Hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenocortical system dysregulation and new treatment strategies in depression

Expert Review of Neurotherapeutics

Volumn 9, Issue 7, 2009, Pages 1005-1019

  Schüle, Cornelius ^a   Baghai, Thomas C ^a   Eser, Daniela ^a   Rupprecht, Rainer ^a  

^a LUDWIG MAXIMILIANS UNIVERSITY   (Germany)

Author keywords

Cortisol; Depression; HPA system

Indexed keywords

1 [5 CHLORO 1 (2,4 DIMETHOXYLPHENYLSULFONYL) 2,3 DIHYDRO 3 (2 METHOXYPHENYL) 2 OXO 1H INDOL 3 YL] 4 HYDROXY N,N DIMETHYL 2 PYRROLIDINECARBOXAMIDE; 2 [N (2 BROMO 4 ISOPROPYLPHENYL) N ETHYLAMINO] 4 [4 (3 FLUOROPHENYL) 1,2,3,6 TETRAHYDRO 1 PYRIDINYL] 6 METHYLPYRIMIDINE; 3 (6 DIMETHYLAMINO 4 METHYL 3 PYRIDINYL) 7 DIPROPYLAMINO 2,5 DIMETHYLPYRAZOLO[1,5 A]PYRIMIDINE; 4 (2 CHLORO 4 METHOXY 5 METHYLPHENYL) N [2 CYCLOPROPYL 1 (3 FLUORO 4 METHYLPHENYL)ETHYL] 5 METHYL N (2 PROPYNYL) 2 THIAZOLAMINE; 4 [4 (3 FLUOROPHENYL) 1,2,3,6 TETRAHYDRO 1 PYRIDINYL] 2 [N ETHYL N (4 ISOPROPYL 2 METHYLTHIOPHENYL)AMINO] 6 METHYLPYRIMIDINE; 8 (2,4 DICHLOROPHENYL) 4 [2 METHOXY 1 (METHOXYMETHYL)ETHYLAMINO] 2,7 DIMETHYLPYRAZOLO[1,5 A][1,3,5]TRIAZINE; ANTIDEPRESSANT AGENT; BUTYL[2,5 DIMETHYL 7 (2,4,6 TRIMETHYLPHENYL) 7H PYRROLO[2,3 D]PYRIMIDIN 4 YL]ETHYLAMINE; CORTICOTROPIN; CORTICOTROPIN RELEASING FACTOR ANTAGONIST; CP 316311; CRA 0450; DEXAMETHASONE; GLUCOCORTICOID ANTAGONIST; GLUCOCORTICOID RECEPTOR ANTAGONIST; HYDROCORTISONE; METYRAPONE; MIFEPRISTONE; MONOAMINE OXIDASE INHIBITOR; NORADRENALIN UPTAKE INHIBITOR; OLANZAPINE; PLACEBO; PRASTERONE; QUETIAPINE; R 278995; SEROTONIN; SEROTONIN UPTAKE INHIBITOR; SERTRALINE; UNCLASSIFIED DRUG; UNINDEXED DRUG; ZIPRASIDONE;

ABSENCE OF SIDE EFFECTS; ADRENAL INSUFFICIENCY; ANXIETY DISORDER; BRAIN DYSFUNCTION; CLINICAL PRACTICE; CLINICAL TRIAL; COGNITIVE DEFECT; CORTICOTROPIN BLOOD LEVEL; DELUSIONAL DISORDER; DEPRESSION; DISEASE COURSE; DRUG BRAIN LEVEL; DRUG DOSE ESCALATION; DRUG EFFICACY; DRUG MECHANISM; DRUG MEGADOSE; DRUG METABOLISM; DRUG SAFETY; DRUG SUBSTITUTION; DRUG TOLERABILITY; DRUG WITHDRAWAL; ELECTROCONVULSIVE THERAPY; HAMILTON SCALE; HORMONE INHIBITION; HORMONE RELEASE; HORMONE SYNTHESIS; HUMAN; HYDROCORTISONE BLOOD LEVEL; HYPERACTIVITY; HYPOMANIA; HYPOTHALAMUS HYPOPHYSIS ADRENAL SYSTEM; INSOMNIA; LIVER ENZYME BLOOD LEVEL; MAJOR DEPRESSION; MENTAL DISEASE; MONOTHERAPY; NONHUMAN; OPEN STUDY; PATHOPHYSIOLOGY; PATIENT COMPLIANCE; PSYCHOSIS; RELAPSE; REVIEW; RISK FACTOR; SHORT TERM MEMORY; SIDE EFFECT; SUICIDE ATTEMPT; TREATMENT DURATION; TREATMENT FAILURE; TREATMENT OUTCOME; TREATMENT RESPONSE;

ANIMALS; ANTIDEPRESSIVE AGENTS; DEPRESSION; HORMONE ANTAGONISTS; HUMANS; HYPOTHALAMO-HYPOPHYSEAL SYSTEM; PITUITARY-ADRENAL SYSTEM;

EID: 67651017938     PISSN: 14737175     EISSN: 17448360     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1586/ern.09.52     Document Type: Review

References (211)

1. Holsboer F. The corticosteroid receptor hypothesis of depression. Neuropsychopharmacology 23(5), 477-501 (2000). ••Summarizes the most important findings with regard to the corticoid receptor hypothesis of depression.
2. Holsboer F. Stress, hypercortisolism and corticosteroid receptors in depression: implications for therapy. J. Affect. Disord. 62(1-2), 77-91 (2001). (Pubitemid 32126613)
3. Halbreich U, Asnis GM, Shindledecker R, Zumoff B, Nathan RS. Cortisol secretion in endogenous depression. I. Basal plasma levels. Arch. Gen. Psychiatry 42(9), 904-908 (1985). (Pubitemid 16248516)
4. Linkowski P, Mendlewicz J, Leclercq R et al. The 24-hour profile of adrenocorticotropin and cortisol in major depressive illness. J. Clin. Endocrinol. Metab. 61(3), 429-438 (1985). (Pubitemid 15243950)
5. Board F, Wadeson R, Persky H. Depressive affect and endocrine functions: blood levels of adrenal cortex and thyroid hormones in patients suffering from depressive reactions. Arch. Neurol. Psychiatry 78, 612-620 (1957).
6. Gibbons JL, McHugh PR. Plasma cortisol in depressive illness. Psychiatry Res. 1, 162-171 (1963).
7. Traskman L, Tybring G, Asberg M, Bertilsson L, Lantto O, Schalling D. Cortisol in the CSF of depressed and suicidal patients. Arch. Gen. Psychiatry 37(7), 761-767 (1980). (Pubitemid 10090641)
8. Carroll BJ, Curtis GC, Davies BM, Mendels J, Sugerman AA. Urinary free cortisol excretion in depression. Psychol. Med. 6(1), 43-50 (1976).
9. Anisman H, Ravindran AV, Griffiths J, Merali Z. Endocrine and cytokine correlates of major depression and dysthymia with typical or atypical features. Mol. Psychiatry 4(2), 182-188 (1999). (Pubitemid 29163982)
10. Young EA, Carlson NE, Brown MB. Twenty-four-hour ACTH and cortisol pulsatility in depressed women. Neuropsychopharmacology 25(2), 267-276 (2001).
11. Cowen PJ. Cortisol, serotonin and depression: all stressed out? Br. J. Psychiatry 180, 99-100 (2002).
12. Strickland PL, Deakin JF, Percival C, Dixon J, Gater RA, Goldberg DP. Bio-social origins of depression in the community. Interactions between social adversity, cortisol and serotonin neurotransmission. Br. J. Psychiatry 180, 168-173 (2002). •Good overview about the dexamethasone/ corticotropin-releasing hormone test and influencing factors.
13. Kunzel HE, Binder EB, Nickel T et al. Pharmacological and nonpharmacological factors influencing hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenocortical axis reactivity in acutely depressed psychiatric in-patients, measured by the Dex-CRH test. Neuropsychopharmacology 28(12), 2169-2178 (2003). (Pubitemid 37468184)
14. Holsboer F, Von Bardeleben U, Gerken A, Stalla GK, Muller OA. Blunted corticotropin and normal cortisol response to human corticotropin-releasing factor in depression. N. Engl. J. Med. 311(17), 1127 (1984). (Pubitemid 14012528)
15. Gold PW, Chrousos G, Kellner C et al. Psychiatric implications of basic and clinical studies with corticotropin-releasing factor. Am. J. Psychiatry 141(5), 619-627 (1984). (Pubitemid 14134836)
16. Nemeroff CB, Krishnan KR, Reed D, Leder R, Beam C, Dunnick NR. Adrenal gland enlargement in major depression. A computed tomographic study. Arch. Gen. Psychiatry 49(5), 384-387 (1992).
17. Rubin RT, Phillips JJ, Sadow TF, McCracken JT. Adrenal gland volume in major depression. Increase during the depressive episode and decrease with successful treatment. Arch. Gen. Psychiatry 52(3), 213-218 (1995).
18. Amsterdam JD, Winokur A, Abelman E, Lucki I, Rickels K. Cosyntropin (ACTH a 1-24) stimulation test in depressed patients and healthy subjects. Am. J. Psychiatry 140(7), 907-909 (1983).
19. Gerken A, Holsboer F. Cortisol and corticosterone response after syncorticotropin in relationship to dexamethasone suppressibility of cortisol. Psychoneuroendocrinology 11(2), 185-194 (1986). (Pubitemid 16099992)
20. Jaeckle RS, Kathol RG, Lopez JF, Meller WH, Krummel SJ. Enhanced adrenal sensitivity to exogenous cosyntropin (ACTH a 1-24) stimulation in major depression. Relationship to dexamethasone suppression test results. Arch. Gen. Psychiatry 44(3), 233-240 (1987).
21. Rubin RT, Miller TH, Rhodes ME, Czambel RK. Adrenal cortical responses to low- and high-dose ACTH(1-24) administration in major depressives vs. matched controls. Psychiatry Res. 143(1), 43-50 (2006).
22. Nemeroff CB, Widerlov E, Bissette G et al. Elevated concentrations of CSF corticotropin-releasing factor-like immunoreactivity in depressed patients. Science 226(4680), 1342-1344 (1984). (Pubitemid 15215592)
23. Raadsheer FC, Hoogendijk WJ, Stam FC, Tilders FJ, Swaab DF. Increased numbers of corticotropin-releasing hormone expressing neurons in the hypothalamic paraventricular nucleus of depressed patients. Neuroendocrinology 60(4), 436-444 (1994).
24. Purba JS, Hoogendijk WJ, Hofman MA, Swaab DF. Increased number of vasopressin- and oxytocin-expressing neurons in the paraventricular nucleus of the hypothalamus in depression. Arch. Gen. Psychiatry 53(2), 137-143 (1996).
25. Nemeroff CB, Owens MJ, Bissette G, Andorn AC, Stanley M. Reduced corticotropin releasing factor binding sites in the frontal cortex of suicide victims. Arch. Gen. Psychiatry 45(6), 577-579 (1988). (Pubitemid 18147828)
26. De Bellis MD, Gold PW, Geracioti TD Jr, Listwak SJ, Kling MA. Association of fluoxetine treatment with reductions in CSF concentrations of corticotropinreleasing hormone and arginine vasopressin in patients with major depression. Am. J. Psychiatry 150(4), 656-657 (1993).
27. Heuser I, Bissette G, Dettling M et al. Cerebrospinal fluid concentrations of corticotropin-releasing hormone, vasopressin, and somatostatin in depressed patients and healthy controls: response to amitriptyline treatment. Depress. Anxiety 8(2), 71-79 (1998). (Pubitemid 28458051)
28. Veith RC, Lewis N, Langohr JI et al. Effect of desipramine on cerebrospinal fluid concentrations of corticotropin-releasing factor in human subjects. Psychiatry Res. 46(1), 1-8 (1993). (Pubitemid 23066266)
29. Nemeroff CB, Bissette G, Akil H, Fink M. Neuropeptide concentrations in the cerebrospinal fluid of depressed patients treated with electroconvulsive therapy. Corticotrophin-releasing factor, β-endorphin and somatostatin. Br. J. Psychiatry 158, 59-63 (1991).
30. Kling MA, Geracioti TD, Licinio J, Michelson D, Oldfield EH, Gold PW. Effects of electroconvulsive therapy on the CRH-ACTH-cortisol system in melancholic depression: preliminary findings. Psychopharmacol. Bull. 30(3), 489-494 (1994).
31. Brady LS, Whitfield HJ Jr, Fox RJ, Gold PW, Herkenham M. Long-term antidepressant administration alters corticotropin-releasing hormone, tyrosine hydroxylase, and mineralocorticoid receptor gene expression in rat brain. Therapeutic implications. J. Clin. Invest. 87(3), 831-837 (1991).
32. Brady LS, Gold PW, Herkenham M, Lynn AB, Whitfield HJ Jr. The antidepressants fluoxetine, idazoxan and phenelzine alter corticotropin- releasing hormone and tyrosine hydroxylase mRNA levels in rat brain: therapeutic implications. Brain Res. 572(1-2), 117-125 (1992).
33. Fadda P, Pani L, Porcella A, Fratta W. Chronic imipramine, l-sulpiride and mianserin decrease corticotropin releasing factor levels in the rat brain. Neurosci. Lett. 192(2), 121-123 (1995).
34. Chalmers DT, Lovenberg TW, De Souza EB. Localization of novel corticotropin-releasing factor receptor (CRF2) mRNA expression to specific subcortical nuclei in rat brain: comparison with CRF1 receptor mRNA expression. J. Neurosci. 15(10), 6340-6350 (1995).
35. Liebsch G, Landgraf R, Gerstberger R et al. Chronic infusion of a CRH1 receptor antisense oligodeoxynucleotide into the central nucleus of the amygdala reduced anxiety-related behavior in socially defeated rats. Regul. Pept. 59(2), 229-239 (1995).
36. Liebsch G, Landgraf R, Engelmann M, Lorscher P, Holsboer F. Differential behavioural effects of chronic infusion of CRH 1 and CRH 2 receptor antisense oligonucleotides into the rat brain. J. Psychiatr. Res. 33(2), 153-163 (1999). (Pubitemid 29134743)
37. Heinrichs SC, Lapsansky J, Lovenberg TW, De Souza EB, Chalmers DT. Corticotropin-releasing factor CRF1, but not CRF2, receptors mediate anxiogenic-like behavior. Regul. Pept. 71(1), 15-21 (1997). (Pubitemid 27374934)
38. Skutella T, Probst JC, Renner U, Holsboer F, Behl C. Corticotropin- releasing hormone receptor (type I) antisense targeting reduces anxiety. Neuroscience 85(3), 795-805 (1998). (Pubitemid 28223641)
39. Timpl P, Spanagel R, Sillaber I et al. Impaired stress response and reduced anxiety in mice lacking a functional corticotropin-releasing hormone receptor 1. Nat. Genet. 19(2), 162-166 (1998). ••One of the most important genetic findings of the corticoid receptor hypothesis of depression. (Pubitemid 28248798)
40. Smith GW, Aubry JM, Dellu F et al. Corticotropin releasing factor receptor 1-deficient mice display decreased anxiety, impaired stress response, and aberrant neuroendocrine development. Neuron 20(6), 1093-1102 (1998). (Pubitemid 28293127)
41. Contarino A, Dellu F, Koob GF et al. Reduced anxiety-like and cognitive performance in mice lacking the corticotropin-releasing factor receptor 1. Brain Res. 835(1), 1-9 (1999). (Pubitemid 29336544)
42. Muller MB, Zimmermann S, Sillaber I et al. Limbic corticotropin-releasing hormone receptor 1 mediates anxiety-related behavior and hormonal adaptation to stress. Nat. Neurosci. 6(10), 1100-1107 (2003). (Pubitemid 37186203)
43. Coste SC, Kesterson RA, Heldwein KA et al. Abnormal adaptations to stress and impaired cardiovascular function in mice lacking corticotropin-releasing hormone receptor-2. Nat. Genet. 24(4), 403-409 (2000).
44. Bale TL, Contarino A, Smith GW et al. Mice deficient for corticotropin-releasing hormone receptor-2 display anxiety-like behaviour and are hypersensitive to stress. Nat. Genet. 24(4), 410-414 (2000). (Pubitemid 30187443)
45. Kishimoto T, Radulovic J, Radulovic M et al. Deletion of CRHR2 reveals an anxiolytic role for corticotropin-releasing hormone receptor-2. Nat. Genet. 24(4), 415-419 (2000). (Pubitemid 30187444)
46. Bale TL, Vale WW. Increased depressionlike behaviors in corticotropin-releasing factor receptor-2-deficient mice: sexually dichotomous responses. J. Neurosci. 23(12), 5295-5301 (2003).
47. Pariante CM, Miller AH. Glucocorticoid receptors in major depression: relevance to pathophysiology and treatment. Biol. Psychiatry 49(5), 391-404 (2001).
48. Reul JM, De Kloet ER. Two receptor systems for corticosterone in rat brain: microdistribution and differential occupation. Endocrinology 117(6), 2505-2511 (1985).
49. De Kloet ER. Brain corticosteroid receptor balance and homeostatic control. Front. Neuroendocrinol. 12, 95-164 (1991).
50. Spencer RL, Young EA, Choo PH, McEwen BS. Adrenal steroid type I and type II receptor binding: estimates of in vivo receptor number, occupancy, and activation with varying level of steroid. Brain Res. 514(1), 37-48 (1990).
51. Rupprecht R, Arriza JL, Spengler D et al. Transactivation and synergistic properties of the mineralocorticoid receptor: relationship to the glucocorticoid receptor. Mol. Endocrinol. 7(4), 597-603 (1993). (Pubitemid 23138168)
52. Carroll B, Curtis GC, Mendels J. Neuroendocrine regulation in depression. I. Limbic system-adrenocortical dysfunction. Arch. Gen. Psychiatry 33(9), 1039-1044 (1976).
53. Von Bardeleben U, Holsboer F. Cortisol response to a combined dexamethasonehCRH challenge in patients with depression. J. Neuroendocrinol. 1, 485-488 (1989).
54. Heuser I, Yassouridis A, Holsboer F. The combined dexamethasone/CRH test: a refined laboratory test for psychiatric disorders. J. Psychiatr. Res. 28(4), 341-356 (1994). (Pubitemid 24370022)
55. Holsboer F. The rationale for corticotropinreleasing hormone receptor (CRH-R) antagonists to treat depression and anxiety. J. Psychiatr. Res. 33(3), 181-214 (1999). (Pubitemid 29178663)
56. Binder EB, Salyakina D, Lichtner P et al. Polymorphisms in FKBP5 are associated with increased recurrence of depressive episodes and rapid response to antidepressant treatment. Nat. Genet. 36(12), 1319-1325 (2004). •Genetic highlight investigating the relationship between the hypothalamic-pituitary- adrenocortical (HPA) system and therapeutic response. (Pubitemid 39577942)
57. van Rossum EF, Binder EB, Majer M et al. Polymorphisms of the glucocorticoid receptor gene and major depression. Biol. Psychiatry 59(8), 681-688 (2006).
58. Seckl JR, Fink G. Antidepressants increase glucocorticoid and mineralocorticoid receptor mRNA expression in rat hippocampus in vivo. Neuroendocrinology 55(6), 621-626 (1992).
59. Reul JM, Stec I, Soder M, Holsboer F. Chronic treatment of rats with the antidepressant amitriptyline attenuates the activity of the hypothalamic- pituitary-adrenocortical system. Endocrinology 133(1), 312-320 (1993). (Pubitemid 23206409)
60. Reul JM, Labeur MS, Grigoriadis DE, De Souza EB, Holsboer F. Hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenocortical axis changes in the rat after long-term treatment with the reversible monoamine oxidase-A inhibitor moclobemide. Neuroendocrinology 60(5), 509-519 (1994). (Pubitemid 24321286)
61. Young EA, Lopez JF, Murphy-Weinberg V, Watson SJ, Akil H. The role of mineralocorticoid receptors in hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal axis regulation in humans. J. Clin. Endocrinol. Metab. 83(9), 3339-3345 (1998). (Pubitemid 28500982)
62. Ising M, Kunzel HE, Binder EB, Nickel T, Modell S, Holsboer F. The combined dexamethasone/CRH test as a potential surrogate marker in depression. Prog. Neuropsychopharmacol. Biol. Psychiatry 29(6), 1085-1093 (2005). (Pubitemid 41080135)
63. Zobel AW, Nickel T, Sonntag A, Uhr M, Holsboer F, Ising M. Cortisol response in the combined dexamethasone/CRH test as predictor of relapse in patients with remitted depression. a prospective study. J. Psychiatr. Res. 35(2), 83-94 (2001). (Pubitemid 32506751)
64. Zobel AW, Yassouridis A, Frieboes RM, Holsboer F. Prediction of medium-term outcome by cortisol response to the combined dexamethasone-CRH test in patients with remitted depression. Am. J. Psychiatry 156(6), 949-951 (1999). (Pubitemid 29260354)
65. Appelhof BC, Huyser J, Verweij M et al. Glucocorticoids and relapse of major depression (dexamethasone/corticotropin-releasing hormone test in relation to relapse of major depression). Biol. Psychiatry 59(8), 696-701 (2006).
66. Aubry JM, Gervasoni N, Osiek C et al. The DEX/CRH neuroendocrine test and the prediction of depressive relapse in remitted depressed outpatients. J. Psychiatr. Res. 41(3-4), 290-294 (2007). (Pubitemid 44854997)
67. Barden N, Reul JM, Holsboer F. Do antidepressants stabilize mood through actions on the hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenocortical system? Trends Neurosci. 18(1), 6-11 (1995).
68. Schule C, Baghai T, Schmidbauer S, Bidlingmaier M, Strasburger CJ, Laakmann G. Reboxetine acutely stimulates cortisol, ACTH, growth hormone and prolactin secretion in healthy male subjects. Psychoneuroendocrinology 29(2), 185-200 (2004). (Pubitemid 37357178)
69. Seifritz E, Baumann P, Muller MJ et al. Neuroendocrine effects of a 20-mg citalopram infusion in healthy males. A placebo-controlled evaluation of citalopram as 5-HT function probe. Neuropsychopharmacology 14(4), 253-263 (1996). (Pubitemid 126335724)
70. Schule C, Baghai T, Goy J, Bidlingmaier M, Strasburger C, Laakmann G. The influence of mirtazapine on anterior pituitary hormone secretion in healthy male subjects. Psychopharmacology (Berl.) 163(1), 95-101 (2002). (Pubitemid 34985317)
71. Schule C, Baghai TC, Eser D et al. Time course of hypothalamic-pituitary- adrenocortical axis activity during treatment with reboxetine and mirtazapine in depressed patients. Psychopharmacology (Berl.) 186(4), 601-611 (2006). (Pubitemid 43855848)
72. Ising M, Horstmann S, Kloiber S et al. Combined dexamethasone/ corticotropin releasing hormone test predicts treatment response in major depression - a potential biomarker? Biol. Psychiatry 62(1), 47-54 (2007). (Pubitemid 46898222)
73. Schule C, Baghai TC, Eser D et al. The combined dexamethasone/CRH test (DEX/CRH test) and prediction of acute treatment response in major depression. PLoS ONE 4(1), e4324 (2008). •Summarizes the most recent findings regarding HPA system activity and acute treatment response in depression.
74. Schule C, Baghai TC, Rupprecht R. [New insights into the pathogenesis and pathophysiology of depression]. Nervenarzt 78(Suppl. 3), 531-547 (2007).
75. Krishnan V, Nestler EJ. The molecular neurobiology of depression. Nature 455(7215), 894-902 (2008).
76. Gallagher P, Malik N, Newham J, Young AH, Ferrier IN, Mackin P. Antiglucocorticoid treatments for mood disorders. Cochrane Database Syst. Rev. 1, CD005168 (2008). ••Best and most comprehensive review of antiglucocorticoid treatment strategies in depression.
77. Schule C. Neuroendocrinological mechanisms of actions of antidepressant drugs. J. Neuroendocrinol. 19(3), 213-226 (2007). (Pubitemid 46210949)
78. Mori S, Zanardi R, Popoli M et al. cAMP-dependent phosphorylation system after short and long-term administration of moclobemide. J. Psychiatr. Res. 32(2), 111-115 (1998). (Pubitemid 28306461)
79. Stout SC, Owens MJ, Nemeroff CB. Regulation of corticotropin-releasing factor neuronal systems and hypothalamic- pituitary-adrenal axis activity by stress and chronic antidepressant treatment. J. Pharmacol. Exp. Ther. 300(3), 1085-1092 (2002).
80. Schule C, Baghai T, Rackwitz C, Laakmann G. Influence of mirtazapine on urinary free cortisol excretion in depressed patients. Psychiatry Res. 120(3), 257-264 (2003). (Pubitemid 38366053)
81. Buckingham JC, Hodges JR. Hypothalamic receptors influencing the secretion of corticotrophin releasing hormone in the rat. J. Physiol. 290(2), 421-431 (1979).
82. Jones MT, Birmingham M, Gillham B, Holmes M, Smith T. The effect of cyproheptadine on the release of corticotrophin releasing factor. Clin. Endocrinol. (Oxf.) 10(2), 203-205 (1979). (Pubitemid 10168254)
83. Kjaer A, Knigge U, Plotsky PM, Bach FW, Warberg J. Histamine H1 and H2 receptor activation stimulates ACTH and β-endorphin secretion by increasing corticotropin-releasing hormone in the hypophyseal portal blood. Neuroendocrinology 56(6), 851-855 (1992). (Pubitemid 23099558)
84. Cohrs S, Pohlmann K, Guan Z et al. Quetiapine reduces nocturnal urinary cortisol excretion in healthy subjects. Psychopharmacology (Berl.) 174(3), 414-420 (2004). (Pubitemid 39044300)
85. Cohrs S, Roher C, Jordan W et al. The atypical antipsychotics olanzapine and quetiapine, but not haloperidol, reduce ACTH and cortisol secretion in healthy subjects. Psychopharmacology (Berl.) 185(1), 11-18 (2006). (Pubitemid 43289608)
86. de Borja Goncalves Guerra A, Castel S, Benedito-Silva AA, Calil HM. Neuroendocrine effects of quetiapine in healthy volunteers. Int. J. Neuropsychopharmacol. 8(1), 49-57 (2005). (Pubitemid 40388813)
87. Meier A, Neumann AC, Jordan W et al. Ziprasidone decreases cortisol excretion in healthy subjects. Br. J. Clin. Pharmacol. 60(3), 330-336 (2005). (Pubitemid 41224143)
88. Calabrese JR, Keck PE Jr, Macfadden W et al. A randomized, double-blind, placebo-controlled trial of quetiapine in the treatment of bipolar I or II depression. Am. J. Psychiatry 162(7), 1351-1360 (2005). (Pubitemid 40905587)
89. Thase ME, Macfadden W, Weisler RH et al. Efficacy of quetiapine monotherapy in bipolar I and II depression: a double-blind, placebo-controlled study (the BOLDER II study). J. Clin. Psychopharmacol. 26(6), 600-609 (2006). (Pubitemid 44772737)
90. Montgomery S, Cutler A, Lazarus A, Schollin M, Brecher M. A randomised, placebo-controlled study of once-daily extended release quetiapine fumarate (quetiapine XR) monotherapy in patients with major depressive disorder (MDD). Presented at: 7th International Forum on Mood and Anxiety Disorders. Budapest, Hungary, 5-7 December 2007.
91. Cutler AJ, Montgomery S, Feifel D, Lazarus A, Schollin M, Brecher M. Extended release quetiapine fumarate (quetiapine XR) monotherapy in patients with major depressive disorder (MDD): results from a double-blind, randomized Phase III study. Presented at: 48th American College of Neuropsychopharmacology Annual Meeting. Boca Raton, FL, USA, 9-13 December 2007.
92. Weisler R, Joyce M, McGill L, Lazarus A, Aström M, Brecher M. Extended release quetiapine fumarate (quetiapine XR) monotherapy for major depressive disorder (MDD): a double-blind, placebo-controlled study. Presented at: 161st Annual Meeting of the American Psychiatric Association. Washington, DC, USA, 3-8 May 2008.
93. El-Khalili N, Banov M, Bortnick B et al. Efficacy and tolerability of extended release quetiapine fumarate (quetiapine XR) monotherapy in major depressive disorder (MDD): a randomized, placebo-controlled clinical trial (Study 003). Presented at: 63rd Annual Society of Biological Psychiatry. Washington, DC, USA, 1-3 May 2008.
94. Datto C, Lam RW, Lepola U, Sweitzer D, Eriksson H, Brecher M. Double-blind study of extended release quetiapine fumarate (quetiapine XR) monotherapy for maintenance treatment of major depressive disorder (MDD). Presented at: 161st Annual Meeting of the American Psychiatric Association. Washington, DC, USA, 3-8 May 2008.
95. Vale W, Spiess J, Rivier C, Rivier J. Characterization of a 41-residue ovine hypothalamic peptide that stimulates secretion of corticotropin and β-endorphin. Science 213(4514), 1394-1397 (1981). (Pubitemid 12243637)
96. Keck ME, Welt T, Wigger A et al. The anxiolytic effect of the CRH(1) receptor antagonist R121919 depends on innate emotionality in rats. Eur. J. Neurosci. 13(2), 373-380 (2001). (Pubitemid 32142482)
97. Nielsen DM, Carey GJ, Gold LH. Antidepressant-like activity of corticotropin-releasing factor type-1 receptor antagonists in mice. Eur. J. Pharmacol. 499(1-2), 135-146 (2004).
98. Griebel G, Simiand J, Steinberg R et al. 4-(2-Chloro-4-methoxy-5- methylphenyl)-N-[(1S)-2-cyclopropyl-1-(3-fluoro-4-methylphenyl)ethyl] 5-methyl-N-(2- propynyl)-1, 3-thiazol-2-amine hydrochloride (SSR125543A), a potent and selective corticotrophin-releasing factor(1) receptor antagonist. II. Characterization in rodent models of stress-related disorders. J. Pharmacol. Exp. Ther. 301(1), 333-345 (2002). (Pubitemid 34250312)
99. Arborelius L, Skelton KH, Thrivikraman KV, Plotsky PM, Schulz DW, Owens MJ. Chronic administration of the selective corticotropin-releasing factor 1 receptor antagonist CP-154,526: behavioral, endocrine and neurochemical effects in the rat. J. Pharmacol. Exp. Ther. 294(2), 588-597 (2000). (Pubitemid 30490833)
100. Jutkiewicz EM, Wood SK, Houshyar H, Hsin LW, Rice KC, Woods JH. The effects of CRF antagonists, antalarmin, CP154,526, LWH234, and R121919, in the forced swim test and on swim-induced increases in adrenocorticotropin in rats. Psychopharmacology (Berl.) 180(2), 215-223 (2005). (Pubitemid 40909666)
101. Chaki S, Nakazato A, Kennis L et al. Anxiolytic- and antidepressant-like profile of a new CRF1 receptor antagonist, R278995/CRA0450. Eur. J. Pharmacol. 485(1-3), 145-158 (2004). (Pubitemid 38134409)
102. Harro J, Tonissaar M, Eller M. The effects of CRA 1000, a non-peptide antagonist of corticotropin-releasing factor receptor type 1, on adaptive behaviour in the rat. Neuropeptides 35(2), 100-109 (2001). (Pubitemid 32575053)
103. Okuyama S, Chaki S, Kawashima N et al. Receptor binding, behavioral, and electrophysiological profiles of nonpeptide corticotropin-releasing factor subtype 1 receptor antagonists CRA1000 and CRA1001. J. Pharmacol. Exp. Ther. 289(2), 926-935 (1999). (Pubitemid 29191251)
104. Zobel AW, Nickel T, Kunzel HE et al. Effects of the high-affinity corticotropin-releasing hormone receptor 1 antagonist R121919 in major depression: the first 20 patients treated. J. Psychiatr. Res. 34(3), 171-181 (2000). (Pubitemid 30364916)
105. Held K, Kunzel H, Ising M et al. Treatment with the CRH1-receptor- antagonist R121919 improves sleep-EEG in patients with depression. J. Psychiatr. Res. 38(2), 129-136 (2004). (Pubitemid 38134453)
106. Kunzel HE, Zobel AW, Nickel T et al. Treatment of depression with the CRH-1-receptor antagonist R121919: endocrine changes and side effects. J. Psychiatr. Res. 37(6), 525-533 (2003). (Pubitemid 37238946)
107. Kunzel HE, Ising M, Zobel AW et al. Treatment with a CRH-1-receptor antagonist (R121919) does not affect weight or plasma leptin concentration in patients with major depression. J. Psychiatr. Res. 39(2), 173-177 (2005). (Pubitemid 39602641)
108. Binneman B, Feltner D, Kolluri S, Shi Y, Qiu R, Stiger T. A 6-week randomized, placebo-controlled trial of CP-316,311 (a selective CRH1 antagonist) in the treatment of major depression. Am. J. Psychiatry 165(5), 617-620 (2008). (Pubitemid 351705339)
109. Aguilera G. Regulation of pituitary ACTH secretion during chronic stress. Front. Neuroendocrinol. 15(4), 321-350 (1994).
110. Gold PW, Goodwin FK, Reus VI. Vasopressin in affective illness. Lancet 1(8076), 1233-1236 (1978).
111. Aguilera G, Rabadan-Diehl C. Vasopressinergic regulation of the hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal axis: implications for stress adaptation. Regul. Pept. 96(1-2), 23-29 (2000). (Pubitemid 30845367)
112. Scott LV, Dinan TG. Vasopressin as a target for antidepressant development: an assessment of the available evidence. J. Affect. Disord. 72(2), 113-124 (2002).
113. Muller MB, Landgraf R, Preil J et al. Selective activation of the hypothalamic vasopressinergic system in mice deficient for the corticotropin-releasing hormone receptor 1 is dependent on glucocorticoids. Endocrinology 141(11), 4262-4269 (2000). (Pubitemid 30953542)
114. van West D, Del-Favero J, Aulchenko Y et al. A major SNP haplotype of the arginine vasopressin 1B receptor protects against recurrent major depression. Mol. Psychiatry 9(3), 287-292 (2004). (Pubitemid 38496720)
115. Dempster EL, Burcescu I, Wigg K et al. Evidence of an association between the vasopressin V1b receptor gene (AVPR1B) and childhood-onset mood disorders. Arch. Gen. Psychiatry 64(10), 1189-1195 (2007). (Pubitemid 47529343)
116. Liebsch G, Wotjak CT, Landgraf R, Engelmann M. Septal vasopressin modulates anxiety-related behaviour in rats. Neurosci. Lett. 217(2-3), 101-104 (1996). (Pubitemid 26358812)
117. Griebel G, Simiand J, Serradeil-Le Gal C et al. Anxiolytic- and antidepressant-like effects of the non-peptide vasopressin V1b receptor antagonist, SSR149415, suggest an innovative approach for the treatment of stress-related disorders. Proc. Natl Acad. Sci. USA 99(9), 6370-6375 (2002). (Pubitemid 34493318)
118. Stemmelin J, Lukovic L, Salome N, Griebel G. Evidence that the lateral septum is involved in the antidepressant-like effects of the vasopressin V1b receptor antagonist, SSR149415. Neuropsychopharmacology 30(1), 35-42 (2005). (Pubitemid 40024397)
119. Hodgson RA, Higgins GA, Guthrie DH et al. Comparison of the V1b antagonist, SSR149415, and the CRF1 antagonist, CP-154,526, in rodent models of anxiety and depression. Pharmacol. Biochem. Behav. 86(3), 431-440 (2007).
120. Breuer ME, van Gaalen MM, Wernet W et al. SSR149415, a non-peptide vasopressin V(1b) receptor antagonist, has long-lasting antidepressant effects in the olfactory bulbectomy-induced hyperactivity depression model. Naunyn Schmiedebergs Arch. Pharmacol. 379(1), 101-106 (2009).
121. Sonino N. The use of ketoconazole as an inhibitor of steroid production. N. Engl. J. Med 317(13), 812-818 (1987). (Pubitemid 17133360)
122. Amsterdam J, Mosley PD, Rosenzweig M. Assessment of adrenocortical activity in refractory depression: steroid suppression with ketoconazole. In: Refractory Depression. Nolan W, Zohar J, Roose S, Amsterdam J (Eds). John Wiley, London, UK 199-210 (1994).
123. Anand A, Malison R, McDougle CJ, Price LH. Antiglucocorticoid treatment of refractory depression with ketoconazole: a case report. Biol. Psychiatry 37(5), 338-340 (1995).
124. Ghadirian AM, Engelsmann F, Dhar V et al. The psychotropic effects of inhibitors of steroid biosynthesis in depressed patients refractory to treatment. Biol. Psychiatry 37(6), 369-375 (1995).
125. Iizuka H, Kishimoto A, Nakamura J, Mizukawa R. [Clinical effects of cortisol synthesis inhibition on treatment-resistant depression]. Nihon Shinkei Seishin Yakurigaku Zasshi 16(1), 33-36 (1996).
126. Murphy BE, Dhar V, Ghadirian AM, Chouinard G, Keller R. Response to steroid suppression in major depression resistant to antidepressant therapy. J. Clin. Psychopharmacol. 11(2), 121-126 (1991).
127. Murphy BE. Treatment of major depression with steroid suppressive drugs. J. Steroid Biochem. Mol. Biol. 39(2), 239-244 (1991).
128. Ravaris CL, Sateia MJ, Beroza KW, Noordsy DL, Brinck-Johnsen T. Effect of ketoconazole on a hypophysectomized, hypercortisolemic, psychotically depressed woman. Arch. Gen. Psychiatry 45(10), 966-967 (1988). (Pubitemid 18241416)
129. Thakore JH, Dinan TG. Cortisol synthesis inhibition: a new treatment strategy for the clinical and endocrine manifestations of depression. Biol. Psychiatry 37(6), 364-368 (1995).
130. Wolkowitz OM, Reus VI, Manfredi F, Ingbar J, Brizendine L, Weingartner H. Ketoconazole administration in hypercortisolemic depression. Am. J. Psychiatry 150(5), 810-812 (1993).
131. Wolkowitz OM, Reus VI, Chan T et al. Antiglucocorticoid treatment of depression: double-blind ketoconazole. Biol. Psychiatry 45(8), 1070-1074 (1999). (Pubitemid 29219633)
132. Malison RT, Anand A, Pelton GH et al. Limited efficacy of ketoconazole in treatment-refractory major depression. J. Clin. Psychopharmacol. 19(5), 466-470 (1999). (Pubitemid 29451512)
133. Murphy BE, Ghadirian AM, Dhar V. Neuroendocrine responses to inhibitors of steroid biosynthesis in patients with major depression resistant to antidepressant therapy. Can. J. Psychiatry 43(3), 279-286 (1998). (Pubitemid 28524267)
134. Raven PW, Checkley SA, Taylor NF. Extra-adrenal effects of metyrapone include inhibition of the 11-oxoreductase activity of 11 β-hydroxysteroid dehydrogenase: a model for 11-HSD I deficiency. Clin. Endocrinol. (Oxf.) 43(5), 637-644 (1995).
135. Seckl JR. 11β-Hydroxysteroid dehydrogenase in the brain: a novel regulator of glucocorticoid action? Front. Neuroendocrinol. 18(1), 49-99 (1997).
136. Healy DG, Harkin A, Cryan JF, Kelly JP, Leonard BE. Metyrapone displays antidepressant-like properties in preclinical paradigms. Psychopharmacology (Berl.) 145(3), 303-308 (1999). (Pubitemid 29393480)
137. Jeffcoate WJ, Silverstone JT, Edwards CR, Besser GM. Psychiatric manifestations of Cushing's syndrome: response to lowering of plasma cortisol. Q. J. Med. 48(191), 465-472 (1979).
138. Raven PW, O'Dwyer AM, Taylor NF, Checkley SA. The relationship between the effects of metyrapone treatment on depressed mood and urinary steroid profiles. Psychoneuroendocrinology 21(3), 277-286 (1996).
139. Rogoz Z, Skuza G, Wojcikowski J et al. Effect of metyrapone supplementation on imipramine therapy in patients with treatment-resistant unipolar depression. Pol. J. Pharmacol. 56(6), 849-855 (2004). (Pubitemid 40287489)
140. O'Dwyer AM, Lightman SL, Marks MN, Checkley SA. Treatment of major depression with metyrapone and hydrocortisone. J. Affect. Disord. 33(2), 123-128 (1995).
141. Jahn H, Schick M, Kiefer F, Kellner M, Yassouridis A, Wiedemann K. Metyrapone as additive treatment in major depression: a double-blind and placebo-controlled trial. Arch. Gen. Psychiatry 61(12), 1235-1244 (2004). (Pubitemid 39602840)
142. Van de Wiele RL, MacDonald PC, Gurpide E, Lieberman S. Studies on the secretion and interconversion of the androgens. In: Recent progress in Hormone Research. Pincus G (Ed.). Academic Press, NY, USA 275-310 (1963).
143. Montanini V, Simoni M, Chiossi G et al. Age-related changes in plasma dehydroepiandrosterone sulphate, cortisol, testosterone and free testosterone circadian rhythms in adult men. Horm. Res. 29(1), 1-6 (1988). (Pubitemid 18131047)
144. Majewska MD. Steroids and brain activity. Essential dialogue between body and mind. Biochem. Pharmacol. 36(22), 3781-3788 (1987).
145. Majewska MD, Schwartz RD. Pregnenolone-sulfate: an endogenous antagonist of the g-aminobutyric acid receptor complex in brain? Brain Res. 404(1-2), 355-360 (1987).
146. Nieschlag E, Loriaux DL, Ruder HJ, Zucker IR, Kirschner MA, Lipsett MB. The secretion of dehydroepiandrosterone and dehydroepiandrosterone sulphate in man. J. Endocrinol. 57(1), 123-134 (1973).
147. Hansen CR Jr, Kroll J, Mackenzie TB. Dehydroepiandrosterone and affective disorders. Am. J. Psychiatry 139(3), 386-387 (1982).
148. Maayan R, Yagorowski Y, Grupper D et al. Basal plasma dehydroepiandrosterone sulfate level: a possible predictor for response to electroconvulsive therapy in depressed psychotic inpatients. Biol. Psychiatry 48(7), 693-701 (2000). (Pubitemid 30734238)
149. Tollefson GD, Haus E, Garvey MJ, Evans M, Tuason VB. 24-hour urinary dehydroepiandrosterone sulfate in unipolar depression treated with cognitive and/or pharmacotherapy. Ann. Clin. Psychiatry 2, 39-45 (1990). (Pubitemid 20206808)
150. Takebayashi M, Kagaya A, Uchitomi Y et al. Plasma dehydroepiandrosterone sulfate in unipolar major depression. Short communication. J. Neural. Transm. 105(4-5), 537-542 (1998). (Pubitemid 28365036)
151. Assies J, Visser I, Nicolson NA et al. Elevated salivary dehydroepiandrosterone-sulfate but normal cortisol levels in medicated depressed patients: preliminary findings. Psychiatry Res. 128(2), 117-122 (2004). (Pubitemid 39369863)
152. Heuser I, Deuschle M, Luppa P, Schweiger U, Standhardt H, Weber B. Increased diurnal plasma concentrations of dehydroepiandrosterone in depressed patients. J. Clin. Endocrinol. Metab. 83(9), 3130-3133 (1998). (Pubitemid 28500946)
153. Ferguson HC, Bartram AC, Fowlie HC, Cathro DM, Birchall K, Mitchell FL. A preliminary investigation of steroid excretion in depressed patients before and after electro-convulsive therapy. Acta Endocrinol. (Copenh.) 47, 58-68 (1964).
154. Reus VI, Wolkowitz OM, Roberts E et al. Dehydroepiandrosterone (DHEA) and memory in depressed patients. Neuropsychopharmacology 9, 66S (1993) (Abstract).
155. Osran H, Reist C, Chen CC, Lifrak ET, Chicz-DeMet A, Parker LN. Adrenal androgens and cortisol in major depression. Am. J. Psychiatry 150(5), 806-809 (1993). (Pubitemid 23137690)
156. Fabian TJ, Dew MA, Pollock BG et al. Endogenous concentrations of DHEA and DHEA-S decrease with remission of depression in older adults. Biol. Psychiatry 50(10), 767-774 (2001).
157. Scott LV, Salahuddin F, Cooney J, Svec F, Dinan TG. Differences in adrenal steroid profile in chronic fatigue syndrome, in depression and in health. J. Affect. Disord. 54(1-2), 129-137 (1999). (Pubitemid 29287682)
158. Michael A, Jenaway A, Paykel ES, Herbert J. Altered salivary dehydroepiandrosterone levels in major depression in adults. Biol. Psychiatry 48(10), 989-995 (2000). (Pubitemid 30811904)
159. Schmidt PJ, Murphy JH, Haq N, Danaceau MA, St Clair L. Basal plasma hormone levels in depressed perimenopausal women. Psychoneuroendocrinology 27(8), 907-920 (2002). (Pubitemid 35279762)
160. Barrett-Connor E, Von Muhlen D, Laughlin GA, Kripke A. Endogenous levels of dehydroepiandrosterone sulfate, but not other sex hormones, are associated with depressed mood in older women: the Rancho Bernardo Study. J. Am. Geriatr. Soc. 47(6), 685-691 (1999). (Pubitemid 29266635)
161. Markianos M, Tripodianakis J, Sarantidis D, Hatzimanolis J. Plasma testosterone and dehydroepiandrosterone sulfate in male and female patients with dysthymic disorder. J. Affect. Disord. 101(1-3), 255-258 (2007). (Pubitemid 46879928)
162. Poor V, Juricskay S, Gati A, Osvath P, Tenyi T. Urinary steroid metabolites and 11β-hydroxysteroid dehydrogenase activity in patients with unipolar recurrent major depression. J. Affect. Disord. 81(1), 55-59 (2004). (Pubitemid 38759327)
163. Blauer KL, Poth M, Rogers WM, Bernton EW. Dehydroepiandrosterone antagonizes the suppressive effects of dexamethasone on lymphocyte proliferation. Endocrinology 129(6), 3174-3179 (1991).
164. May M, Holmes E, Rogers W, Poth M. Protection from glucocorticoid induced thymic involution by dehydroepiandrosterone. Life Sci. 46(22), 1627-1631 (1990). (Pubitemid 20179845)
165. Shafagoj Y, Opoku J, Qureshi D, Regelson W, Kalimi M. Dehydroepiandrosterone prevents dexamethasone-induced hypertension in rats. Am. J. Physiol. 263(2 Pt 1), E210-E213 (1992).
166. Kalimi M, Shafagoj Y, Loria R, Padgett D, Regelson W. Anti-glucocorticoid effects of dehydroepiandrosterone (DHEA). Mol. Cell. Biochem. 131(2), 99-104 (1994).
167. Goodyer IM, Herbert J, Altham PM. Adrenal steroid secretion and major depression in 8- to 16-year-olds, III. Influence of cortisol/DHEA ratio at presentation on subsequent rates of disappointing life events and persistent major depression. Psychol. Med. 28(2), 265-273 (1998). (Pubitemid 28197542)
168. Gallagher P, Young A. Cortisol/DHEA ratios in depression. Neuropsychopharmacology 26(3), 410 (2002).
169. Young AH, Gallagher P, Porter RJ. Elevation of the cortisol- dehydroepiandrosterone ratio in drug-free depressed patients. Am. J. Psychiatry 159(7), 1237-1239 (2002). (Pubitemid 34743270)
170. Goodyer IM, Herbert J, Tamplin A. Psychoendocrine antecedents of persistent first-episode major depression in adolescents: a community-based longitudinal enquiry. Psychol. Med. 33(4), 601-610 (2003). (Pubitemid 36626042)
171. Ferrari E, Mirani M, Barili L et al. Cognitive and affective disorders in the elderly: a neuroendocrine study. Arch. Gerontol. Geriatr. Suppl.(9), 171-182 (2004). (Pubitemid 38822864)
172. Schule C, Di Michele F, Baghai T et al. Influence of sleep deprivation on neuroactive steroids in major depression. Neuropsychopharmacology 28(3), 577-581 (2003).
173. Deuschle M, Luppa P, Gilles M, Hamann B, Heuser I. Antidepressant treatment and dehydroepiandrosterone sulfate: different effects of amitriptyline and paroxetine. Neuropsychobiology 50(3), 252-256 (2004). (Pubitemid 39279420)
174. Schule C, Baghai TC, Eser D, Schwarz M, Bondy B, Rupprecht R. Effects of mirtazapine on dehydroepiandrosterone-sulfate and cortisol plasma concentrations in depressed patients. J. Psychiatr. Res. 43(5), 538-545 (2008).
175. Wolkowitz OM, Reus VI, Roberts E et al. Dehydroepiandrosterone (DHEA) treatment of depression. Biol. Psychiatry 41(3), 311-318 (1997).
176. Sands DE, Chamberlain GHA. Treatment of inadequate personality in juveniles by dehydroepiandrosterone: preliminary report. BMJ 2, 66-68 (1952).
177. Sands DE. Further studies on endocrine treatment in adolescence and early adult life. J. Ment. Sci. 100, 211-219 (1954).
178. Strauss EB, Sands DE, Robinson AM, Tindall WJ, Stevenson WAH. Use of dehydroepiandrosterone in psychiatric treatment: a preliminary survey. BMJ 2, 64-66 (1952).
179. Strauss EB, Stevenson WAH. Use of dehydroepiandrosterone in psychiatric practice. J. Neurol. Neurosurg. Psychiatry 18, 137-144 (1955).
180. Wolkowitz OM, Reus VI, Keebler A et al. Double-blind treatment of major depression with dehydroepiandrosterone. Am. J. Psychiatry 156(4), 646-649 (1999). (Pubitemid 29162992)
181. Bloch M, Schmidt PJ, Danaceau MA, Adams LF, Rubinow DR. Dehydroepiandrosterone treatment of midlife dysthymia. Biol. Psychiatry 45(12), 1533-1541 (1999).
182. Schmidt PJ, Daly RC, Bloch M et al. Dehydroepiandrosterone monotherapy in midlife-onset major and minor depression. Arch. Gen. Psychiatry 62(2), 154-162 (2005). (Pubitemid 40189131)
183. Morales AJ, Nolan JJ, Nelson JC, Yen SS. Effects of replacement dose of dehydroepiandrosterone in men and women of advancing age. J. Clin. Endocrinol. Metab. 78(6), 1360-1367 (1994).
184. Araneo B, Daynes R. Dehydroepiandrosterone functions as more than an antiglucocorticoid in preserving immunocompetence after thermal injury. Endocrinology 136(2), 393-401 (1995).
185. Browne ES, Porter JR, Correa G, Abadie J, Svec F. Dehydroepiandrosterone regulation of the hepatic glucocorticoid receptor in the Zucker rat. The obesity research program. J. Steroid Biochem. Mol. Biol. 45(6), 517-524 (1993). (Pubitemid 23180284)
186. Genazzani AD, Stomati M, Bernardi F, Pieri M, Rovati L, Genazzani AR. Long-term low-dose dehydroepiandrosterone oral supplementation in early and late postmenopausal women modulates endocrine parameters and synthesis of neuroactive steroids. Fertil. Steril. 80(6), 1495-1501 (2003). (Pubitemid 37532468)
187. Nadjafi-Triebsch C, Huell M, Burki D, Rohr UD. Progesterone increase under DHEA-substitution in males. Maturitas 45(3), 231-235 (2003).
188. Johannsson G, Burman P, Wiren L et al. Low dose dehydroepiandrosterone affects behavior in hypopituitary androgendeficient women: a placebo-controlled trial. J. Clin. Endocrinol. Metab. 87(5), 2046-2052 (2002). (Pubitemid 34525078)
189. Hajszan T, MacLusky NJ, Leranth C. Dehydroepiandrosterone increases hippocampal spine synapse density in ovariectomized female rats. Endocrinology 145(3), 1042-1045 (2004). (Pubitemid 38280978)
190. Karishma KK, Herbert J. Dehydroepiandrosterone (DHEA) stimulates neurogenesis in the hippocampus of the rat, promotes survival of newly formed neurons and prevents corticosterone-induced suppression. Eur. J. Neurosci. 16(3), 445-453 (2002). (Pubitemid 35471862)
191. Wolkowitz OM. Prospective controlled studies of the behavioral and biological effects of exogenous corticosteroids. Psychoneuroendocrinology 19(3), 233-255 (1994).
192. Keller J, Flores B, Gomez RG et al. Cortisol circadian rhythm alterations in psychotic major depression. Biol. Psychiatry 60(3), 275-281 (2006). (Pubitemid 44093438)
193. Egeland J, Lund A, Landro NI et al. Cortisol level predicts executive and memory function in depression, symptom level predicts psychomotor speed. Acta Psychiatr. Scand. 112(6), 434-441 (2005). (Pubitemid 41676687)
194. Schatzberg AF, Rothschild AJ, Langlais PJ, Bird ED, Cole JO. A corticosteroid/dopamine hypothesis for psychotic depression and related states. J. Psychiatr. Res. 19(1), 57-64 (1985).
195. DeBattista C, Belanoff J. The use of mifepristone in the treatment of neuropsychiatric disorders. Trends Endocrinol. Metab. 17(3), 117-121 (2006).
196. Robbins A, Spitz IM. Mifepristone: clinical pharmacology. Clin. Obstet. Gynecol. 39(2), 436-450 (1996).
197. Brogden RN, Goa KL, Faulds D. Mifepristone. A review of its pharmacodynamic and pharmacokinetic properties, and therapeutic potential. Drugs 45(3), 384-409 (1993). (Pubitemid 23104125)
198. Cadepond F, Ulmann A, Baulieu EE. RU486 (mifepristone): mechanisms of action and clinical uses. Annu. Rev. Med 48, 129-156 (1997). (Pubitemid 27101820)
199. Flores BH, Kenna H, Keller J, Solvason HB, Schatzberg AF. Clinical and biological effects of mifepristone treatment for psychotic depression. Neuropsychopharmacology 31(3), 628-636 (2006). (Pubitemid 43276978)
200. Kling MA, Whitfield HJ Jr, Brandt HA et al. Effects of glucocorticoid antagonism with RU 486 on pituitary-adrenal function in patients with major depression: time-dependent enhancement of plasma ACTH secretion. Psychopharmacol. Bull. 25(3), 466-472 (1989).
201. Krishnan KR, Reed D, Wilson WH et al. RU486 in depression. Prog. Neuropsychopharmacol. Biol. Psychiatry 16(6), 913-920 (1992).
202. Belanoff JK, Flores BH, Kalezhan M, Sund B, Schatzberg AF. Rapid reversal of psychotic depression using mifepristone. J. Clin. Psychopharmacol. 21(5), 516-521 (2001). (Pubitemid 32937434)
203. Belanoff JK, Rothschild AJ, Cassidy F et al. An open label trial of C-1073 (mifepristone) for psychotic major depression. Biol. Psychiatry 52(5), 386-392 (2002). (Pubitemid 35266729)
204. Simpson GM, El Sheshai A, Loza N et al. An 8-week open-label trial of a 6-day course of mifepristone for the treatment of psychotic depression. J. Clin. Psychiatry 66(5), 598-602 (2005). (Pubitemid 40733702)
205. Murphy BE, Filipini D, Ghadirian AM. Possible use of glucocorticoid receptor antagonists in the treatment of major depression: preliminary results using RU 486. J. Psychiatry Neurosci. 18(5), 209-213 (1993). (Pubitemid 24018027)
206. Young AH, Gallagher P, Watson S, Del-Estal D, Owen BM, Ferrier IN. Improvements in neurocognitive function and mood following adjunctive treatment with mifepristone (RU-486) in bipolar disorder. Neuropsychopharmacology 29(8), 1538-1545 (2004). (Pubitemid 38982247)
207. Fiala C, Gemzel-Danielsson K. Review of medical abortion using mifepristone in combination with a prostaglandin analogue. Contraception 74(1), 66-86 (2006). (Pubitemid 43870275)
208. Schule C, Baghai T, Zwanzger P et al. Attenuation of hypothalamic- pituitary-adrenocortical hyperactivity in depressed patients by mirtazapine. Psychopharmacology (Berl.) 166(3), 271-275 (2003). (Pubitemid 36384774)
209. Bschor T, Adli M, Baethge C et al. Lithium augmentation increases the ACTH and cortisol response in the combined DEX/CRH test in unipolar major depression. Neuropsychopharmacology 27(3), 470-478 (2002). (Pubitemid 35253794)
210. Nickel T, Sonntag A, Schill J et al. Clinical and neurobiological effects of tianeptine and paroxetine in major depression. J. Clin. Psychopharmacol. 23(2), 155-168 (2003). (Pubitemid 36368793)
211. Corcept Therapeutics. Press release, March 19 (2007) www.corcept.com/ pressrel-03-19-2007.htm