Semiconductor nanocrystals hybridized with functional ligands: New composite materials with tunable properties

Materials

Volumn 3, Issue 1, 2010, Pages 614-637

  McDowell, Matthew ^a   Wright, Ashley E ^a   Hammer, Nathan I ^a  

^a UNIVERSITY OF MISSISSIPPI   (United States)

Author keywords

Composite material; Hybrid nanostructures; Ligand; Quantum dots; Review; Structural and functional properties; Synthesis

Indexed keywords

DEVELOPMENT AND APPLICATIONS; FUNCTIONAL LIGANDS; FUNCTIONAL PROPERTIES; HYBRID NANOSTRUCTURES; LIGAND ARCHITECTURE; NANOSCALE BUILDING BLOCKS; SEMICONDUCTOR NANOCRYSTALS; TUNABLE PROPERTIES;

CHELATION; COMPOSITE MATERIALS; NANOCRYSTALS; REVIEWS; SEMICONDUCTOR QUANTUM DOTS; SYNTHESIS (CHEMICAL);

LIGANDS;

EID: 80054031504     PISSN: None     EISSN: 19961944     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.3390/ma3010614     Document Type: Article

References (179)

1. Murray, C.B.; Norris, D.J.; Bawendi, M.G. Synthesis and Characterization of Nearly Monodisperse Cde (E = S, Se, Te) Semiconductor Nanocrystallites. J. Am. Chem. Soc. 1993, 115, 8706-8715.
2. Dabbousi, B.O.; RodriguezViejo, J.; Mikulec, F.V.; Heine, J.R.; Mattoussi, H.; Ober, R.; Jensen, K.F.; Bawendi, M.G. (CdSe)ZnS core-shell quantum dots: Synthesis and characterization of a size series of highly luminescent nanocrystallites. J. Phys. Chem. B 1997, 101, 9463-9475.
3. Alivisatos, A.P. Perspectives on the physical chemistry of semiconductor nanocrystals. J. Phys. Chem. 1996, 100, 13226-13239.
4. Nozik, A.J. Fundamentals and applications of quantum-confined structures. In Nanostructured and Photoelectrochemical Systems for Solar Photon Conversion; Archer, M.D., Nozik, A.J., Eds.; Imperial College Press: London, UK, 2008; pp. 147-208.
5. Lu, W.G.; Fang, J.Y.; Ding, Y.; Wang, Z.L. Formation of PbSe nanocrystals: A growth toward nanocubes. J. Phys. Chem. B 2005, 109, 19219-19222.
6. Lifshitz, E.; Bashouti, M.; Kloper, V.; Kigel, A.; Eisen, M.S.; Berger, S. Synthesis and characterization of PbSe quantum wires, multipods, quantum rods, and cubes. Nano Lett. 2003, 3, 857-862.
7. Jun, Y.W.; Seo, J.W.; Oh, S.J.; Cheon, J. Recent advances in the shape control of inorganic nano-building blocks. Coord. Chem. Rev. 2005, 249, 1766-1775.
8. Yin, Y.; Alivisatos, A.P. Colloidal nanocrystal synthesis and the organic-inorganic interface. Nature 2005, 437, 664-670.
9. Talapin, D.V.; Rogach, A.L.; Kornowski, A.; Haase, M.; Weller, H. Highly luminescent monodisperse CdSe and CdSe/ZnS nanocrystals synthesized in a hexadecylaminetrioctylphosphine oxide-trioctylphospine mixture. Nano Lett. 2001, 1, 207-211.
10. Peng, X.G.; Manna, L.; Yang, W.D.; Wickham, J.; Scher, E.; Kadavanich, A.; Alivisatos, A.P. Shape control of CdSe nanocrystals. Nature 2000, 404, 59-61.
11. Peng, X.G. Mechanisms for the shape-control and shape-evolution of colloidal semiconductor nanocrystals. Adv. Mater. 2003, 15, 459-463.
12. Manna, L.; Scher, E.C.; Alivisatos, A.P. Synthesis of soluble and processable rod-, arrow-, teardrop-, and tetrapod-shaped CdSe nanocrystals. J. Am. Chem. Soc. 2000, 122, 12700-12706.
13. Houtepen, A.J.; Koole, R.; Vanmaekelbergh, D.L.; Meeldijk, J.; Hickey, S.G. The hidden role of acetate in the PbSe nanocrystal synthesis. J. Am. Chem. Soc. 2006, 128, 6792-6793.
14. Peng, X.G.; Wickham, J.; Alivisatos, A.P. Kinetics of II-VI and III-V colloidal semiconductor nanocrystal growth: "Focusing" of size distributions. J. Am. Chem. Soc. 1998, 120, 5343-5344.
15. Murray, C.B.; Sun, S.H.; Gaschler, W.; Doyle, H.; Betley, T.A.; Kagan, C.R. Colloidal synthesis of nanocrystals and nanocrystal superlattices. IBM J. Res. Dev. 2001, 45, 47-56.
16. Steigerwald, M.L.; Alivisatos, A.P.; Gibson, J.M.; Harris, T.D.; Kortan, R.; Muller, A.J.; Thayer, A.M.; Duncan, T.M.; Douglass, D.C.; Brus, L.E. Surface derivatization and isolation of semiconductor cluster molecules. J. Am. Chem. Soc. 1988, 110, 3046-3050.
17. Spanhel, L.; Haase, M.; Weller, H.; Henglein, A. Photochemistry of colloidal semiconductors. Surface modification and stability of strong luminescing CdS particles. J. Am. Chem. Soc. 1987, 109, 5649-5655.
18. Peng, X.G.; Schlamp, M.C.; Kadavanich, A.V.; Alivisatos, A.P. Epitaxial growth of highly luminescent CdSe/CdS core/shell nanocrystals with photostability and electronic accessibility. J. Am. Chem. Soc. 1997, 119, 7019-7029.
19. Kortan, A.R.; Hull, R.; Opila, R.L.; Bawendi, M.G.; Steigerwald, M.L.; Carroll, P.J.; Brus, L.E. Nucleation and growth of Cdse on Zns quantum crystallite seeds, and vice versa, in inverse micelle media. J. Am. Chem. Soc. 1990, 112, 1327-1332.
20. Hines, M.A.; Guyot-Sionnest, P. Synthesis and characterization of strongly luminescing ZnScapped CdSe nanocrystals. J. Phys. Chem. 1996, 100, 468-471.
21. Tian, Y.; Newton, T.; Kotov, N.A.; Guldi, D.M.; Fendler, J.H. Coupled composite CdS-CdSe and core-shell types of (CdS)CdSe and (CdSe)CdS nanoparticles. J. Phys. Chem. 1996, 100, 8927-8939.
22. Mekis, I.; Talapin, D.V.; Kornowski, A.; Haase, M.; Weller, H. One-pot synthesis of highly luminescent CdSe/CdS core-shell nanocrystals via organometallic and "greener" chemical approaches. J. Phys. Chem. B 2003, 107, 7454-7462.
23. Sashchiuk, A.; Langof, L.; Chaim, R.; Lifshitz, E. Synthesis and characterization of PbSe and PbSe/PbS core-shell colloidal nanocrystals. J. Cryst. Growth 2002, 240, 431-438.
24. Alivisatos, A.P. Semiconductor clusters, nanocrystals, and quantum dots. Science 1996, 271, 933-937.
25. Smith, A.M.; Nie, S. Semiconductor nanocrystals: Structure, properties, and band gap engineering. Acc. Chem. Res. 2010, doi: 10.1021/ar9001069.
26. Munro, A.M.; Plante, I.J.L.; Ng, M.S.; Ginger, D.S. Quantitative study of the effects of surface ligand concentration on CdSe nanocrystal photoluminescence. J. Phys. Chem. C 2007, 111, 6220-6227.
27. Schreuder, M.A.; McBride, J.R.; Dukes, A.D.; Sammons, J.A.; Rosenthal, S.J. Control of surface state emission via phosphonic acid modulation in ultrasmall CdSe nanocrystals: The role of ligand electronegativity. J. Phys. Chem. C 2009, 113, 8169-8176.
28. Dorokhin, D.; Tomczak, N.; Velders, A.H.; Reinhoudt, D.N.; Vancso, G.J. Photoluminescence quenching of CdSe/ZnS quantum dots by molecular ferrocene and ferrocenyl thiol ligands. J. Phys. Chem. C 2009, 113, 18676-18680.
29. Munro, A.M.; Ginger, D.S. Photoluminescence quenching of single CdSe nanocrystals by ligand adsorption. Nano Lett. 2008, 8, 2585-2590.
30. Chan, W.C.W.; Nie, S. Quantum dot bioconjugates for ultrasensitive nonisotopic detection. Science 1998, 281, 2016-2018.
31. Uyeda, H.T.; Medintz, I.L.; Jaiswal, J.K.; Simon, S.M.; Mattoussi, H. Synthesis of compact multidentate ligands to prepare stable hydrophilic quantum dot fluorophores. J. Am. Chem. Soc. 2005, 127, 3870-3878.
32. Pathak, S.; Choi, S.K.; Arnheim, N.; Thompson, M.E. Hydroxylated quantum dots as luminescent probes for in situ hybridization. J. Am. Chem. Soc. 2001, 123, 4103-4104.
33. Aldana, J.; Wang, Y.A.; Peng, X. Photochemical instability of CdSe nanocrystals coated by hydrophilic thiols. J. Am. Chem. Soc. 2001, 123, 8844-8850.
34. Querner, C.; Reiss, P.; Bleuse, J.; Pron, A. Chelating ligands for nanocrystals' surface functionalization. J. Am. Chem. Soc. 2004, 126, 11574-11582.
35. Zhang, C.; O'Brien, S.; Balogh, L. Comparison and stability of cdse nanocrystals covered with amphiphilic poly(amidoamine) dendrimers. J. Phys. Chem. B 2002, 106, 10316-10321.
36. Guo, W.Z.; Li, J.J.; Wang, Y.A.; Peng, X.G. Conjugation chemistry and bioapplications of semiconductor box nanocrystals prepared via dendrimer bridging. Chem. Mater. 2003, 15, 3125-3133.
37. Pinaud, F.; King, D.; Moore, H.P.; Weiss, S. Bioactivation and cell targeting of semiconductor CdSe/ZnS nanocrystals with phytochelatin-related peptides. J. Am. Chem. Soc. 2004, 126, 6115-6123.
38. Kim, S.; Bawendi, M.G. Oligomeric ligands for luminescent and stable nanocrystal quantum dots. J. Am. Chem. Soc. 2003, 125, 14652-14653.
39. Kim, S.W.; Kim, S.; Tracy, J.B.; Jasanoff, A.; Bawendi, M.G. Phosphine oxide polymer for water-soluble nanoparticles. J. Am. Chem. Soc. 2005, 127, 4556-4557.
40. Zhang, T.; Ge, J.; Hu, Y.; Yin, Y. A general approach for transferring hydrophobic nanocrystals into water. Nano Lett. 2007, 7, 3203-3207.
41. Talapin, D.V.; Rogach, A.L.; Mekis, I.; Haubold, S.; Kornowski, A.; Haase, M.; Weller, H. Synthesis and surface modification of amino-stabilized CdSe, CdTe and InP nanocrystals. Colloids Surf. A 2002, 202, 145-154.
42. Bullen, C.; Mulvaney, P. The Effects of chemisorption on the luminescence of CdSe quantum dots. Langmuir 2006, 22, 3007-3013.
43. Wuister, S.F.; Swart, I.; van Driel, F.; Hickey, S.G.; Donega, C.D. Highly luminescent watersoluble CdTe quantum dots. Nano Lett. 2003, 3, 503-507.
44. Puzder, A.; Williamson, A.J.; Zaitseva, N.; Galli, G.; Manna, L.; Alivisatos, A.P. The effect of organic ligand binding on the growth of CdSe nanoparticles probed by Ab initio calculations. Nano Lett. 2004, 4, 2361-2365.
45. Pong, B.-K.; Trout, B.L.; Lee, J.-Y. Modified ligand-exchange for efficient solubilization of CdSe/ZnS quantum dots in water: A procedure guided by computational studies. Langmuir 2008, 24, 5270-5276.
46. Schapotschnikow, P.; Hommersom, B.; Vlugt, T.J.H. Adsorption and binding of ligands to CdSe nanocrystals. J. Phys. Chem. C 2009, 113, 12690-12698.
47. Wang, M.; Oh, J.K.; Dykstra, T.E.; Lou, X.; Scholes, G.D.; Winnik, M.A. Surface modification of CdSe and CdSe/ZnS semiconductor nanocrystals with poly(N,N-dimethylaminoethyl methacrylate). Macromolecules 2006, 39, 3664-3672.
48. Wang, M.; Felorzabihi, N.; Guerin, G.; Haley, J.C.; Scholes, G.D.; Winnik, M.A. Water-soluble CdSe quantum dots passivated by a multidentate diblock copolymer. Macromolecules 2007, 40, 6377-6384.
49. Algar, W.R.; Krull, U.J. Multidentate surface ligand exchange for the immobilization of CdSe/ZnS quantum dots and surface quantum dot-oligonucleotide conjugates. Langmuir 2008, 24, 5514-5520.
50. Smith, A.M.; Nie, S. Minimizing the hydrodynamic size of quantum dots with multifunctional multidentate polymer ligands. J. Am. Chem. Soc. 2008, 130, 11278-11279.
51. Dubertret, B.; Skourides, P.; Norris, D.J.; Noireaux, V.; Brivanlou, A.H.; Libchaber, A. In vivo imaging of quantum dots encapsulated in phospholipid micelles. Science 2002, 298, 1759-1762.
52. Pellegrino, T.; Manna, L.; Kudera, S.; Liedl, T.; Koktysh, D.; Rogach, A.L.; Keller, S.; Radler, J.; Natile, G.; Parak, W.J. Hydrophobic nanocrystals coated with an amphiphilic polymer shell: A general route to water soluble nanocrystals. Nano Lett. 2004, 4, 703-707.
53. Milliron, D.J.; Alivisatos, A.P.; Pitois, C.; Edder, C.; Fréchet, J.M.J. Electroactive surfactant designed to mediate electron transfer between CdSe nanocrystals and organic semiconductors. Adv. Mater. 2003, 15, 58-61.
54. Querner, C.; Reiss, P.; Sadki, S.; Zagorska, M.; Pron, A. Size and ligand effects on the electrochemical and spectroelectrochemical responses of CdSe nanocrystals. Phys. Chem. Chem. Phys. 2005, 7, 3204-3209.
55. Wang, Q.B.; Xu, Y.; Zhao, X.H.; Chang, Y.; Liu, Y.; Jiang, L.J.; Sharma, J.; Seo, D.K.; Yan, H. A facile one-step in situ functionalization of quantum dots with preserved photoluminescence for bioconjugation. J. Am. Chem. Soc. 2007, 129, 6380-6381.
56. Skaff, H.; Sill, K.; Emrick, T. Quantum dots tailored with poly(para-phenylene vinylene). J. Am. Chem. Soc. 2004, 126, 11322-11325.
57. Odoi, M.Y.; Hammer, N.I.; Sill, K.; Emrick, T.; Barnes, M.D. Observation of enhanced energy transfer in individual quantum dot-oligophenylene vinylene nanostructures. J. Am. Chem. Soc. 2006, 128, 3506-3507.
58. Ginger, D.S.; Greenham, N.C. Photoinduced electron transfer from conjugated polymers to CdSe nanocrystals. Phys. Rev. B 1999, 59, 10622-10629.
59. Hammer, N.I.; Early, K.T.; Sill, K.; Odoi, M.Y.; Emrick, T.; Barnes, M.D. Coverage-mediated suppression of blinking in solid state quantum dot conjugated organic composite nanostructures. J. Phys. Chem. B 2006, 110, 14167-14171.
60. Hammer, N.I.; Emrick, T.; Barnes, M.D. Quantum dots coordinated with conjugated organic ligands: new nanomaterials with novel photophysics. Nanoscale Res. Lett. 2007, 2, 282-290.
61. Odoi, M.Y.; Hammer, N.I.; Early, K.T.; McCarthy, K.D.; Tangirala, R.; Emrick, T.; Barnes, M.D. Fluorescence lifetimes and correlated photon statistics from single CdSe/oligo(phenylene vinylene) composite nanostructures. Nano Lett. 2007, 7, 2769-2773.
62. Early, K.T.; McCarthy, K.D.; Hammer, N.I.; Odoi, M.Y.; Tangirala, R.; Emrick, T.; Barnes, M.D. Blinking suppression and intensity recurrences in single CdSe-oligo(phenylene vinylene) nanostructures: experiment and kinetic model. Nanotechnology 2007, 18, 424027.
63. Sudeep, P.K.; Early, K.T.; McCarthy, K.D.; Odoi, M.Y.; Barnes, M.D.; Emrick, T. Monodisperse Oligo(phenylene vinylene) Ligands on CdSe Quantum Dots: Synthesis and Polarization Anisotropy Measurements. J. Am. Chem. Soc. 2008, 130, 2384-2385.
64. Ballou, B.; Lagerholm, B.C.; Ernst, L.A.; Bruchez, M.P.; Waggoner, A.S. Noninvasive Imaging of Quantum Dots in Mice. Bioconjugate Chem. 2004, 15, 79-86.
65. Bruchez, M.; Moronne, M.; Gin, P.; Weiss, S.; Alivisatos, A.P. Semiconductor nanocrystals as fluorescent biological labels. Science 1998, 281, 2013-2016.
66. Michalet, X.; Pinaud, F.F.; Bentolila, L.A.; Tsay, J.M.; Doose, S.; Li, J.J.; Sundaresan, G.; Wu, A.M.; Gambhir, S.S.; Weiss, S. Quantum dots for live cells, in vivo imaging, and diagnostics. Science 2005, 307, 538-544.
67. Mattoussi, H.; Mauro, J.M.; Goldman, E.R.; Anderson, G.P.; Sundar, V.C.; Mikulec, F.V.; Bawendi, M.G. Self-assembly of CdSe-ZnS quantum dot bioconjugates using an engineered recombinant protein. J. Am. Chem. Soc. 2000, 122, 12142-12150.
68. Yu, W.W.; Chang, E.; Drezek, R.; Colvin, V.L. Water-soluble quantum dots for biomedical applications. Biochem. Biophys. Res. Commun. 2006, 348, 781-786.
69. Pons, T.; Mattoussi, H. Investigating biological processes at the single molecule level using luminescent quantum dots. Ann. Biomed. Eng. 2009, 37, 1934-1959.
70. Chan, W.C.W.; Maxwell, D.J.; Gao, X.; Bailey, R.E.; Han, M.; Nie, S. Luminescent quantum dots for multiplexed biological detection and imaging. Curr. Opin. Biotechnol. 2002, 13, 40-46.
71. Pathak, S.; Cao, E.; Davidson, M.C.; Jin, S.; Silva, G.A. Quantum dot applications to neuroscience: New tools for probing neurons and glia. J. Neurosci. 2006, 26, 1893-1895.
72. Jaiswal, J.K.; Mattoussi, H.; Mauro, J.M.; Simon, S.M. Long-term multiple color imaging of live cells using quantum dot bioconjugates. Nat. Biotechnol. 2003, 21, 47-51.
73. Wu, X.; Liu, H.; Liu, J.; Haley, K.N.; Treadway, J.A.; Larson, J.P.; Ge, N.; Peale, F.; Bruchez, M.P. Immunofluorescent labeling of cancer marker Her2 and other cellular targets with semiconductor quantum dots. Nat. Biotechnol. 2002, 21, 41-46.
74. Mahtab, R.; Harden, H.H.; Murphy, C.J. Temperature- and salt-dependent binding of long DNA to protein-sized quantum dots: Thermodynamics of "inorganic protein" - DNA interactions. J. Am. Chem. Soc. 1999, 122, 14-17.
75. Mitchell, G.P.; Mirkin, C.A.; Letsinger, R.L. Programmed assembly of DNA functionalized quantum dots. J. Am. Chem. Soc. 1999, 121, 8122-8123.
76. Sun, B.; Xieb, W.; Yia, G.; Chen, D.; Zhoub, Y.; Chengb, J. Microminiaturized immunoassays using quantum dots as fluorescent label by laser confocal scanning fluorescence detection J. Immunol. Methods 2001, 249, 85-89.
77. Han, M.; Gao, X.; Su, J.Z.; Nie, S. Quantum-dot-tagged microbeads for multiplexed optical coding of biomolecules. Nat. Biotechnol. 2001, 19, 631-635.
78. Mitchell, P. Turning the spotlight on cellular imaging. Nat. Biotechnol. 2001, 19, 1013-1017.
79. Christof, M.N. Nanoparticles, proteins, and nucleic acids: Biotechnology meets materials science. Angew. Chem. Int. Ed. 2001, 40, 4128-4158.
80. Kim, S.; Lim, Y.T.; Soltesz, E.G.; De Grand, A.M.; Lee, J.; Nakayama, A.; Parker, J.A.; Mihaljevic, T.; Laurence, R.G.; Dor, D.M.; Cohn, L.H.; Bawendi, M.G.; Frangioni, J.V. Nearinfrared fluorescent type II quantum dots for sentinel lymph node mapping. Nat. Biotechnol. 2004, 22, 93-97.
81. Larson, D.R.; Zipfel, W.R.; Williams, R.M.; Clark, S.W.; Bruchez, M.P.; Wise, F.W.; Webb, W.W. Water-soluble quantum dots for multiphoton fluorescence imaging in vivo. Science 2003, 300, 1434-1436.
82. Alivisatos, A.P.; Gu, W.W.; Larabell, C. Quantum dots as cellular probes. Annu. Rev. Biomed. Eng. 2005, 7, 55-76.
83. Alivisatos, P. Colloidal quantum dots. From scaling laws to biological applications. Pure Appl. Chem. 2000, 72, 3-9.
84. Jiang, W.; Mardyani, S.; Fischer, H.; Chan, W.C.W. Design and characterization of lysine crosslinked mereapto-acid biocompatible quantum dots. Chem. Mater. 2006, 18, 872-878.
85. Schroedter, A.; Weller, H.; Eritja, R.; Ford, W.E.; Wessels, J.M. Biofunctionalization of silicacoated CdTe and gold nanocrystals. Nano Lett. 2002, 2, 1363-1367.
86. Zheng, Y.G.; Gao, S.J.; Ying, J.Y. Synthesis and cell-imaging applications of glutathione-capped CdTe quantum dots. Adv. Mater. 2007, 19, 376-380.
87. Alivisatos, P. The use of nanocrystals in biological detection. Nat. Biotechnol. 2004, 22, 47-52.
88. Parak, W.J.; Gerion, D.; Pellegrino, T.; Zanchet, D.; Micheel, C.; Williams, S.C.; Boudreau, R.; Le Gros, M.A.; Larabell, C.A.; Alivisatos, A.P. Biological applications of colloidal nanocrystals. Nanotechnology 2003, 14, R15-R27.
89. Gao, X.H.; Nie, S.M. Molecular profiling of single cells and tissue specimens with quantum dots. Trends Biotechnol. 2003, 21, 371-373.
90. Michalet, X.; Pinaud, F.; Lacoste, T.D.; Dahan, M.; Bruchez, M.P.; Alivisatos, A.P.; Weiss, S. Properties of fluorescent semiconductor nanocrystals and their application to biological labeling. Single Mol. 2001, 2, 261-276.
91. Sutherland, A.J. Quantum dots as luminescent probes in biological systems. Curr. Opin. Solid State Mater. Sci. 2002, 6, 365-370.
92. Watson, A.; Wu, X.Y.; Bruchez, M. Lighting up cells with quantum dots. BioTechniques 2003, 34, 296-300.
93. Yu, W.W.; Chang, E.; Falkner, J.C.; Zhang, J.; Al-Somali, A.M.; Sayes, C.M.; Johns, J.; Drezek, R.; Colvin, V.L. Forming biocompatible and nonaggregated nanocrystals in water using amphiphilic polymers. J. Am. Chem. Soc. 2007, 129, 2871-2879.
94. Murcia, M.J.; Minner, D.E.; Mustata, G.-M.; Ritchie, K.; Naumann, C.A. Design of quantum dot-conjugated lipids for long-term, high-speed tracking experiments on cell surfaces. J. Am. Chem. Soc. 2008, 130, 15054-15062.
95. Gerion, D.; Pinaud, F.; Williams, S.C.; Parak, W.J.; Zanchet, D.; Weiss, S.; Alivisatos, A.P. Synthesis and properties of biocompatible water-soluble silica-coated CdSe/ZnS semiconductor quantum dots. J. Phys. Chem. B 2001, 105, 8861-8871.
96. Liu, W.; Howarth, M.; Greytak, A.B.; Zheng, Y.; Nocera, D.G.; Ting, A.Y.; Bawendi, M.G. Compact biocompatible quantum dots functionalized for cellular imaging. J. Am. Chem. Soc. 2008, 130, 1274-1284.
97. Shen, H.; Jawaid, A.M.; Snee, P.T. Poly(ethylene glycol) carbodiimide coupling reagents for the biological and chemical functionalization of water-soluble nanoparticles. Acs Nano 2009, 3, 915-923.
98. Duan, H.W.; Nie, S.M. Cell-penetrating quantum dots based on multivalent and endosomedisrupting surface coatings. J. Am. Chem. Soc. 2007, 129, 3333-3338.
99. Susumu, K.; Uyeda, H.T.; Medintz, I.L.; Pons, T.; Delehanty, J.B.; Mattoussi, H. Enhancing the stability and biological functionalities of quantum dots via compact multifunctional ligands. J. Am. Chem. Soc. 2007, 129, 13987-13996.
100. Warnement, M.R.; Tomlinson, I.D.; Chang, J.C.; Schreuder, M.A.; Luckabaugh, C.M.; Rosenthal, S.J. Controlling the reactivity of ampiphilic quantum dots in biological assays through hydrophobic assembly of custom PEG derivatives. Bioconjugate Chem. 2008, 19, 1404-1413.
101. Zhou, D.J.; Ying, L.M.; Hong, X.; Hall, E.A.; Abell, C.; Klenerman, D. A compact functional quantum dot-DNA conjugate: Preparation, hybridization, and specific label-free DNA detection. Langmuir 2008, 24, 1659-1664.
102. Shi, L.; Rosenzweig, N.; Rosenzweig, Z. Luminescent quantum dots fluorescence resonance energy transfer-based probes for enzymatic activity and enzyme inhibitors. Anal. Chem. 2006, 79, 208-214.
103. Yildiz, I.; McCaughan, B.; Cruickshank, S.F.; Callan, J.F.; Raymo, F.M. Biocompatible CdSe-ZnS core-shell quantum dots coated with hydrophilic polythiols. Langmuir 2009, 25, 7090-7096.
104. Susumu, K.; Mei, B.C.; Mattoussi, H. Multifunctional ligands based on dihydrolipoic acid and polyethylene glycol to promote biocompatibility of quantum dots. Nat. Protocol. 2009, 4, 424-436.
105. Kikkeri, R.; Lepenies, B.; Adibekian, A.; Laurino, P.; Seeberger, P.H. In vitro imaging and in vivo liver targeting with carbohydrate capped quantum dots. J. Am. Chem. Soc. 2009, 131, 2110-2112.
106. Murthy, S.N.; Nair, A.B.; Hammer, N.I.; Vaka, S.R.K.; Wright, A.E. Dermatokinetics of Nanoparticles. Unpublished work.
107. Willard, D.M.; Carillo, L.L.; Jung, J.; Van Orden, A. CdSe-ZnS quantum dots as resonance energy transfer donors in a model protein-protein binding assay. Nano Lett. 2001, 1, 469-474.
108. Mamedova, N.N.; Kotov, N.A.; Rogach, A.L.; Studer, J. Albumin-CdTe nanoparticle bioconjugates: Preparation, structure, and interunit energy transfer with antenna effect. Nano Lett. 2001, 1, 281-286.
109. Clapp, A.R.; Medintz, I.L.; Mauro, J.M.; Fisher, B.R.; Bawendi, M.G.; Mattoussi, H. Fluorescence resonance energy transfer between quantum dot donors and dye-labeled protein acceptors. J. Am. Chem. Soc. 2004, 126, 301-310.
110. Medintz, I.L.; Trammell, S.A.; Mattoussi, H.; Mauro, J.M. Reversible modulation of quantum dot photoluminescence using a protein-bound photochromic fluorescence resonance energy transfer acceptor. J. Am. Chem. Soc. 2004, 126, 30-31.
111. Hohng, S.; Ha, T. Single-molecule quantum-dot fluorescence resonance energy transfer. ChemPhysChem 2005, 6, 956-960.
112. Clapp, A.R.; Medintz, I.L.; Uyeda, H.T.; Fisher, B.R.; Goldman, E.R.; Bawendi, M.G.; Mattoussi, H. Quantum dot-based multiplexed fluorescence resonance energy transfer. J. Am. Chem. Soc. 2005, 127, 18212-18221.
113. Clapp, A.R.; Medintz, I.L.; Fisher, B.R.; Anderson, G.P.; Mattoussi, H. Can luminescent quantum dots be efficient energy acceptors with organic dye donors? J. Am. Chem. Soc. 2005, 127, 1242-1250.
114. Zhou, D.J.; Piper, J.D.; Abell, C.; Klenerman, D.; Kang, D.J.; Ying, L.M. Fluorescence resonance energy transfer between a quantum dot donor and a dye acceptor attached to DNA. Chem. Commun. 2005, 4807-4809.
115. Medintz, I.L.; Clapp, A.R.; Melinger, J.S.; Deschamps, J.R.; Mattoussi, H. A reagentless biosensing assembly based on quantum dot-donor Forster resonance energy transfer. Adv. Mater. 2005, 17, 2450-2455.
116. Pompa, P.P.; Chiuri, R.; Manna, L.; Pellegrino, T.; del Mercato, L.L.; Parak, W.J.; Calabi, F.; Cingolani, R.; Rinaldi, R. Fluorescence resonance energy transfer induced by conjugation of metalloproteins to nanoparticles. Chem. Phys. Lett. 2006, 417, 351-357.
117. Zhang, C.Y.; Johnson, L.W. Quantum dot-based fluorescence resonance energy transfer with improved FRET efficiency in capillary flows. Anal. Chem. 2006, 78, 5532-5537.
118. Pons, T.; Medintz, I.L.; Sykora, M.; Mattoussi, H. Spectrally resolved energy transfer using quantum dot donors: Ensemble and single-molecule photoluminescence studies. Phys. Rev. B 2006, 73, 245302.
119. Samia, A.C.S.; Dayal, S.; Burda, C. Quantum dot-based energy transfer: Perspectives and potential for applications in photodynamic therapy. Photochem. Photobiol. 2006, 82, 617-625.
120. Clapp, A.R.; Medintz, I.L.; Mattoussi, H. Forster resonance energy transfer investigations using quantum-dot fluorophores. Chemphyschem 2006, 7, 47-57.
121. Forster, T. 10th spiers memorial lecture-Transfer mechanisms of electronic excitation. Discuss. Faraday Soc. 1959, 7-17.
122. Kagan, C.R.; Murray, C.B.; Nirmal, M.; Bawendi, M.G. Electronic energy transfer in CdSe quantum dot solids. Phys. Rev. Lett. 1996, 76, 1517-1520.
123. Colvin, V.L.; Schlamp, M.C.; Alivisatos, A.P. Light-emitting-diodes made from cadmium selenide nanocrystals and a semiconducting polymer. Nature 1994, 370, 354-357.
124. Dabbousi, B.O.; Bawendi, M.G.; Onitsuka, O.; Rubner, M.F. Electroluminescence from Cdse quantum-dot polymer composites. Appl. Phys. Lett. 1995, 66, 1316-1318.
125. Lee, J.; Sundar, V.C.; Heine, J.R.; Bawendi, M.G.; Jensen, K.F. Full color emission from II-VI semiconductor quantum dot-polymer composites. Adv. Mater. 2000, 12, 1102-1105.
126. Coe, S.; Woo, W.K.; Bawendi, M.; Bulovic, V. Electroluminescence from single monolayers of nanocrystals in molecular organic devices. Nature 2002, 420, 800-803.
127. Tessler, N.; Medvedev, V.; Kazes, M.; Kan, S.H.; Banin, U. Efficient near-infrared polymer nanocrystat light-emitting diodes. Science 2002, 295, 1506-1508.
128. Mueller, A.H.; Petruska, M.A.; Achermann, M.; Werder, D.J.; Akhadov, E.A.; Koleske, D.D.; Hoffbauer, M.A.; Klimov, V.I. Multicolor light-emitting diodes based on semiconductor nanocrystals encapsulated in GaN charge injection layers. Nano Lett. 2005, 5, 1039-1044.
129. Zhao, J.L.; Bardecker, J.A.; Munro, A.M.; Liu, M.S.; Niu, Y.H.; Ding, I.K.; Luo, J.D.; Chen, B.Q.; Jen, A.K.Y.; Ginger, D.S. Efficient CdSe/CdS quantum dot light-emitting diodes using a thermally polymerized hole transport layer. Nano Lett. 2006, 6, 463-467.
130. Steckel, J.S.; Coe-Sullivan, S.; Bulovic, V.; Bawendi, M.G. 1.3 μm to 1.55 μm tunable electroluminescence from PbSe quantum dots embedded within an organic device. Adv. Mater. 2003, 15, 1862-1866.
131. Steckel, J.S.; Snee, P.; Coe-Sullivan, S.; Zimmer, J.R.; Halpert, J.E.; Anikeeva, P.; Kim, L.A.; Bulovic, V.; Bawendi, M.G. Color-saturated green-emitting QD-LEDs. Angew. Chem. Int. Ed. 2006, 45, 5796-5799.
132. Schlamp, M.C.; Peng, X.G.; Alivisatos, A.P. Improved efficiencies in light emitting diodes made with CdSe(CdS) core/shell type nanocrystals and a semiconducting polymer. J. Appl. Phys. 1997, 82, 5837-5842.
133. Bertoni, C.; Gallardo, D.; Dunn, S.; Gaponik, N.; Eychmuller, A. Fabrication and characterization of red-emitting electroluminescent devices based on thiol-stabilized semiconductor nanocrystals. Appl. Phys. Lett. 2007, 90, 034107.
134. Gao, M.Y.; Lesser, C.; Kirstein, S.; Mohwald, H.; Rogach, A.L.; Weller, H. Electroluminescence of different colors from polycation/CdTe nanocrystal self-assembled films. J. Appl. Phys. 2000, 87, 2297-2302.
135. Lin, Y.W.; Tseng, W.L.; Chang, H.T. Using a layer-by-layer assembly technique to fabricate multicolored-light-emitting films of CdSe@CdS and CdTe quantum dots. Adv. Mater. 2006, 18, 1381-1386.
136. Li, Y.Q.; Rizzo, A.; Cingolani, R.; Gigli, G. Bright white-light-emitting device from ternary nanocrystal composites. Adv. Mater. 2006, 18, 2545-2548.
137. Sun, Q.J.; Subramanyam, G.; Dai, L.M.; Check, M.; Campbell, A.; Naik, R.; Grote, J.; Wang, Y.Q. Highly efficient quantum-dot light-emitting diodes with DNA-CTMA as a combined holetransporting and electron-blocking layer. Acs Nano 2009, 3, 737-743.
138. Zorn, M.; Bae, W.K.; Kwak, J.; Lee, H.; Lee, C.; Zentel, R.; Char, K. Quantum dot-block copolymer hybrids with improved properties and their application to quantum dot light-emitting devices. Acs Nano 2009, 3, 1063-1068.
139. Arakawa, Y.; Sakaki, H. Multidimensional quantum well laser and temperature dependence of its threshold current. Appl. Phys. Lett. 1982, 40, 939-941.
140. Eisler, H.J.; Sundar, V.C.; Bawendi, M.G.; Walsh, M.; Smith, H.I.; Klimov, V. Color-selective semiconductor nanocrystal laser. Appl. Phys. Lett. 2002, 80, 4614-4616.
141. Sundar, V.C.; Eisler, H.J.; Bawendi, M.G. Room-temperature, tunable gain media from novel IIVI nanocrystal-titania composite matrices. Adv. Mater. 2002, 14, 739-743.
142. Sundar, V.C.; Eisler, H.J.; Deng, T.; Chan, Y.T.; Thomas, E.L.; Bawendi, M.G. Softlithographically embossed, multilayered distributed-feedback nanocrystal lasers. Adv. Mater. 2004, 16, 2137-2141.
143. Chan, Y.; Steckel, J.S.; Snee, P.T.; Caruge, J.M.; Hodgkiss, J.M.; Nocera, D.G.; Bawendi, M.G. Blue semiconductor nanocrystal laser. Appl. Phys. Lett. 2005, 86, 073102.
144. Huang, X.; Stintz, A.; Hains, C.P.; Liu, G.T.; Cheng, J.; Malloy, K.J. Very low threshold current density room temperature continuous-wave lasing from a single-layer InAs quantum-dot laser. Photonics Technol. Lett. IEEE 2000, 12, 227-229.
145. Kovsh, A.R.; Maleev, N.A.; Zhukov, A.E.; Mikhrin, S.S.; Vasil'ev, A.P.; Shernyakov, Y.M.; Maximov, M.V.; Livshits, D.A.; Ustinov, V.M.; Alferov, Z.I.; Ledentsov, N.N.; Bimberg, D. InAs/InGaAs/GaAs quantum dot lasers of 1.3 micron range with high (88%) differential efficiency. Electron. Lett 2002, 38, 1104-1106.
146. Markus, A.; Chen, J.X.; Paranthoen, C.; Fiore, A.; Platz, C.; Gauthier-Lafaye, O. Simultaneous two-state lasing in quantum-dot lasers. Appl. Phys. Lett. 2003, 82, 1818-1820.
147. Wang, J.-S.; Hsiao, R.-S.; Chen, J.-F.; Yang, C.-S.; Lin, G.; Liang, C.-Y.; Lai, C.-M.; Liu, H.-Y.; Chi, T.-W.; Chi, J.-Y. Engineering laser gain spectrum using electronic vertically coupled InAs-GaAs quantum dots. Photonics Technol. Lett. IEEE 2005, 17, 1590-1592.
148. Renner, J.; Worschech, L.; Forchel, A.; Mahapatra, S.; Brunner, K. CdSe quantum dot microdisk laser. Appl. Phys. Lett. 2006, 89, 231104.
149. Liu, C.Y.; Yoon, S.F.; Cao, Q.; Tong, C.Z.; Li, H.F. Low transparency current density and high temperature operation from ten-layer p-doped 1.3 mu m InAs/InGaAs/GaAs quantum dot lasers. Appl. Phys. Lett. 2007, 90, 041103.
150. Kouichi, A.; Naokatsu, Y.; Masahiro, T. Highly stacked quantum-dot laser fabricated using a strain compensation technique. Appl. Phys. Lett. 2008, 93, 041121.
151. Artemyev, M.V.; Woggon, U.; Wannemacher, R.; Jaschinski, H.; Langbein, W. Light trapped in a photonic dot: Microspheres act as a cavity for quantum dot emission. Nano Lett. 2001, 1, 309-314.
152. Klimov, V.I.; Mikhailovsky, A.A.; Xu, S.; Malko, A.; Hollingsworth, J.A.; Leatherdale, C.A.; Eisler, H.J.; Bawendi, M.G. Optical gain and stimulated emission in nanocrystal quantum dots. Science 2000, 290, 314-317.
153. Saito, H.; Nishi, K.; Sugou, S. Ground-state lasing at room temperature in long-wavelength InAs quantum-dot lasers on InP(311)B substrates. Appl. Phys. Lett. 2001, 78, 267-269.
154. Moser, J.E.; Bonnôte, P.; Grätzel, M. Molecular photovoltaics. Coord. Chem. Rev. 1998, 171, 245-250.
155. Hagfeldt, A.; Grätzel, M. Molecular photovoltaics. Acc. Chem. Res. 2000, 33, 269-277.
156. Grätzel, M. Perspectives for dye-sensitized nanocrystalline solar cells. Prog. Photovolt. 2000, 8, 171-185.
157. Gur, I.; Fromer, N.A.; Geier, M.L.; Alivisatos, A.P. Air-stable all-inorganic nanocrystal solar cells processed from solution. Science 2005, 310, 462-465.
158. Nozik, A.J. Quantum dot solar cells. Physica E 2002, 14, 115-120.
159. Schaller, R.D.; Klimov, V.I. High efficiency carrier multiplication in PbSe nanocrystals: Implications for solar energy conversion. Phys. Rev. Lett. 2004, 92, 186601.
160. Liu, J.S.; Tanaka, T.; Sivula, K.; Alivisatos, A.P.; Frechet, J.M.J. Employing end-functional polythiophene to control the morphology of nanocrystal-polymer composites in hybrid solar cells. J. Am. Chem. Soc. 2004, 126, 6550-6551.
161. Robel, I.; Subramanian, V.; Kuno, M.; Kamat, P.V. Quantum dot solar cells. harvesting light energy with CdSe nanocrystals molecularly linked to mesoscopic TiO2 films. J. Am. Chem. Soc. 2006, 128, 2385-2393.
162. Tachibana, Y.; Akiyama, H.Y.; Ohtsuka, Y.; Torimoto, T.; Kuwabata, S. CdS quantum dots sensitized TiO2 sandwich type photoelectrochemical solar cells. Chem. Lett. 2007, 36, 88-89.
163. Mora-Sero, I.; Bisquert, J.; Dittrich, T.; Belaidi, A.; Susha, A.S.; Rogach, A.L. Photosensitization of TiO2 layers with CdSe quantum dots: Correlation between light absorption and photoinjection. J. Phys. Chem. C 2007, 111, 14889-14892.
164. Kamat, P.V. Quantum dot solar cells. Semiconductor nanocrystals as light harvesters. J. Phys. Chem. C 2008, 112, 18737-18753.
165. Lee, H.J.; Yum, J.-H.; Leventis, H.C.; Zakeeruddin, S.M.; Haque, S.A.; Chen, P.; Seok, S.I.; Grätzel, M.; Nazeeruddin, M.K. CdSe quantum dot-sensitized solar cells exceeding efficiency 1% at full-sun intensity. J. Phys. Chem. C 2008, 112, 11600-11608.
166. Cui, S.-C.; Tachikawa, T.; Fujitsuka, M.; Majima, T. Interfacial electron transfer dynamics in a single CdTe quantum dot-pyromellitimide conjugate. J. Phys. Chem. C 2008, 112, 19625-19634.
167. Farrow, B.; Kamat, P.V. CdSe quantum dot sensitized solar cells. Shuttling electrons through stacked carbon nanocups. J. Am. Chem. Soc. 2009, 131, 11124-11131.
168. Tachibana, Y.; Umekita, K.; Otsuka, Y.; Kuwabata, S. Charge recombination kinetics at an in situ chemical bath-deposited CdS/nanocrystalline TiO2 interface. J. Phys. Chem. C 2009, 113, 6852-6858.
169. Shalom, M.; Dor, S.; Ruhle, S.; Grinis, L.; Zaban, A. Core/CdS quantum dot/shell mesoporous solar cells with improved stability and efficiency using an amorphous TiO2 coating. J. Phys. Chem. C 2009, 113, 3895-3898.
170. Guijarro, N.; Lana-Villarreal, T.; Mora-Sero, I.; Bisquert, J.; Gomez, R. CdSe quantum dotsensitized TiO2 electrodes: Effect of quantum dot coverage and mode of attachment. J. Phys. Chem. C 2009, 113, 4208-4214.
171. Tvrdy, K.; Kamat, P.V. Substrate driven photochemistry of CdSe quantum dot films: Charge injection and irreversible transformations on oxide surfaces. J. Phys. Chem. A 2009, 113, 3765-3772.
172. Kamat, P.V.; Schatz, G.C. Nanotechnology for next generation solar cells. J. Phys. Chem. C 2009, 113, 15473-15475.
173. Plass, R.; Pelet, S.; Krueger, J.; Gratzel, M.; Bach, U. Quantum dot sensitization of organicinorganic hybrid solar cells. J. Phys. Chem. B 2002, 106, 7578-7580.
174. Huynh, W.U.; Dittmer, J.J.; Alivisatos, A.P. Hybrid nanorod-polymer solar cells. Science 2002, 295, 2425-2427.
175. Barkhouse, D.A.R.; Pattantyus-Abraham, A.G.; Levina, L.; Sargent, E.H. Thiols passivate recombination centers in colloidal quantum dots leading to enhanced photovoltaic device efficiency. ACS Nano 2008, 2, 2356-2362.
176. Kitada, S.; Kikuchi, E.; Ohno, A.; Aramaki, S.; Maenosono, S. Effect of diamine treatment on the conversion efficiency of PbSe colloidal quantum dot solar cells. Solid State Commun. 2009, 149, 1853-1855.
177. Biebersdorf, A.; Dietmuller, R.; Susha, A.S.; Rogach, A.L.; Poznyak, S.K.; Talapin, D.V.; Weller, H.; Klar, T.A.; Feldmann, J. Semiconductor nanocrystals photosensitize C60 crystals. Nano Lett. 2006, 6, 1559-1563.
178. Sheeney-Haj-Khia, L.; Basnar, B.; Willner, I. Efficient generation of photocurrents by using CdS/Carbon nanotube assemblies on electrodes. Angew. Chem. Int. Ed. 2005, 44, 78-83.
179. Koleilat, G.I.; Levina, L.; Shukla, H.; Myrskog, S.H.; Hinds, S.; Pattantyus-Abraham, A.G.; Sargent, E.H. Efficient, stable infrared photovoltaics based on solution-cast colloidal quantum dots. ACS Nano 2008, 2, 833-840.