Pediatric Obesity: Etiology and Treatment

Pediatric Clinics of North America

Volumn 58, Issue 5, 2011, Pages 1217-1240

  Crocker, Melissa K ^a   Yanovski, Jack A ^a  

^a EUNICE KENNEDY SHRIVER NATIONAL INSTITUTE OF CHILD HEALTH AND HUMAN DEVELOPMENT   (United States)

Author keywords

Adiposity; Bariatric surgery; Differential diagnosis; Leptin; Overweight; Pharmacotherapy

Indexed keywords

AMFEPRAMONE; ANOREXIGENIC AGENT; ANTICONVULSIVE AGENT; ANTIDEPRESSANT AGENT; ANTIHISTAMINIC AGENT; ANTIHYPERTENSIVE AGENT; BETA ADRENERGIC RECEPTOR; CAFFEINE; CHLORPHENTERMINE; EPHEDRINE; GLUCOCORTICOID; INSULIN; INSULIN SENSITIZING AGENT; LEPTIN; MAZINDOL; MELANOCORTIN RECEPTOR; METFORMIN; MOOD STABILIZER; NIFEDIPINE; OCTREOTIDE; PERILIPIN; PEROXISOME PROLIFERATOR ACTIVATED RECEPTOR GAMMA; PLACEBO; PROOPIOMELANOCORTIN; PSYCHOTROPIC AGENT; RIMONABANT; SIBUTRAMINE; TETRAHYDROLIPSTATIN; TRICYCLIC ANTIDEPRESSANT AGENT; UNINDEXED DRUG; ANTIOBESITY AGENT;

ABDOMINAL DISCOMFORT; ALBRIGHT SYNDROME; ANXIETY; BARIATRIC SURGERY; CALORIC INTAKE; CARDIOTOXICITY; CHILD; CHOLELITHIASIS; CHRONIC DISEASE; CONSTIPATION; CUSHING SYNDROME; CYANOCOBALAMIN DEFICIENCY; DEPRESSION; DIET THERAPY; DIZZINESS; DRUG FATALITY; ENERGY METABOLISM; EPIGENETICS; GENE CONTROL; GENETIC VARIABILITY; GLUCOSE HOMEOSTASIS; GROWTH HORMONE DEFICIENCY; HEART ARRHYTHMIA; HEART VENTRICLE EXTRASYSTOLE; HUMAN; HYPERTENSION; HYPERTENSIVE CRISIS; HYPOTHALAMUS; HYPOTHYROIDISM; INSOMNIA; INSULINOMA; LIFESTYLE MODIFICATION; NAUSEA; OBESITY; PEDIATRIC OBESITY; PREVALENCE; QT PROLONGATION; REVIEW; SIDE EFFECT; TACHYCARDIA; TREATMENT INDICATION; TREATMENT RESPONSE; VOMITING; WEIGHT GAIN; XEROSTOMIA; BEHAVIOR THERAPY; ENDOCRINE DISEASE; ENVIRONMENT; EXERCISE; GENETIC DISORDER; GENETICS; LIFESTYLE; METABOLIC DISORDER; METABOLISM; MULTIMODALITY CANCER THERAPY;

ANTI-OBESITY AGENTS; BARIATRIC SURGERY; BEHAVIOR THERAPY; COMBINED MODALITY THERAPY; ENDOCRINE SYSTEM DISEASES; ENVIRONMENT; EXERCISE; GENETIC DISEASES, INBORN; HUMANS; LIFE STYLE; METABOLIC DISEASES; OBESITY;

EID: 80053578573     PISSN: 00313955     EISSN: 15578240     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1016/j.pcl.2011.07.004     Document Type: Review

References (160)

1. Ogden C.L., Flegal K.M., Carroll M.D., et al. Prevalence and trends in overweight among US children and adolescents, 1999-2000. JAMA 2002, 288(14):1728-1732.
2. Ogden C.L., Carroll M.D., Curtin L.R., et al. Prevalence of overweight and obesity in the United States, 1999-2004. JAMA 2006, 295(13):1549-1555.
3. Ogden C.L., Carroll M.D., Flegal K.M. High body mass index for age among US children and adolescents, 2003-2006. JAMA 2008, 299(20):2401-2405.
4. I'Allemand D., Wiegand S., Reinehr T., et al. Cardiovascular risk in 26,008 European overweight children as established by a multicenter database. Obesity (Silver Spring) 2008, 16(7):1672-1679.
5. Muzumdar H., Rao M. Pulmonary dysfunction and sleep apnea in morbid obesity. Pediatr Endocrinol Rev 2006, 3(Suppl 4):579-583.
6. Ogden C.L., Yanovski S.Z., Carroll M.D., et al. The epidemiology of obesity. Gastroenterology 2007, 132(6):2087-2102.
7. Molleston J.P., White F., Teckman J., et al. Obese children with steatohepatitis can develop cirrhosis in childhood. Am J Gastroenterol 2002, 97(9):2460-2462.
8. Dabelea D., Bell R.A., D'Agostino R.B., et al. Incidence of diabetes in youth in the United States. JAMA 2007, 297(24):2716-2724.
9. Liese A.D., D'Agostino R.B., Hamman R.F., et al. The burden of diabetes mellitus among US youth: prevalence estimates from the SEARCH for Diabetes in Youth Study. Pediatrics 2006, 118(4):1510-1518.
10. Pavkov M.E., Bennett P.H., Knowler W.C., et al. Effect of youth-onset type 2 diabetes mellitus on incidence of end-stage renal disease and mortality in young and middle-aged Pima Indians. JAMA 2006, 296(4):421-426.
11. Baker J.L., Olsen L.W., Sorensen T.I. Childhood body-mass index and the risk of coronary heart disease in adulthood. N Engl J Med 2007, 357(23):2329-2337.
12. Must A., Jacques P.F., Dallal G.E., et al. Long-term morbidity and mortality of overweight adolescents: a follow-up of the Harvard Growth Study of 1922 to 1935. N Engl J Med 1992, 327(19):1350-1355.
13. Olshansky S.J., Passaro D.J., Hershow R.C., et al. A potential decline in life expectancy in the United States in the 21st century. N Engl J Med 2005, 352(11):1138-1145.
14. Alley D.E., Chang V.W. The changing relationship of obesity and disability, 1988-2004. JAMA 2007, 298(17):2020-2027.
15. Wardle J., Carnell S., Haworth C.M.A., et al. Evidence for a strong genetic influence on childhood adiposity despite the force of the obesogenic environment. Am J Clin Nutr 2008, 87:398-404.
16. Ashrafi K., Chang F.Y., Watts J.L., et al. Genome-wide RNAi analysis of Caenorhabditis elegans fat regulatory genes. Nature 2003, 421(6920):268-272.
17. Rankinen T., Zuberi A., Chagnon Y.C., et al. The human obesity gene map: the 2005 update. Obesity (Silver Spring) 2006, 14(4):529-644.
18. Crino A., Greggio N.A., Beccaria L., et al. Diagnosis and differential diagnosis of obesity in childhood. Minerva Pediatr 2003, 55(5):461-470.
19. Ning C., Yanovski J.A. Endocrine disorders associated with pediatric obesity. Handbook of pediatric obesity 2006, 135-155. CRC Press, Boca Raton (FL). M. Goran, M. Sothern (Eds.).
20. Wheatley T., Edwards O.M. Mild hypothyroidism and oedema: evidence for increased capillary permeability to protein. Clin Endocrinol (Oxf) 1983, 18(6):627-635.
21. Villabona C., Sahun M., Roca M., et al. Blood volumes and renal function in overt and subclinical primary hypothyroidism. Am J Med Sci 1999, 318(4):277-280.
22. AL-Adsani H., Hoffer L.J., Silva J.E. Resting energy expenditure is sensitive to small dose changes in patients on chronic thyroid hormone replacement. J Clin Endocrinol Metab 1997, 82(4):1118-1125.
23. Abbassi V., Rigterink E., Cancellieri R.P. Clinical recognition of juvenile hypothyroidism in the early stage. Clin Pediatr (Phila) 1980, 19(12):782-786.
24. Teng L., Bui H., Bachrach L., et al. Catch-up growth in severe juvenile hypothyroidism: treatment with a GnRH analog. J Pediatr Endocrinol Metab 2004, 17(3):345-354.
25. Meistas M.T., Foster G.V., Margolis S., et al. Integrated concentrations of growth hormone, insulin, C-peptide and prolactin in human obesity. Metabolism 1982, 31(12):1224-1228.
26. Bell J.P., Donald R.A., Espiner E.A. Pituitary response to insulin-induced hypoglycemia in obese subjects before and after fasting. J Clin Endocrinol Metab 1970, 31(5):546.
27. Copinschi G., Wegienka L.C., Hane S., et al. Effect of arginine on serum levels of insulin and growth hormone in obese subjects. Metabolism 1967, 16(6):485-491.
28. Mims R.B., Stein R.B., Bethune J.E. The effect of a single dose of L-dopa on pituitary hormones in acromegaly, obesity, and in normal subjects. J Clin Endocrinol Metab 1973, 37(1):34-39.
29. Topper E., Gil-Ad I., Bauman B., et al. Plasma growth hormone response to oral clonidine as compared to insulin hypoglycemia in obese children and adolescents. Horm Metab Res 1984, 16(Suppl 1):127-130.
30. Attia N., Tamborlane W.V., Heptulla R., et al. The metabolic syndrome and insulin-like growth factor I regulation in adolescent obesity. J Clin Endocrinol Metab 1998, 83(5):1467-1471.
31. Kamoda T., Saitoh H., Inudoh M., et al. The serum levels of proinsulin and their relationship with IGFBP-1 in obese children. Diabetes Obes Metab 2006, 8(2):192-196.
32. Dietz J., Schwartz J. Growth hormone alters lipolysis and hormone-sensitive lipase activity in 3T3-F442A adipocytes. Metabolism 1991, 40(8):800-806.
33. Srinivasan S., Ogle G.D., Garnett S.P., et al. Features of the metabolic syndrome after childhood craniopharyngioma. J Clin Endocrinol Metab 2004, 89(1):81-86.
34. Hoos M.B., Westerterp K.R., Gerver W.J. Short-term effects of growth hormone on body composition as a predictor of growth. J Clin Endocrinol Metab 2003, 88(6):2569-2572.
35. Ottosson M., Lonnroth P., Bjorntorp P., et al. Effects of cortisol and growth hormone on lipolysis in human adipose tissue. J Clin Endocrinol Metab 2000, 85(2):799-803.
36. Berdanier C.D. Role of glucocorticoids in the regulation of lipogenesis. FASEB J 1989, 3(10):2179-2183.
37. Greening J.E., Storr H.L., McKenzie S.A., et al. Linear growth and body mass index in pediatric patients with Cushing's disease or simple obesity. J Endocrinol Invest 2006, 29(10):885-887.
38. Magiakou M.A., Mastorakos G., Oldfield E.H., et al. Cushing's syndrome in children and adolescents: presentation, diagnosis, and therapy. N Engl J Med 1994, 331(10):629-636.
39. Bonfig W., Kann P., Rothmund M., et al. Recurrent hypoglycemic seizures and obesity: delayed diagnosis of an insulinoma in a 15-year-old boy. Final diagnostic localization with endosonography. J Pediatr Endocrinol Metab 2007, 20(9):1035-1038.
40. Dizon A.M., Kowalyk S., Hoogwerf B.J. Neuroglycopenic and other symptoms in patients with insulinomas. Am J Med 1999, 106(3):307-310.
41. Woods S.C., D'Alessio D.A. Central control of body weight and appetite. J Clin Endocrinol Metab 2008, 93(11 Suppl 1):S37-S50.
42. Holder J.L., Butte N.F., Zinn A.R. Profound obesity associated with a balanced translocation that disrupts the SIM1 gene. Hum Mol Genet 2000, 9(1):101-108.
43. Hung C.C., Luan J., Sims M., et al. Studies of the SIM1 gene in relation to human obesity and obesity-related traits. Int J Obes (Lond) 2007, 31(3):429-434.
44. Hoffman H.J., De Silva M., Humphreys R.P., et al. Aggressive surgical management of craniopharyngiomas in children. J Neurosurg 1992, 76(1):47-52.
45. Muller H.L., Bueb K., Bartels U., et al. Obesity after childhood craniopharyngioma: German multicenter study on preoperative risk factors and quality of life. Klin Padiatr 2001, 213(4):244-249.
46. Considine R.V., Sinha M.K., Heiman M.L., et al. Serum immunoreactive-leptin concentrations in normal-weight and obese humans. N Engl J Med 1996, 334(5):292-295.
47. Havel P.J., Kasim-Karakas S., Mueller W., et al. Relationship of plasma leptin to plasma insulin and adiposity in normal weight and overweight women: effects of dietary fat content and sustained weight loss. J Clin Endocrinol Metab 1996, 81(12):4406-4413.
48. Maffei M., Halaas J., Ravussin E., et al. Leptin levels in human and rodent: measurement of plasma leptin and ob RNA in obese and weight-reduced subjects. Nat Med 1995, 1(11):1155-1161.
49. Oral E.A., Simha V., Ruiz E., et al. Leptin-replacement therapy for lipodystrophy. N Engl J Med 2002, 346(8):570-578.
50. Farooqi I.S., Matarese G., Lord G.M., et al. Beneficial effects of leptin on obesity, T cell hyporesponsiveness, and neuroendocrine/metabolic dysfunction of human congenital leptin deficiency. J Clin Invest 2002, 110(8):1093-1103.
51. McDuffie J.R., Riggs P.A., Calis K.A., et al. Effects of exogenous leptin on satiety and satiation in patients with lipodystrophy and leptin insufficiency. J Clin Endocrinol Metab 2004, 89(9):4258-4263.
52. Farooqi I.S., Bullmore E., Keogh J., et al. Leptin regulates striatal regions and human eating behavior. Science 2007, 317(5843):1355.
53. Montague C.T., Farooqi I.S., Whitehead J.P., et al. Congenital leptin deficiency is associated with severe early-onset obesity in humans. Nature 1997, 387(6636):903-908.
54. Strobel A., Issad T., Camoin L., et al. A leptin missense mutation associated with hypogonadism and morbid obesity. Nat Genet 1998, 18(3):213-215.
55. Farooqi I.S., Keogh J.M., Kamath S., et al. Partial leptin deficiency and human adiposity. Nature 2001, 414(6859):34-35.
56. Tanofsky-Kraff M., Yanovski S.Z., Wilfley D.E., et al. Eating-disordered behaviors, body fat, and psychopathology in overweight and normal-weight children. J Consult Clin Psychol 2004, 72(1):53-61.
57. Lahlou N., Issad T., Lebouc Y., et al. Mutations in the human leptin and leptin receptor genes as models of serum leptin receptor regulation. Diabetes 2002, 51(6):1980-1985.
58. Farooqi I.S., Wangensteen T., Collins S., et al. Clinical and molecular genetic spectrum of congenital deficiency of the leptin receptor. N Engl J Med 2007, 356(3):237-247.
59. Krude H., Biebermann H., Luck W., et al. Severe early-onset obesity, adrenal insufficiency and red hair pigmentation caused by POMC mutations in humans. Nat Genet 1998, 19(2):155-157.
60. Krude H., Biebermann H., Schnabel D., et al. Obesity due to proopiomelanocortin deficiency: three new cases and treatment trials with thyroid hormone and ACTH4-10. J Clin Endocrinol Metab 2003, 88(10):4633-4640.
61. Challis B.G., Pritchard L.E., Creemers J.W., et al. A missense mutation disrupting a dibasic prohormone processing site in pro-opiomelanocortin (POMC) increases susceptibility to early-onset obesity through a novel molecular mechanism. Hum Mol Genet 2002, 11(17):1997-2004.
62. Creemers J.W., Lee Y.S., Oliver R.L., et al. Mutations in the amino-terminal region of proopiomelanocortin (POMC) in patients with early-onset obesity impair POMC sorting to the regulated secretory pathway. J Clin Endocrinol Metab 2008, 93(11):4494-4499.
63. Farooqi I.S., Drop S., Clements A., et al. Heterozygosity for a POMC-null mutation and increased obesity risk in humans. Diabetes 2006, 55(9):2549-2553.
64. Lee Y.S., Challis B.G., Thompson D.A., et al. A POMC variant implicates beta-melanocyte-stimulating hormone in the control of human energy balance. Cell Metab 2006, 3(2):135-140.
65. Jackson R.S., Creemers J.W., Ohagi S., et al. Obesity and impaired prohormone processing associated with mutations in the human prohormone convertase 1 gene. Nat Genet 1997, 16(3):303-306.
66. Jackson R.S., Creemers J.W., Farooqi I.S., et al. Small-intestinal dysfunction accompanies the complex endocrinopathy of human proprotein convertase 1 deficiency. J Clin Invest 2003, 112(10):1550-1560.
67. Farooqi I.S., Volders K., Stanhope R., et al. Hyperphagia and early-onset obesity due to a novel homozygous missense mutation in prohormone convertase 1/3. J Clin Endocrinol Metab 2007, 92(9):3369-3373.
68. Cone R.D. Anatomy and regulation of the central melanocortin system. Nat Neurosci 2005, 8(5):571-578.
69. Butler A.A., Cone R.D. Knockout studies defining different roles for melanocortin receptors in energy homeostasis. Ann N Y Acad Sci 2003, 994:240-245.
70. Chen A.S., Marsh D.J., Trumbauer M.E., et al. Inactivation of the mouse melanocortin-3 receptor results in increased fat mass and reduced lean body mass. Nat Genet 2000, 26(1):97-102.
71. Butler A.A. The melanocortin system and energy balance. Peptides 2006, 27(2):281-290.
72. Farooqi I.S., Keogh J.M., Yeo G.S., et al. Clinical spectrum of obesity and mutations in the melanocortin 4 receptor gene. N Engl J Med 2003, 348(12):1085-1095.
73. Farooqi I.S., Yeo G.S., Keogh J.M., et al. Dominant and recessive inheritance of morbid obesity associated with melanocortin 4 receptor deficiency. J Clin Invest 2000, 106(2):271-279. [see comments].
74. Greenfield J.R., Miller J.W., Keogh J.M., et al. Modulation of blood pressure by central melanocortinergic pathways. N Engl J Med 2009, 360(1):44-52.
75. Feng N., Young S.F., Aguilera G., et al. Co-occurrence of two partially inactivating polymorphisms of MC3R is associated with pediatric-onset obesity. Diabetes 2005, 54(9):2663-2667.
76. Han J.C., Liu Q.R., Jones M., et al. Brain-derived neurotrophic factor and obesity in the WAGR syndrome. N Engl J Med 2008, 359(9):918-927.
77. Yeo G.S., Connie Hung C.C., Rochford J., et al. A de novo mutation affecting human TrkB associated with severe obesity and developmental delay. Nat Neurosci 2004, 7(11):1187-1189.
78. Long D.N., McGuire S., Levine M.A., et al. Body mass index differences in pseudohypoparathyroidism type 1a versus pseudopseudohypoparathyroidism may implicate paternal imprinting of G alpha(s) in the development of human obesity. J Clin Endocrinol Metab 2007, 92(3):1073-1079.
79. Xie T., Chen M., Gavrilova O., et al. Severe obesity and insulin resistance due to deletion of the maternal Gs alpha allele is reversed by paternal deletion of the Gs alpha imprint control region. Endocrinology 2008, 149(5):2443-2450.
80. Meyre D., Delplanque J., Chevre J.C., et al. Genome-wide association study for early-onset and morbid adult obesity identifies three new risk loci in European populations. Nat Genet 2009, 41(2):157-159.
81. Thorleifsson G., Walters G.B., Gudbjartsson D.F., et al. Genome-wide association yields new sequence variants at seven loci that associate with measures of obesity. Nat Genet 2009, 41(1):18-24.
82. Willer C.J., Speliotes E.K., Loos R.J., et al. Six new loci associated with body mass index highlight a neuronal influence on body weight regulation. Nat Genet 2009, 41(1):25-34.
83. Frayling T.M., Timpson N.J., Weedon M.N., et al. A common variant in the FTO gene is associated with body mass index and predisposes to childhood and adult obesity. Science 2007, 316(5826):889-894.
84. Dina C., Meyre D., Gallina S., et al. Variation in FTO contributes to childhood obesity and severe adult obesity. Nat Genet 2007, 39(6):724-726.
85. Hinney A., Nguyen T.T., Scherag A., et al. Genome wide association (GWA) study for early onset extreme obesity supports the role of fat mass and obesity associated gene (FTO) variants. PLoS One 2007, 2(12):e1361.
86. Hunt S.C., Stone S., Xin Y., et al. Association of the FTO gene with BMI. Obesity (Silver Spring) 2008, 16(4):902-904.
87. Scuteri A., Sanna S., Chen W.M., et al. Genome-wide association scan shows genetic variants in the FTO gene are associated with obesity-related traits. PLoS Genet 2007, 3(7):e115.
88. Fredriksson R., Hagglund M., Olszewski P.K., et al. The obesity gene, FTO, is of ancient origin, up-regulated during food deprivation and expressed in neurons of feeding-related nuclei of the brain. Endocrinology 2008, 149(5):2062-2071.
89. Stratigopoulos G., Padilla S.L., LeDuc C.A., et al. Regulation of Fto/Ftm gene expression in mice and humans. Am J Physiol Regul Integr Comp Physiol 2008, 294(4):R1185-R1196.
90. Gerken T., Girard C.A., Tung Y.C., et al. The obesity-associated FTO gene encodes a 2-oxoglutarate-dependent nucleic acid demethylase. Science 2007, 318(5855):1469-1472.
91. Cecil J.E., Tavendale R., Watt P., et al. An obesity-associated FTO gene variant and increased energy intake in children. N Engl J Med 2008, 359(24):2558-2566.
92. Wardle J., Llewellyn C., Sanderson S., et al. The FTO gene and measured food intake in children. Int J Obes (Lond) 2008, 33(1):42-45.
93. Wardle J., Carnell S., Haworth C.M., et al. Obesity associated genetic variation in FTO is associated with diminished satiety. J Clin Endocrinol Metab 2008, 93(9):3640-3643.
94. Celi F.S., Shuldiner A.R. The role of peroxisome proliferator-activated receptor gamma in diabetes and obesity. Curr Diab Rep 2002, 2(2):179-185.
95. Luan J., Browne P.O., Harding A.H., et al. Evidence for gene-nutrient interaction at the PPARgamma locus. Diabetes 2001, 50(3):686-689.
96. Jalba M.S., Rhoads G.G., Demissie K. Association of codon 16 and codon 27 beta 2-adrenergic receptor gene polymorphisms with obesity: a meta-analysis. Obesity (Silver Spring) 2008, 16(9):2096-2106.
97. Corella D., Qi L., Sorli J.V., et al. Obese subjects carrying the 11482G>A polymorphism at the perilipin locus are resistant to weight loss after dietary energy restriction. J Clin Endocrinol Metab 2005, 90(9):5121-5126.
98. Cummings D.E., Clement K., Purnell J.Q., et al. Elevated plasma ghrelin levels in Prader Willi syndrome. Nat Med 2002, 8(7):643-644.
99. Wren A.M., Seal L.J., Cohen M.A., et al. Ghrelin enhances appetite and increases food intake in humans. J Clin Endocrinol Metab 2001, 86(12):5992.
100. Davenport J.R., Watts A.J., Roper V.C., et al. Disruption of intraflagellar transport in adult mice leads to obesity and slow-onset cystic kidney disease. Curr Biol 2007, 17(18):1586-1594.
101. Seo S., Guo D.F., Bugge K., et al. Requirement of Bardet-Biedl syndrome proteins for leptin receptor signaling. Hum Mol Genet 2009, 18(7):1323-1331.
102. Aronne L.J., Segal K.R. Weight gain in the treatment of mood disorders. J Clin Psychiatry 2003, 64(Suppl 8):22-29.
103. Dhurandhar N.V., Kulkarni P., Ajinkya S.M., et al. Effect of adenovirus infection on adiposity in chicken. Vet Microbiol 1992, 31(2,3):101-107.
104. Dhurandhar N.V., Whigham L.D., Abbott D.H., et al. Human adenovirus Ad-36 promotes weight gain in male rhesus and marmoset monkeys. J Nutr 2002, 132(10):3155-3160.
105. Dhurandhar N.V., Israel B.A., Kolesar J.M., et al. Increased adiposity in animals due to a human virus. Int J Obes Relat Metab Disord 2000, 24(8):989-996.
106. Pasarica M., Mashtalir N., McAllister E.J., et al. Adipogenic human adenovirus Ad-36 induces commitment, differentiation, and lipid accumulation in human adipose-derived stem cells. Stem Cells 2008, 26(4):969-978.
107. Dhurandhar N.V., Kulkarni P.R., Ajinkya S.M., et al. Association of adenovirus infection with human obesity. Obes Res 1997, 5(5):464-469.
108. Atkinson R.L., Dhurandhar N.V., Allison D.B., et al. Human adenovirus-36 is associated with increased body weight and paradoxical reduction of serum lipids. Int J Obes (Lond) 2005, 29(3):281-286.
109. Ravussin E., Valencia M.E., Esparza J., et al. Effects of a traditional lifestyle on obesity in Pima Indians. Diabetes Care 1994, 17(9):1067-1074.
110. Popkin B.M., Udry J.R. Adolescent obesity increases significantly in second and third generation US immigrants: the National Longitudinal Study of Adolescent Health. J Nutr 1998, 128(4):701-706.
111. Hawkins S.S., Cole T.J., Law C. An ecological systems approach to examining risk factors for early childhood overweight: findings from the UK Millennium Cohort Study. J Epidemiol Community Health 2009, 63(2):147-155.
112. Lang T., Rayner G. Overcoming policy cacophony on obesity: an ecological public health framework for policymakers. Obes Rev 2007, 8(Suppl 1):165-181.
113. Waterland R.A. Does nutrition during infancy and early childhood contribute to later obesity via metabolic imprinting of epigenetic gene regulatory mechanisms?. Nestle Nutr Workshop Ser Pediatr Program 2005, 56:157-174.
114. Wu Q., Suzuki M. Parental obesity and overweight affect the body-fat accumulation in the offspring: the possible effect of a high-fat diet through epigenetic inheritance. Obesity Reviews 2006, 7:201-208.
115. Barlow S.E., Dietz W.H. Obesity evaluation and treatment: Expert Committee recommendations. The Maternal and Child Health Bureau, Health Resources and Services Administration and the Department of Health and Human Services. Pediatrics 1998, 102(3):E29.
116. Barlow S.E. Expert committee recommendations regarding the prevention, assessment, and treatment of child and adolescent overweight and obesity: summary report. Pediatrics 2007, 120(Suppl 4):S164-S192.
117. Cohen M.L., Tanofsky-Kraff M., Young-Hyman D., et al. Weight and its relationship to adolescent perceptions of their providers (WRAP): a qualitative and quantitative assessment of teen weight-related preferences and concerns. J Adolesc Health 2005, 37(2):163-578.
118. August G.P., Caprio S., Fennoy I., et al. Prevention and treatment of pediatric obesity: an Endocrine Society clinical practice guideline based on expert opinion. J Clin Endocrinol Metab 2008, 93(12):4576-4599.
119. Weiss R., Dziura J., Burgert T.S., et al. Obesity and the metabolic syndrome in children and adolescents. N Engl J Med 2004, 350(23):2362-2374.
120. McGovern L., Johnson J.N., Paulo R., et al. Clinical review: treatment of pediatric obesity: a systematic review and meta-analysis of randomized trials. J Clin Endocrinol Metab 2008, 93(12):4600-4605.
121. Epstein L.H., Valoski A., Wing R.R., et al. Ten-year follow-up of behavioral, family-based treatment for obese children. JAMA 1990, 264(19):2519-2523.
122. Han J.C., Yanovski J.A. Intensive therapies for the treatment of pediatric obesity. Handbook of child and adolescent obesity 2008, 241-260. Springer, New York. E. Jelalian, R.C. Steele (Eds.).
123. Figueroa-Colon R., von Almen T.K., Franklin F.A., et al. Comparison of two hypocaloric diets in obese children. Am J Dis Child 1993, 147(2):160-166.
124. Epstein L.H., Myers M.D., Raynor H.A., et al. Treatment of pediatric obesity. Pediatrics 1998, 101(3 Pt 2):554-570.
125. Oude Luttikhuis H., Baur L., Jansen H., et al. Interventions for treating obesity in children. Cochrane Database Syst Rev 2009, (1):1-189.
126. Wilfley D.E., Tibbs T.L., Van Buren D.J., et al. Lifestyle interventions in the treatment of childhood overweight: a meta-analytic review of randomized controlled trials. Health Psychol 2007, 26(5):521-532.
127. Epstein L.H. Family-based behavioural intervention for obese children. Int J Obes Relat Metab Disord 1996, 20(1):S14-S21.
128. Epstein L.H., Valoski A., Wing R.R., et al. Ten-year outcomes of behavioral family-based treatment for childhood obesity. Health Psychol 1994, 13(5):373-383.
129. Wilfley D.E., Stein R.I., Saelens B.E., et al. Efficacy of maintenance treatment approaches for childhood overweight: a randomized controlled trial. JAMA 2007, 298(14):1661-1673.
130. Gutin B., Yin Z., Johnson M., et al. Preliminary findings of the effect of a 3-year after-school physical activity intervention on fitness and body fat: the Medical College of Georgia Fit kid Project. Int J Pediatr Obes 2008, 3(Suppl 1):3-9.
131. Gortmaker S.L., Peterson K., Wiecha J., et al. Reducing obesity via a school-based interdisciplinary intervention among youth: planet health. Arch Pediatr Adolesc Med 1999, 153(4):409-418.
132. Yanovski J.A. Intensive therapies for pediatric obesity. Pediatr Clin North Am 2001, 48(4):1041-1053.
133. Samanin R., Garattini S. Neurochemical mechanism of action of anorectic drugs. Pharmacol Toxicol 1993, 73(2):63-69.
134. Freemark M. Pharmacotherapy of childhood obesity: an evidence-based, conceptual approach. Diabetes Care 2007, 30(2):395-402.
135. Berkowitz R.I., Fujioka K., Daniels S.R., et al. Effects of sibutramine treatment in obese adolescents: a randomized trial. Ann Intern Med 2006, 145(2):81-90.
136. Danielsson P., Janson A., Norgren S., et al. Impact of sibutramine therapy in children with hypothalamic obesity or obesity with aggravating syndromes. J Clin Endocrinol Metab 2007, 92(11):4101-4106.
137. Connolly H.M., Crary J.L., McGoon M.D., et al. Valvular heart disease associated with fenfluramine-phentermine. N Engl J Med 1997, 337(9):581-588.
138. Akbas F., Gasteyger C., Sjodin A., et al. A critical review of the cannabinoid receptor as a drug target for obesity management. Obes Rev 2009, 10(1):58-67.
139. Chanoine J.P., Hampl S., Jensen C., et al. Effect of orlistat on weight and body composition in obese adolescents: a randomized controlled trial. JAMA 2005, 293(23):2873-2883.
140. Wilson D.M., Abrams S.H., Aye T., et al. Metformin extended release treatment of adolescent obesity: a 48-week randomized, double-blind, placebo-controlled trial with 48-week follow-up. Arch Pediatr Adolesc Med 2010, 164:116-123.
141. Yanovski J.A., Krakoff J., Salaita C.G., et al. Effects of metformin on body weight and body composition in obese insulin-resistant children: a randomized clinical trial. Diabetes 2011, 60(2):477-485.
142. Klein D.J., Cottingham E.M., Sorter M., et al. A randomized, double-blind, placebo-controlled trial of metformin treatment of weight gain associated with initiation of atypical antipsychotic therapy in children and adolescents. Am J Psychiatry 2006, 163(12):2072-2079.
143. Lustig R.H., Hinds P.S., Ringwald-Smith K., et al. Octreotide therapy of pediatric hypothalamic obesity: a double-blind, placebo-controlled trial. J Clin Endocrinol Metab 2003, 88(6):2586-2592.
144. Heymsfield S.B., Greenberg A.S., Fujioka K., et al. Recombinant leptin for weight loss in obese and lean adults: a randomized, controlled, dose-escalation trial. JAMA 1999, 282(16):1568-1575. [see comments].
145. Farooqi I.S., Jebb S.A., Langmack G., et al. Effects of recombinant leptin therapy in a child with congenital leptin deficiency. N Engl J Med 1999, 341(12):879-884.
146. Inge T.H., Miyano G., Bean J., et al. Reversal of type 2 diabetes mellitus and improvements in cardiovascular risk factors after surgical weight loss in adolescents. Pediatrics 2009, 123(1):214-222.
147. Inge T.H., Krebs N.F., Garcia V.F., et al. Bariatric surgery for severely overweight adolescents: concerns and recommendations. Pediatrics 2004, 114(1):217-223.
148. Apovian C.M., Baker C., Ludwig D.S., et al. Best practice guidelines in pediatric/adolescent weight loss surgery. Obes Res 2005, 13(2):274-282.
149. Xanthakos S.A., Inge T.H. Extreme pediatric obesity: weighing the health dangers. J Pediatr 2007, 150(1):3-5.
150. Inge T.H., Garcia V., Daniels S., et al. A multidisciplinary approach to the adolescent bariatric surgical patient. J Pediatr Surg 2004, 39(3):442-447.
151. Cummings D.E., Weigle D.S., Frayo R.S., et al. Plasma ghrelin levels after diet-induced weight loss or gastric bypass surgery. N Engl J Med 2002, 346(21):1623-1630.
152. Korner J., Bessler M., Cirilo L.J., et al. Effects of Roux-en-Y gastric bypass surgery on fasting and postprandial concentrations of plasma ghrelin, peptide YY, and insulin. J Clin Endocrinol Metab 2005, 90(1):359-365.
153. Morinigo R., Moize V., Musri M., et al. Glucagon-like peptide-1, peptide YY, hunger, and satiety after gastric bypass surgery in morbidly obese subjects. J Clin Endocrinol Metab 2006, 91(5):1735-1740.
154. Reinehr T., Roth C.L., Schernthaner G.H., et al. Peptide YY and glucagon-like peptide-1 in morbidly obese patients before and after surgically induced weight loss. Obes Surg 2007, 17(12):1571-1577.
155. Tsai W.S., Inge T.H., Burd R.S. Bariatric surgery in adolescents: recent national trends in use and in-hospital outcome. Arch Pediatr Adolesc Med 2007, 161(3):217-221.
156. Rianthavorn P., Ettenger R.B. Medication non-adherence in the adolescent renal transplant recipient: a clinician's viewpoint. Pediatr Transplant 2005, 9(3):398-407.
157. Sugerman H.J., Sugerman E.L., DeMaria E.J., et al. Bariatric surgery for severely obese adolescents. J Gastrointest Surg 2003, 7(1):102-107.
158. Berger J.R. The neurological complications of bariatric surgery. Arch Neurol 2004, 61(8):1185-1189.
159. Thaisetthawatkul P., Collazo-Clavell M.L., Sarr M.G., et al. A controlled study of peripheral neuropathy after bariatric surgery. Neurology 2004, 63(8):1462-1470.
160. Xanthakos S.A., Daniels S.R., Inge T.H. Bariatric surgery in adolescents: an update. Adolesc Med Clin 2006, 17(3):589-612.