Bull 1996;120:3-24.
52. Van Vreeswijk MF, De Wilde EJ. Autobiographical memory specificity, psychopathology, depressed mood and the use of the Autobiographical Memory Test: A meta-analysis. Behav Res Ther 2004;42:731-743.
53. Rubinow DR, Post RM, Savard R, Gold PW. Cortisol hypersecretion and cognitive impairment in depression. Arch Gen Psychiatry 1984;41:279-283.
54. Egeland J, Lund A, Landro NI, et al. Cortisol level predicts executive and memory function in depression, symptom level predicts psychomotor speed. Acta Psychiatr Scand 2005;112:434-441.
55. Hinkelmann K, Moritz S, Botzenhardt J, et al. Cognitive impairment in major depression: Association with salivary cortisol. Biol Psychiatry 2009;66:879-885.
56. Gomez RG, Posener JA, Keller J, Debattista C, Solvason B, Schatzberg AF. Effects of major depression diagnosis and cortisol levels on indices of neurocognitive function. PNEC 2009;34:10121018.
57. Vythilingam M, Vermetten E, Anderson GM, et al. Hippocampal volume, memory, and cortisol status in major depressive disorder: Effects of treatment. Biol Psychiatry 2004;56:101-112.
58. Gomez RG, Fleming SH, Keller J, et al. The neuropsychological profile of psychotic major depression and its relation to cortisol. Biol Psychiatry 2006;60:472-478.
59. O'Brien JT, Lloyd A, McKeith I, Gholkar A, Ferrier N. A longitudinal study of hippocampal volume, cortisol levels, and cognition in older depressed subjects. Am J Psychiatry 2004;161:2081-2090.
60. Zobel AW, Nickel T, Sonntag A, Uhr M, Holsboer F, Ising M. Cortisol response in the combined dexamethasone/CRH test as predictor of relapse in patients with remitted depression. a prospective study. J Psychiatric Res 2001;35:83-94.
61. Reppermund S, Zihl J, Lucae S, et al. Persistent cognitive impairment in depression: The role of psychopathology and altered hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenocortical (HPA) system regulation. Biol Psychiatry 2007;62:400-406.
62. Adler G, Jajcevic A. Post-dexamethasone cortisol level and memory performance in elderly depressed patients. Neurosci Lett 2001;298:142-144.
63. Van Londen L, Goekoop JG, Zwinderman AH, Lanser JB, Wiegant VM, De Wied D. Neuropsychological performance and plasma cortisol, arginine vasopressin and oxytocin in patients with major depression. Psychol Med 1998;28:275-284.
64. Bremner JD, Vythilingam M, Vermetten E, Anderson G, Newcomer JW, Charney DS. Effects of glucocorticoids on declarative memory function in major depression. Biol Psychiatry 2004;55:811-815.
65. Schlosser N, Wolf OT, Fernando SC, et al. Effects of acute cortisol administration on autobiographical memory in patients with major depression and healthy controls. Psychoneuroendocrinology 2010;35:316-320.
66. Charles G, Wilmotte J, Quenon M, Mendlewicz J. Reproducibility of the dexamethasone suppression test in depression. Biol Psychiatry 1982;17:845-848.
67. Gallagher P, Reid KS, Ferrier IN. Neuropsychological functioning in health and mood disorder: Modulation by glucocorticoids and their receptors. PNEC 2009;34(Suppl. 1):196207.
68. Berton O, Nestler EJ. New approaches to antidepressant drug discovery: Beyond monoamines. Nat Rev 2006;7:137-151.
69. Schule C, Baghai TC, Eser D, Rupprecht R. Hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenocortical system dysregulation and new treatment strategies in depression. Expert Rev Neurotherapeutics 2009;9:1005-1019.
70. Wulsin AC, Herman JP, Solomon MB. Mifepristone decreases depression-like behavior and modulates neuroendocrine and central hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenocortical axis responsiveness to stress. PNEC 2010;35:1100-1112.
71. Nikisch G. Involvement and role of antidepressant drugs of the hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal axis and glucocorticoid receptor function. Neuro Endocrinol Lett 2009;30:11-16.
72. Young AH, Gallagher P, Watson S, Del-Estal D, Owen BM, Ferrier IN. Improvements in neurocognitive function and mood following adjunctive treatment with mifepristone (RU-486) in bipolar disorder. Neuropsychopharmacology 2004;29:1538-1545.
73. Pariante CM, Thomas SA, Lovestone S, Makoff A, Kerwin RW. Do antidepressants regulate how cortisol affects the brain ? Psychoneuroendocrinology 2004;29:423-447.
74. Porter RJ, Gallagher P, Watson S, Young AH. Corticosteroid-serotonin interactions in depression: A review of the human evidence. Psychopharmacology (Berl) 2004;173:1-17.
75. Marcos B, Aisa B, Ramirez MJ. Functional interaction between 5-HT(6) receptors and hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal axis: Cognitive implications. Neuropharmacology 2008;54:708-714.
76. Zobel AW, Schulze-Rauschenbach S, von Widdern OC, et al. Improvement of working but not declarative memory is correlated with HPA normalization during antidepressant treatment. J Psychiatric Res 2004;38:377-383.
77. Kessler RC, Sonnega A, Bromet E, Hughes M, Nelson CB. Posttraumatic stress disorder in the National Comorbidity Survey. Arch Gen Psychiatry 1995;52:1048-1060.
78. Heim C, Nemeroff CB. Neurobiology of posttraumatic stress disorder. CNS Spectrums 2009;14:13-24.
79. Yehuda R. Status of glucocorticoid alterations in post-traumatic stress disorder. Ann N Y Acad Sci 2009;1179:56-69.
80. Yehuda R. Current status of cortisol findings in post-traumatic stress disorder. Psychiatr Clin North Am 2002;25:341-368, vii.
81. de Kloet CS, Vermetten E, Geuze E, Kavelaars A, Heijnen CJ, Westenberg HG. Assessment of HPA-axis function in posttraumatic stress disorder: Pharmacological and non-pharmacological challenge tests, a review. J Psychiatric Res 2006;40:550-567.
82. Olff M, Guzelcan Y, de Vries GJ, Assies J, Gersons BP. HPA- and HPT-axis alterations in chronic posttraumatic stress disorder. Psychoneuroendocrinology 2006;31:1220-1230.
83. Meewisse ML, Reitsma JB, de Vries GJ, Gersons BP, Olff M. Cortisol and post-traumatic stress disorder in adults: Systematic review and meta-analysis. Br J Psychiatry 2007;191:387-392.
84. de Kloet C, Vermetten E, Lentjes E, et al. Differences in the response to the combined DEX-CRH test between PTSD patients with and without co-morbid depressive disorder. Psychoneuroendocrinology 2008;33:313-320.
85. Vythilingam M, Gill JM, Luckenbaugh DA, et al. Low early morning plasma cortisol in posttraumatic stress disorder is associated with co-morbid depression but not with enhanced glucocorticoid feedback inhibition. Psychoneuroendocrinology 2010;35:442-450.
86. Yehuda R, Golier JA, Yang RK, Tischler L. Enhanced sensitivity to glucocorticoids in peripheral mononuclear leukocytes in posttraumatic stress disorder. Biol Psychiatry 2004;55:1110-1116.
87. Rohleder N, Joksimovic L, Wolf JM, Kirschbaum C. Hypocortisolism and increased glucocorticoid sensitivity of pro-Inflammatory cytokine production in Bosnian war refugees with posttraumatic stress disorder. Biol Psychiatry 2004;55:745-751.
88. Hori H, Ozeki Y, Teraishi T, et al. Relationships between psychological distress, coping styles, and HPA axis reactivity in healthy adults. J Psychiatr Res 2010;44:865-873.
89. Pariante CM, Papadopoulos AS, Poon L, et al. A novel prednisolone suppression test for the hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal axis. Biol Psychiatry 2002;51:922-930.
90. Karl A, Schaefer M, Malta LS, Dorfel D, Rohleder N, Werner A. A meta-analysis of structural brain abnormalities in PTSD. Neurosci Biobehav Rev 2006;30:1004-1031.
91. Gilbertson MW, Shenton ME, Ciszewski A, et al. Smaller hippocampal volume predicts pathologic vulnerability to psychological trauma. Nat Neurosci 2002;5:1242-1247.
92. Golier J, Yehuda R. Neuropsychological processes in post-traumatic stress disorder. Psychiatr Clin North Am 2002;25:295-315, vi.
93. Buckley TC, Blanchard EB, Neill WT. Information processing and PTSD: A review of the empirical literature. Clin Psychol Rev 2000;20:1041-1065.
94. Schonfeld S, Ehlers A. Overgeneral memory extends to pictorial retrieval cues and correlates with cognitive features in posttraumatic stress disorder. Emotion (Washington, DC). 2006;6:611-621.
95. Grossman R, Yehuda R, Golier J, McEwen B, Harvey P, Maria NS. Cognitive effects of intravenous hydrocortisone in subjects with PTSD and healthy control subjects. Ann N Y Acad Sci 2006;1071:410-421.
96. Yehuda R, Harvey PD, Buchsbaum M, Tischler L, Schmeidler J. Enhanced effects of cortisol administration on episodic and working memory in aging veterans with PTSD. Neuropsychopharmacology 2007;32:2581-2591.
97. Vythilingam M, Lawley M, Collin C, et al. Hydrocortisone impairs hippocampal-dependent trace eyeblink conditioning in post-traumatic stress disorder. Neuropsychopharmacology 2006;31:182-188.
98. Bremner JD, Vythilingam M, Vermetten E, et al. Effects of dexamethasone on declarative memory function in posttraumatic stress disorder. Psychiatry Res 2004;129:1-10.
99. Schelling G, Kilger E, Roozendaal B, et al. Stress doses of hydrocortisone, traumatic memories, and symptoms of posttraumatic stress disorder in patients after cardiac surgery: A randomized study. Biol Psychiatry 2004;55:627-633.
100. Schelling G, Briegel J, Roozendaal B, Stoll C, Rothenhausler HB, Kapfhammer HP. The effect of stress doses of hydrocortisone during septic shock on posttraumatic stress disorder in survivors. Biol Psychiatry 2001;50:978-985.
101. Aerni A, Traber R, Hock C, et al. Low-dose cortisol for symptoms of posttraumatic stress disorder. Am J Psychiatry 2004;161:1488-1490.
102. Yehuda R, Golier J. Is there a rationale for cortisol-based treatments for PTSD ? Expert Rev Neurotherapeutics 2009;9:1113-1115.
103. Zanarini MC, Frankenburg FR, Dubo ED, et al. Axis I comorbidity of borderline personality disorder. Am J Psychiatry 1998;155:1733-1739.
104. McLean LM, Gallop R. Implications of childhood sexual abuse for adult borderline personality disorder and complex posttraumatic stress disorder. Am J Psychiatry 2003;160:369-371.
105. Wingenfeld K, Hill A, Adam B, Driessen M. Dexamethasone suppression test in borderline personality disorder: Impact of PTSD symptoms. Psychiatry Clin Neurosci 2007;61:681-683.
106. Rinne T, de Kloet ER, Wouters L, Goekoop JG, DeRijk RH, Van Den Brink W. Hyperresponsiveness of hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal axis to combined dexamethasone/corticotropin-releasing hormone challenge in female borderline personality disorder subjects with a history of sustained childhood abuse. Biol Psychiatry 2002;52:1102-1112.
107. Simeon D, Knutelska M, Smith L, Baker BR, Hollander E. A preliminary study of cortisol and norepinephrine reactivity to psychosocial stress in borderline personality disorder with high and low dissociation. Psychiatry Res 2007;149:177-184.
108. Beblo T, Saavedra AS, Mensebach C, et al. Deficits in visual functions and neuropsychological inconsistency in Borderline Personality Disorder. Psychiatry Res 2006;145:127-135.
109. Hurlemann R, Hawellek B, Maier W, Dolan RJ. Enhanced emotion-induced amnesia in borderline personality disorder. Psychol Med 2007;37:971-981.
110. Domes G, Winter B, Schnell K, Vohs K, Fast K, Herpertz SC. The influence of emotions on inhibitory functioning in borderline personality disorder. Psychol Med 2006;36:1163-1172.
111. Mensebach C, Wingenfeld K, Driessen M, et al. Emotion-induced memory dysfunction in borderline personality disorder. Cognitive Neuropsychiatry 2009;14:524-541.
112. Wingenfeld K, Mensebach C, Rullkoetter N, et al. Attentional bias to personally relevant words in borderline personality disorder is strongly related to comorbid posttraumatic stress disorder. J Pers Disord 2009;23:141-155.
113. Rinne T, Van Den Brink W, Wouters L, van Dyck R. SSRI treatment of borderline personality disorder: A randomized, placebo-controlled clinical trial for female patients with borderline personality disorder. Am J Psychiatry 2002;159:2048-2054.
114. De la Fuente JM, Bobes J, Vizuete C, Mendlewicz J. Effects of carbamazepine on dexamethasone suppression and sleep electroencephalography in borderline personality disorder. Neuropsychobiology 2002;45:113-119.
115. Wolf OT. HPA axis and memory. Best Pract Res Clin Endocrinol Metab 2003;17:287-299.
116. de Quervain DJ, Aerni A, Schelling G, Roozendaal B. Glucocorticoids and the regulation of memory in health and disease. Frontiers in Neuroendocrinology. 2009;30:358-370.
117. Nemeroff CB, Heim CM, Thase ME, et al. Differential responses to psychotherapy versus pharmacotherapy in patients with chronic forms of major depression and childhood trauma. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 2003;100:14293-14296.
118. Pacak K, Palkovits M. Stressor specificity of central neuroendocrine responses: Implications for stress-related disorders. Endocr Rev 2001;22:502-548.
119. LaBar KS, Cabeza R. Cognitive neuroscience of emotional memory. Nat Rev 2006;7:54-64.
120. Debiec J, Ledoux JE. Disruption of reconsolidation but not consolidation of auditory fear conditioning by noradrenergic blockade in the amygdala. Neuroscience 2004;129:267-272.
121. Cahill L, Babinsky R, Markowitsch HJ, McGaugh JL. The amygdala and emotional memory. Nature 1995;377:295-296.
122. Roozendaal B, Hui GK, Hui IR, Berlau DJ, McGaugh JL, Weinberger NM. Basolateral amygdala noradrenergic activity mediates corticosterone-induced enhancement of auditory fear conditioning. Neurobiol Learn Mem 2006;86:249-255.
123. Elzinga BM, Roelofs K. Cortisol-induced impairments of working memory require acute sympathetic activation. Behav Neurosci 2005;119:98-103.
124. van Stegeren AH, Wolf OT, Everaerd W, Scheltens P, Barkhof F, Rombouts SA. Endogenous cortisol level interacts with noradrenergic activation in the human amygdala. Neurobiol Learn Mem 2007;87:57-66.
125. Wong ML, Kling MA, Munson PJ, et al. Pronounced and sustained central hypernoradrenergic function in major depression with melancholic features: Relation to hypercortisolism and corticotropin-releasing hormone. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 2000;97:325-330.
126. Ebner-Priemer UW, Badeck S, Beckmann C, et al. Affective dysregulation and dissociative experience in female patients with borderline personality disorder: A startle response study. J Psychiatric Res 2005;39:85-92.
127. Southwick SM, Bremner JD, Rasmusson A, Morgan CA, 3rd, Arnsten A, Charney DS. Role of norepinephrine in the pathophysiology and treatment of posttraumatic stress disorder. Biol Psychiatry 1999;46:1192-1204.
128. Bremner JD. Neuroimaging in posttraumatic stress disorder and other stress-related disorders. Neuroimaging Clin N Am 2007;17:523-538, ix.
129. Mayberg HS. Limbic-cortical dysregulation: A proposed model of depression. J Neuropsychiatry Clin Neurosci 1997;9:471-481.
130. Young EA, Abelson JL, Cameron OG. Interaction of brain noradrenergic system and the hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal (HPA) axis in man. Psychoneuroendocrinology 2005;30:807-814.
131. Savitz J, Lucki I, Drevets WC. 5-HT(1A) receptor function in major depressive disorder. Prog Neurobiol 2009;88:17-31.
132. Schmahl CG, McGlashan TH, Bremner JD. Neurobiological correlates of borderline personality disorder. Psychopharmacol Bull 2002;36:69-87.
133. Bremner JD. Does stress damage the brain? Biol Psychiatry 1999;45:797-805.
134. Rinne T, de Kloet ER, Wouters L, Goekoop JG, de Rijk RH, Van Den Brink W. Fluvoxamine reduces responsiveness of HPA axis in adult female BPD patients with a history of sustained childhood abuse. Neuropsychopharmacology 2003;28:126-132.
135. Laplante P, Diorio J, Meaney MJ. Serotonin regulates hippocampal glucocorticoid receptor expression via a 5-HT7 receptor. Brain Res Dev Brain Res 2002;139:199-203.
136. Smythe JW, Rowe WB, Meaney MJ. Neonatal handling alters serotonin (5-HT) turnover and 5-HT2 receptor binding in selected brain regions: Relationship to the handling effect on glucocorticoid receptor expression. Brain Res Dev Brain Res 1994;80:183-189.
137. Drevets WC, Price JL, Furey ML. Brain structural and functional abnormalities in mood disorders: Implications for neurocircuitry models of depression. Brain Struct Funct 2008;213:93-118.
138. Drevets WC. Neuroimaging studies of mood disorders. Biol Psychiatry 2000;48:813-829.
139. Campbell S, Marriott M, Nahmias C, MacQueen GM. Lower hippocampal volume in patients suffering from depression: A meta-analysis. Am J Psychiatry 2004;161:598-607.
140. Bremner JD, Vythilingam M, Vermetten E, Vaccarino V, Charney DS. Deficits in hippocampal and anterior cingulate functioning during verbal declarative memory encoding in midlife major depression. Am J Psychiatry 2004;161:637-645.
141. Schmahl C, Bremner JD. Neuroimaging in borderline personality disorder. J. Psychiatric Res. 2006;40:419-427.
142. Yehuda R. Post-traumatic stress disorder. N Engl J Med 2002;346:108-114.
143. Sapolsky RM. Atrophy of the hippocampus in posttraumatic stress disorder: How and when? Hippocampus 2001;11:90-91.
144. Sapolsky RM. Chickens, eggs and hippocampal atrophy. Nat Neurosci 2002;5:1111-1113.
145. Vyas A, Mitra R, Shankaranarayana Rao BS, Chattarji S. Chronic stress induces contrasting patterns of dendritic remodeling in hippocampal and amygdaloid neurons. J Neurosci 2002;22:6810-6818.
146. Roozendaal B, McEwen BS, Chattarji S. Stress, memory and the amygdala. Nat Rev 2009;10:423-433.
147. Yang TT, Hsiao FH, Wang KC, et al. The effect of psychotherapy added to pharmacotherapy on cortisol responses in outpatients with major depressive disorder. J. Nervous Mental Disease 2009;197:401-406.