Deficits in Hippocampal and Anterior Cingulate Functioning during Verbal Declarative Memory Encoding in Midlife Major Depression

American Journal of Psychiatry

Volumn 161, Issue 4, 2004, Pages 637-645

  Bremner, J Douglas ^a   Vythilingam, Meena ^b   Vermetten, Eric ^b   Vaccarino, Viola ^b   Charney, Dennis S ^b  

^a EMORY UNIVERSITY HOSPITAL   (United States)

^b NONE

Author keywords

[No Author keywords available]

Indexed keywords

ARTICLE; CINGULATE GYRUS; CLINICAL ARTICLE; CONTROLLED STUDY; FEMALE; HAMILTON SCALE; HIPPOCAMPUS; HUMAN; MAJOR DEPRESSION; MALE; POSITRON EMISSION TOMOGRAPHY; PREFRONTAL CORTEX; PRIORITY JOURNAL; RECALL; TASK PERFORMANCE; VERBAL MEMORY;

BRAIN; CEREBELLUM; CEREBROVASCULAR CIRCULATION; DEPRESSIVE DISORDER, MAJOR; DIAGNOSTIC AND STATISTICAL MANUAL OF MENTAL DISORDERS; FEMALE; FUNCTIONAL LATERALITY; GYRUS CINGULI; HIPPOCAMPUS; HUMANS; MALE; MEMORY DISORDERS; MIDDLE AGED; NEUROPSYCHOLOGICAL TESTS; SEVERITY OF ILLNESS INDEX; TOMOGRAPHY, EMISSION-COMPUTED; VERBAL BEHAVIOR;

EID: 1842481169     PISSN: 0002953X     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1176/appi.ajp.161.4.637     Document Type: Article

References (107)

1. Kessler RC, Berglund P, Demler O, Jin R, Koretz D, Merikangas KR, Rush AJ, Walters EE, Wang PS: The epidemiology of major depressive disorder: results from the National Comorbidity Survey Replication (NCS-R). JAMA 2003; 289:3095-3105
2. Stewart WF, Ricci JA, Chee E, Hahn SR, Morganstein D: Cost of lost productive work time among US workers with depression. JAMA 2003; 289: 3135-3144; correction, 2003; 290:2218
3. Makino S, Smith MA, Gold PW: Increased expression of corticotropin-releasing hormone and vasopressin messenger ribonucleic acid (mRNA) in the hypothalamic paraventricular nucleus during repeated stress: association with reduction in glucocorticoid mRNA levels. Endocrinology 1995; 136:3299-3309
4. Stanton ME, Gutierrez YR, Levine S: Maternal deprivation potentiates pituitary-adrenal stress responses in infant rats. Behav Neurosci 1988; 102:692-700
5. Ladd CO, Owens MJ, Nemeroff CB: Persistent changes in CRF neuronal systems produced by maternal separation. Endocrinology 1996; 137:1212-1218
6. Plotsky PM, Meaney MJ: Early postnatal stress and the hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal axis. Mol Brain Res 1993; 18:195-200
7. Sapolsky RM: Why stress is bad for your brain. Science 1996; 273:749-750
8. McEwen BS, Angulo J, Cameron H, Chao HM, Daniels D, Gannon MN, Gould E, Mendelson S, Sakai R, Spencer R, Woolley CS: Paradoxical effects of adrenal steroids on the brain: protection versus degeneration. Biol Psychiatry 1992; 31:177-199
9. Sapolsky RM, Uno H, Rebert CS, Finch CE: Hippocampal damage associated with prolonged glucocorticoid exposure in primates. J Neurosci 1990; 10:2897-2902
10. Magarinos AM, McEwen BS, Flugge G, Fluchs E: Chronic psychosocial stress causes apical dendritic atrophy of hippocampal CA3 pyramidal neurons in subordinate tree shrews. J Neurosci 1996; 16:3534-3540
11. Gould E, Tanapat P, McEwen BS, Flugge G, Fuchs E: Proliferation of granule cell precursors in the dentate gyrus of adult monkeys is diminished by stress. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 1998; 95:3168-3171
12. Gould E, McEwen BS, Tanapat P, Galea LAM, Fuchs E: Neurogenesis in the dentate gyrus of the adult tree shrew is regulated by psychosocial stress and NMDA receptor activation. J Neurosci 1997; 17:2492-2498
13. Luine V, Villegas M, Martinez C, McEwen BS: Repeated stress causes reversible impairments of spatial memory performance. Brain Res 1994; 639:167-170
14. Diamond DM, Fleshner M, Ingersoll N, Rose GM: Psychological stress impairs spatial working memory: relevance to electrophysiological studies of hippocampal function. Behav Neurosci 1996; 110:661-672
15. Nemeroff CB, Widerlov E, Bissette G, Walleus H, Karlsson I, Eklund K, Kilts CD, Loosen PT, Vale W: Elevated concentrations of CSF corticotropin-releasing factor-like immunoreactivity in depressed patients. Science 1984; 226:1342-1344
16. Sachar EJ, Hellman L, Roffwarg HP, Halpern FS, Fukush DK, Gallagher TF: Disrupted 24 hour patterns of cortisol secretion in psychotic depressives. Arch Gen Psychiatry 1973; 28:19-24
17. Gold PW, Loriaux DL, Roy A, Kling MA, Calabrese JR, Kellner CH, Nieman LK, Post RM, Pickar D, Galluci W: Response to corticotropin-releasing hormone in the hypercortisolism of depression and Cushing's disease. N Engl J Med 1986; 314:1329-1335
18. Ritchie JC, Belkin BM, Krishnan KRR, Nemeroff CB, Carroll BJ: Plasma dexamethasone concentrations and the dexamethasone suppression test. Biol Psychiatry 1990; 27:159-173
19. Carroll BJ, Curtis GC, Davies BM, Mendels J, Sugarman AA: Urinary free cortisol excretion in depression. J Psychol Med 1976; 6:43-50
20. Rubinow DR, Post RM, Savard R, Gold PW: Cortisol hypersecretion and cognitive impairment in depression. Arch Gen Psychiatry 1984; 41:279-283
21. Young EA, Haskett RF, Grunhaus L: Increased circadian activation of the hypothalamic pituitary adrenal axis in depressed patients in the evening. Arch Gen Psychiatry 1994; 51:701-707
22. Young EA, Haskett RF, Murphy-Weinberg V, Watson SJ, Akil H: Loss of glucocorticoid fast feedback in depression. Arch Gen Psychiatry 1991; 48:693-699
23. Nemeroff CB, Owens MJ, Bissette G, Andorn AC, Stanley M: Reduced corticotropin-releasing factor (CRF) binding sites in the frontal cortex of suicides. Arch Gen Psychiatry 1988; 45:577-579
24. Sternberg DE, Jarvik ME: Memory functions in depression. Arch Gen Psychiatry 1976; 33:219-224
25. Cohen RM, Weingartner H, Smallberg SA, Pickar D, Murphy DL: Effort and cognition in depression. Arch Gen Psychiatry 1982; 145:164-167
26. Weingartner H, Cohen RM, Martello IDI, Gerdt C: Cognitive processes in depression. Arch Gen Psychiatry 1981; 38:42-47
27. Roy-Byrne PP, Weingartner H, Bierer LM, Thompson PM, Post RM: Effortful and automatic cognitive processes in depression. Arch Gen Psychiatry 1986; 43:265-267
28. Danion J-M, Willard-Schroeder D, Zimmerman M-A, Grange D, Schlienger J-L, Singer L: Explicit memory and repetition priming in depression. Arch Gen Psychiatry 1991; 48:707-711
29. Burt DB, Zembar MJ, Niederehe G: Depression and memory impairment: a meta-analysis of the association, its pattern, and specificity. Psychol Bull 1995; 117:285-305
30. Kellner CH, Rubinow DR, Gold PW, Post RM: Relationship of cortisol hypersecretion to brain CT scan alterations in depressed patients. Psychiatry Res 1983; 8:191-197
31. Rothschild A, Benes F, Hebben N, Woods B, Luciana M, Bakanus E, Samson JA, Schatzberg AF: Relationships between brain CT scan findings and cortisol in psychotic and nonpsychotic depressed patients. Biol Psychiatry 1989; 26:565-575
32. Bremner JD, Innis RB, Salomon RM, Staib L, Ng CK, Miller HL, Bronen RA, Duncan J, Krystal JH, Rich D, Malison R, Price LH, Dey H, Soufer R, Charney DS: PET measurement of cerebral metabolic correlates of depressive relapse. Arch Gen Psychiatry 1997; 54:364-374
33. George MS, Ketter TA, Post RM: Prefrontal cortex dysfunction in clinical depression. Depression 1994; 2:59-72
34. Bremner JD: Structural changes in the brain in depression and relationship to symptom recurrence. CNS Spectrums 2002; 7: 129-139
35. Steffens DC, Krishnan KRR: Structural neuroimaging and mood disorders: recent findings, implications for classification, and future directions. Biol Psychiatry 1998; 43:705-712
36. Mayberg HS, Brannan SK, Mahurin RK, Jerabek PA, Brickman JS, Tekell JL, Silva JA, McGinnis S, Glass TG, Martin CC, Fox PT: Cingulate function in depression: a potential predictor of treatment response. Neuroreport 1997; 8:1057-1061
37. Bremner JD, Narayan M, Anderson ER, Staib LH, Miller HL, Charney DS: Hippocampal volume reduction in major depression. Am J Psychiatry 2000; 157:115-117
38. Sha PJ, Ebmeier KP, Glabus MF, Goodwin GM: Cortical grey matter reductions associated with treatment-resistant chronic unipolar depression. Br J Psychiatry 1998; 172:527-532
39. Krishnan KRR, Doraiswamy PM, Figiel GS, Husain MM, Shaw SA, Na C, Boyko OB, McDonald WM, Nemeroff CB, Ellinwood EH Jr: Hippocampal abnormalities in depression. J Neuropsychiatry Clin Neurosci 1991; 3:387-391
40. Sheline YI, Sanhavi M, Mintun MA, Gado MU: Depression duration but not age predicts hippocampal volume loss in medically healthy women with recurrent major depression. J Neurosci 1999; 19:5034-5043
41. Vakili K, Pillay SS, Lafer B, Fava M, Renshaw PF, Bonello-Cintron CM, Yurgelun-Todd DA: Hippocampal volume in primary unipolar major depression: a magnetic resonance imaging study. Biol Psychiatry 2000; 47:1087-1090
42. Steffens DC, Byrum CE, McQuoid DR, Greenburg DL, Payne ME, Blichington TT, McFall JR, Krishnan KRR: Hippocampal volume in geriatric depression. Biol Psychiatry 2000; 48:301-309
43. Mervaala E, Fohr J, Konogen M, Valkonen-Korhonen M, Vainio P, Partanen J, Tiihonen J, Vinamaki H, Karjalainen AK, Lehtonen J: Quantitative MRI of the hippocampus and amygdala in severe depression. Psychol Med 2000; 30:117-125
44. Sheline YI: 3D MRI studies of neuroanatomical changes in unipolar major depression: the role of stress and medical comorbidity. Biol Psychiatry 2000; 48:791-800
45. Sheline YI, Wang P, Gado M, Csernansky J, Vannier M: Hippocampal atrophy in major depression. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 1996; 93:3908-3913
46. Pantel J, Schroder J, Essig M, Popp D, Deeh H, Knopp MV, Scherd LR, Eysenbach K, Backenstrass M, Friedlinger M: Quantitative magnetic resonance imaging in geriatric depression and primary degenerative dementia. J Affect Disord 1997; 42:69-83
47. Ashtari M, Greenwald BS, Kramer-Ginsberg E, Hu J, Wu H, Patel M, Aupperle P, Pollock S: Hippocampal/amygdala volumes in geriatric depression. Psychol Med 1999; 29:629-638
48. Drevets WC, Price JL, Simpson JRJ, Todd RD, Reich T, Vannier M, Raichle ME: Subgenual prefrontal cortex abnormalities in mood disorders. Nature 1997; 386:824-827
49. Lai TJ, Payne ME, Byrum CE, Steffens D, Krishnan KR: Reduction of orbital frontal cortex volume in geriatric depression. Biol Psychiatry 2000; 48:971-975
50. Bremner JD, Vythilingam M, Vermetten E, Nazeer A, Adil J, Khan S, Staib LH, Charney DS: Reduced volume of orbitofrontal cortex in major depression. Biol Psychiatry 2002; 51:273-279
51. Ebert D, Feistel H, Barocka A: Effects of sleep deprivation on the limbic system and the frontal lobes in affective disorders: a study with Tc-99m-HMPAO SPECT. Psychiatry Res Neuroimaging 1991; 40:247-251
52. Bench CJ, Friston KJ, Brown RG, Scott LC, Frackowiak RSJ, Dolan RJ: The anatomy of melancholia: focal abnormalities of cerebral blood flow in major depression. Psychol Med 1992; 22:607-615
53. Baxter LR, Schwartz JM, Phelps ME, Mazziotta JC, Guze BH, Selin CE, Gerner RH, Smida RM: Reduction of prefrontal cortex glucose metabolism common to three types of depression. Arch Gen Psychiatry 1989; 46:243-249
54. Martinot JL, Hardy P, Feline A, Huret J-D, Mazoyer B, Attar-Levy D, Pappata S, Syrota A: Left prefrontal glucose hypometabolism in the depressed state: a confirmation. Am J Psychiatry 1990; 147:1313-1317
55. Mayberg HS, Lewis PJ, Regenold W, Wagner HN: Paralimbic hypoperfusion in unipolar depression. J Nucl Med 1994; 35:929-934
56. Mayberg HS: Frontal lobe dysfunction in secondary depression. J Neuropsychiatry Clin Neurosci 1994; 6:428-442
57. Biver F, Goldman S, Delvenne V, Luxen A, De Maertelaer V, Hubain P, Mendlewicz J, Lotstra F: Frontal and parietal metabolic disturbances in unipolar depression. Biol Psychiatry 1994; 36:381-388
58. Mayberg HS, Starkstein SE, Peyser CE, Brandt J, Dannals RF, Folstein SE: Paralimbic frontal lobe hypometabolism in depression associated with Huntington's disease. Neurology 1992; 42:1791-1797
59. Mayberg HS, Starkstein SE, Sadzot B, Preziosi T, Andrezejewski PL, Dannals RF, Wagner HN, Robinson RG: Selective hypometabolism in the inferior frontal lobe in depressed patients with Parkinson's disease. Annal Neurol 1990; 28:57-64
60. Ring RA, Bench CJ, Trimble MR, Brooks DJ, Frackowiak RSJ, Dolan RJ: Depression in Parkinson's disease: a positron emission study. Br J Psychiatry 1994; 165:333-339
61. de Asis JM, Stern E, Alexopoulos GS, Pan H, Van Gorp W, Blumberg H, Kalayam B, Eidelberg D, Kiosses D, Silbersweig DA: Hippocampal and anterior cingulate activation deficits in patients with geriatric depression. Am J Psychiatry 2001; 158:1321-1323
62. Mann JJ, Malone KM, Diehl DJ, Perel J, Cooper TB, Mintun MA: Demonstration in vivo of reduced serotonin responsivity in the brain of untreated depressed patients. Am J Psychiatry 1996; 153:174-182; correction, 153:588
63. Bremner JD, Vythilingam M, Ng CK, Vermetten E, Nazeer A, Oren D, Berman RM, Charney DS: Regional brain metabolic correlates of positron emission tomographic measurement of alpha-methylparatyrosine-induced depressive symptoms: implications for the neural circuitry of depression. JAMA 2003; 289:3125-3134
64. Squire LR, Ojemann JG, Miezin FM, Petersen SE, Videen TO, Raichle ME: Activation of the hippocampus in normal humans: a functional anatomical study of memory. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 1992; 89:1837-1841
65. Schacter DL, Alpert NM, Savage CR, Rauch SL, Albert MS: Conscious recollection and the human hippocampal formation: evidence from positron emission tomography. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 1996; 93:321-325
66. Schacter DL, Savage CR, Alpert NM, Rauch SL, Albert MS: The role of hippocampus and frontal cortex in age-related memory changes: a PET study. Neuroreport 1996; 7:1165-1169
67. Grasby PM, Frith CD, Friston KJ, Bench C, Frackowiak RSJ, Dolan RJ: Functional mapping of brain areas implicated in auditory-verbal memory function. Brain 1993; 116:1-20
68. Tulving E, Kapur S, Markowitsch HJ, Craik FIM, Habib R, Houle S: Neuroanatomical correlates of retrieval in episodic memory: auditory sentence recognition. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 1994; 91:2012-2015
69. Nyberg L, McIntosh AR, Cabeza R, Habib R, Houle S, Tulving E: General and specific brain regions involved in encoding and retrieval of events: what, where, and when. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 1996; 93:11280-11285
70. Buckner RL, Petersen SE, Ojemann JG, Miezin FM, Squire LR, Raichle ME: Functional anatomical studies of explicit and implicit memory retrieval tasks. J Neurosci 1995; 15:12-29
71. Shallice T, Fletcher P, Frith CD, Grasby P, Frackowiak RSJ, Dolan RJ: Brain regions associated with acquisition and retrieval of verbal episodic memory. Nature 1994; 368:633-635
72. Andreasen NC, O'Leary DS, Arndt S, Cizadlo T, Hurtig R, Rezai K, Watkins GL, Boles Ponto LL, Hichwa RD: Short-term and long-term verbal memory: a positron emission tomography study. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 1995; 92:5111-5115
73. Fletcher PC, Frith CD, Grasby PM, Schallice T, Frackowiak RSJ, Dolan RJ: Brain systems of encoding and retrieval of auditory-verbal memory: an in vivo study in humans. Brain 1995; 118: 401-416
74. Bremner JD, Soufer R, McCarthy G, Delaney RC, Staib LH, Duncan JS, Charney DS: Gender differences in cognitive and neural correlates of remembrance of emotional words. Psychopharmacol Bull 2001; 35:55-87
75. Kapur S, Craik FIM, Tulving E, Wilson AA, Houle S, Brown GM: Neuroanatomical correlates of encoding in episodic memory: levels of processing effect. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 1994; 91: 2008-2011
76. Nyberg L, McIntosh AR, Houle S, Nilsson L-G, Tulving E: Activation of medial temporal structures during episodic memory retrieval. Nature 1996; 380:715-717
77. Grasby PM, Frith CD, Friston KJ, Frackowiak RSJ, Dolan RJ: Activation of the human hippocampal formation during auditory-verbal long-term memory function. Neurosci Lett 1993; 163: 185-188
78. Dolan RJ, Fletcher PC: Dissociating prefrontal and hippocampal function in episodic memory encoding. Nature 1997; 388:582-585
79. Grady CL, McIntosh AR, Horwitz B, Maisog JM, Ungerleider LG, Mentis MJ, Pietrini P, Schapiro MB, Haxby JV: Age-related reductions in human recognition memory due to impaired encoding. Science 1995; 269:218-221
80. Haxby JV, Horwitz B, Ungerleider LG, Maisog JM, Pietrini P, Grady CL: The functional organization of human extrastriate cortex: a PET-rCBF study of selective attention to faces and locations. J Neurosci 1994; 14:6336-6353
81. Haxby JV, Ungerleider LG, Horwitz B, Maisog JM, Rapoport SI, Grady CL: Face encoding and recognition in the human brain. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 1996; 93:922-927
82. Kapur N, Friston KJ, Young A, Frith CD, Frackowiak RSJ: Activation of human hippocampal formation during memory for faces: a PET study. Cortex 1995; 31:99-108
83. Schacter DL, Reiman E, Uecker A, Polster MR, Yun LS, Cooper LA: Brain regions associated with retrieval of structurally coherent visual information. Nature 1995; 376:587-590
84. Ghaem O, Mellet E, Crivello F, Tzourio N, Mazoyer B, Berthoz A, Denis M: Mental navigation along recognition in the human brain. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 1996; 93:922-927
85. Maguire EA, Frackowiak RSJ, Frith CD: Learning to find your way: a role for the human hippocampal retrieval of structurally coherent visual information. Nature 1995; 376:587-590
86. Bremner JD, Vythilingam M, Vermetten E, Southwick SM, McGlashan T, Nazeer A, Khan S, Vaccarino LV, Soufer R, Garg PK, Ng CK, Staib LH, Duncan JS, Charney DS: MRI and PET study of deficits in hippocampal structure and function in women with childhood sexual abuse and posttraumatic stress disorder. Am J Psychiatry 2003; 160:924-932
87. Zola-Morgan SM, Squire LR: The primate hippocampal formation: evidence for a time-limited role in memory storage. Science 1990; 250:288-290
88. Scoville WB, Milner B: Loss of recent memory after bilateral hippocampal lesions. J Neurol Psychiatry 1957; 20:11-21
89. First M, Spitzer R, Williams J, Gibbon M: Structured Clinical Interview for DSM-IV-Non-Patient Edition (SCID-NP, Version 1.0). Washington, DC, American Psychiatric Press, 1995
90. Hamilton M: A rating scale for depression. J Neurol Neurosurg Psychiatry 1960; 23:56-62
91. Bremner JD, Vermetten E, Mazure CM: Development and preliminary psychometric properties of an instrument for the measurement of childhood trauma: the Early Trauma Inventory. Depress Anxiety 2000; 12:1-12
92. Friston KJ, Ashburner J, Frith CD, Poline JB, Heather JD, Frackowiak RS: Spatial registration and normalization of images. Hum Brain Mapp 1995; 2:165-189
93. Matthew E, Andreason P, Carson RE, Herscovitch P, Pettigrew K, Cohen R, King C, Johanson CE, Paul SM: Reproducibility of resting cerebral blood flow measurements with H2(15)O positron emission tomography in humans. J Cereb Blood Flow Metab 1993; 13:748-754
94. Li HH, Votaw JR: Optimization of PET activation studies based on the SNR measured in the 3-D Hoffman Brain Phantom. IEEE Trans Med Imaging 1998; 17:596-606
95. Friston KJ: Statistical parametric mapping, in Functional Neuroimaging: Technical Foundations. Edited by Thatcher RW, Hallett M, Zeffiro T, John ER, Huerta M. San Diego, Academic Press, 1994, pp 79-93
96. Friston KJ, Frith CD, Liddle PF, Frackowiak RS: Comparing functional (PET) images: the assessment of significant change. J Cereb Blood Flow Metab 1991; 11:690-699
97. Talairach J, Tournoux P: Co-Planar Stereotaxic Atlas of the Human Brain: Three-Dimensional Proportional System. New York, Thieme Medical, 1988
98. Schallice T, Fletcher P, Frith CD, Grasby P, Frackowiak RSJ, Dolan RJ: Brain regions associated with acquisition and retrieval of verbal episodic memory. Nature 1994; 368:633-635
99. Tulving E, Kapur S, Craik FIM, Moscovitch M, Houle S: Hemispheric encoding/retrieval asymmetry in episodic memory: positron emission tomography findings. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 1994; 91:2016-2020
100. Petersen SE, Fox PT, Posner MI, Mintun MA, Raichle ME: Positron emission tomographic studies of the cortical anatomy of single word processing. Nature 1988; 331:585-589
101. Frith CD, Friston K, Liddle PF, Frackowiak RS: Willed action and the prefrontal cortex in man: a study with PET. Proc R Soc Lond B Biol Sci 1991; 244:241-246
102. Goldman-Rakic PS: Topography of cognition: parallel distributed networks in primate association cortex. Annu Rev Neurosci 1988; 11:137-156
103. McCarthy G: Functional neuroimaging of memory. Neuroscientist 1995; 1:155-163
104. Bremner JD, Narayan M, Charney DS: Reply to LT Van Elst: Hippocampus and amygdala pathology in depression (letter). Am J Psychiatry 2001; 158:653
105. Nelson MD, Saykin AJ, Flashman LA, Riordan HJ: Hippocampal volume reduction in schizophrenia as assessed by magnetic resonance imaging: a meta-analytic study. Arch Gen Psychiatry 1998; 55:433-440
106. Tamminga CA, Thaker GK, Buchanan R, Kirkpatrick B, Alphs LD, Chase TN, Carpenter WT: Limbic system abnormalities identified in schizophrenia using positron emission tomography with fluorodeoxyglucose and neocortical alterations with deficit syndrome. Arch Gen Psychiatry 1992; 49:522-530
107. Shenton ME, Kikinis R, Jolesz FA, Pollak SD, Lemay M, Wible CG, Hokama H, Martin J, Metcalf D, Coleman M, McCarley RW: Abnormalities of the left temporal lobe and thought disorder in schizophrenia: a quantitative magnetic resonance imaging study. N Engl J Med 1992; 327:604-612