The evolution of infectious agents in relation to sex in animals and humans: Brief discussions of some individual organisms

Annals of the New York Academy of Sciences

Volumn 1230, Issue 1, 2011, Pages 74-107

  Reed, David L ^a   Currier, Russell W ^b   Walton, Shelley F ^c   Conrad, Melissa ^d   Sullivan, Steven A ^d   Carlton, Jane M ^d   Read, Timothy D ^e   Severini, Alberto ^f,g   Tyler, Shaun ^f   Eberle, R ^h   Johnson, Welkin E ⁱ   Silvestri, Guido ^e   Clarke, Ian N ^j   Lagergård, Teresa ^k   Lukehart, Sheila A ^l   Unemo, Magnus ^m   Shafer, William M ^e   Beasley, R Palmer ⁿ   Bergström, Tomas ^o   Norberg, Peter ^o   Davison, Andrew J ^p   Sharp, Paul M ^q   Hahn, Beatrice H ^r,s   Blomberg, Jonas ^t   more..

^a UNIVERSITY OF FLORIDA   (United States)

^b American Veterinary Medical History Society   (United States)

^c UNIVERSITY OF THE SUNSHINE COAST   (Australia)

^d NEW YORK UNIVERSITY SCHOOL OF MEDICINE   (United States)

^e EMORY UNIVERSITY SCHOOL OF MEDICINE   (United States)

^f PUBLIC HEALTH AGENCY OF CANADA   (Canada)

^g UNIVERSITY OF MANITOBA   (Canada)

^h OKLAHOMA STATE UNIVERSITY   (United States)

ⁱ HARVARD MEDICAL SCHOOL   (United States)

^j SOUTHAMPTON GENERAL HOSPITAL   (United Kingdom)

^k UNIVERSITY OF GOTHENBURG   (Sweden)

^l UNIVERSITY OF WASHINGTON   (United States)

^m ÖREBRO UNIVERSITY HOSPITAL   (Sweden)

ⁿ UNIVERSITY OF TEXAS SCHOOL OF PUBLIC HEALTH   (United States)

^o UNIVERSITY OF GOTHENBURG   (Sweden)

^p MRC UNIVERSITY OF GLASGOW CENTRE FOR VIRUS RESEARCH   (United Kingdom)

^q UNIVERSITY OF EDINBURGH   (United Kingdom)

^r University of Alabama at Birmingham   (United States)

^s University of Alabama at Birmingham   (United States)

^t UPPSALA UNIVERSITY HOSPITAL   (Sweden)

more..

Author keywords

Econiche; Evolution; Infectious agents; Sexual transmission

Indexed keywords

AZITHROMYCIN; BENZYL BENZOATE; BETA LACTAM ANTIBIOTIC; CATHELICIDIN ANTIMICROBIAL PEPTIDE LL 37; CEFTRIAXONE; CEPHALOSPORIN DERIVATIVE; CIPROFLOXACIN; CROTAMITON; GENTAMICIN; IVERMECTIN; LINDANE; PENICILLIN BINDING PROTEIN; PENICILLIN G; PERMETHRIN; SULFUR; TETRACYCLINE;

ACQUIRED IMMUNE DEFICIENCY SYNDROME; ANTIBIOTIC RESISTANCE; ANTIBIOTIC THERAPY; ARTICLE; BACTERIAL GENOME; BACTERIAL MUTATION; CHLAMYDIA PECORUM; CHLAMYDIA TRACHOMATIS; CHRONICITY; DISEASE CARRIER; ECOLOGICAL NICHE; ENDOGENOUS RETROVIRUS; GENE EXPRESSION; GENETIC VARIABILITY; GENOME ANALYSIS; GEOGRAPHIC DISTRIBUTION; GONORRHEA; HAEMOPHILUS DUCREYI; HEPATITIS B; HEPATITIS B VIRUS; HEPATITIS C; HEPATITIS C VIRUS; HEPATITIS E; HEPATITIS E VIRUS; HERPES SIMPLEX VIRUS 1; HERPES SIMPLEX VIRUS 2; HUMAN; HUMAN IMMUNODEFICIENCY VIRUS 1; HUMAN IMMUNODEFICIENCY VIRUS 2; INCUBATION TIME; INSECTICIDE RESISTANCE; KLEBSIELLA; KLEBSIELLA GRANULOMATIS; MICROSCOPY; MOLECULAR EVOLUTION; MOLLUSCUM CONTAGIOSUM; NEISSERIA GONORRHOEAE; NONHUMAN; PEDICULOSIS; PEDICULUS; PHTHIRUS; PHYLOGENY; PLACENTA; POXVIRUS; SARCOPTES SCABIEI; SCABIES; SEXUAL TRANSMISSION; SIMIAN IMMUNODEFICIENCY VIRUS; TESTIS; TREPONEMA PALLIDUM; TRICHOMONAS VAGINALIS; TRICHOMONIASIS; TRITRICHOMONAS FOETUS; VIRUS IMMUNITY; VIRUS TRANSMISSION;

ANIMALIA;

EID: 79961205560     PISSN: 00778923     EISSN: 17496632     Source Type: Book Series    
DOI: 10.1111/j.1749-6632.2011.06133.x     Document Type: Article

References (144)

1. Durden, L.A. & G.G. Musser. 1994. The sucking lice (Insecta, Anoplura) of the world - a taxonomic checklist with records of mammalian hosts and geographical distributions. Bull. Amer. Mus. Nat. Hist. 218: 1-90.
2. Price, R.D., R.A. Hellethal, R.L. Palma et al. 2003. The Chewing Lice: World Checklist and Biological Overview. Special Publication 24. Illinois Natural History Survey, Champaign, IL.
3. Johnson, K.P., K. Yoshizawa & V.S. Smith. 2004. Multiple origins of parasitism in lice. Proc. R. Soc. Lond., Ser. B 271: 1771-1776.
4. Light, J.E., M.A. Toups & D.L. Reed. 2008. What's in a name: the taxonomic status of human head and body lice. Mol. Phylogen. Evol. 47: 1203-1216.
5. Kim, K.C., H.D. Pratt & C.J. Stojanovich. 1986. The Sucking Lice of North America: An Illustrated Manual for Identification. Pennsylvania State University Press. University Park, PA.
6. Reed, D.L., J.E. Light, J.M. Allen & J.J. Kirchman. 2007. Pair of lice lost or parasites regained: The evolutionary history of Anthropoid primate lice. BMC Biol. 5:7.
7. Armstrong, N.R. & J.D. Wilson. 2006. Did the "Brazilian" kill the pubic louse? Sex Transm Inf 82: 265-266.
8. Toups, M.A., A. Kitchen, J.E. Light & D.L. Reed. 2011. Origin of clothing lice indicates early clothing use by anatomically modern humans in Africa. Mol. Biol. Evol. 28: 29-32.
9. Reed, D.L., V.S. Smith, A.R. Rogers et al. 2004. Molecular genetic analysis of human lice supports direct contact between modern and archaic humans. PLoS Biol. 2: e304.
10. Goates, B.M., J.S. Atkin, K.G. Wilding et al. 2006. An effective non-chemical treatment for head lice: a lot of hot air. Pediatrics 118: 1962-1970.
11. Green, M.S. 1989. Epidemiology of Scabies. Epidemiol. Rev. 11: 126-150.
12. Heilesen, B. 1946. Studies on Acarus Scabiei and Scabies. Acta Dermato-venerologica XXVI(Suppl XIV): 1-370.
13. Friedman, F. 1934. The story of Scabies - written for the Centenary of Renucci's re-discovery of the Acarus Scabiei. Med. Life 41: 381-476.
14. Orkin, M. & H.I. Maibach. 1985. Modern Aspects of Scabies. Curr. Probl. Dermatol. 13: 109-127.
15. Leone, P.A. Pubic lice and Scabies. In Sexually Transmitted Diseases, K.K. Holmes, Ed.: 839-851, 4th ed., Chapter 46, McGraw Hill Medical.
16. Currier, R.W. & R.I. Ceilley. 2010. Scabies. In Human - Animal Medicine. P.M. Rabinowitz & L.A. Conti, Eds. Saunders Elsevier.
17. Fain, A. 1978. Epidemiological problems of Scabies. Int. J. Dermatol. 17: 20-30.
18. Fain, A. 1984. Speciation and evolution in Acari. Acarology VI, 1: 10-18.
19. Andrews, J.R.H. 1983. The origin and evolution of host associations of Sarcoptes scabiei and the subfamily Sarcoptinae Murray. Acarologia Vol. 24:85-94.
20. Walton, S.F. & B.J. Currie. 2007. Problems in diagnosing scabies, a global disease in human and animal populations. Clin. Microbiol. Rev. 20: 268-279.
21. Walton, S.F., D.C. Holt, B.J. Currie & D.J. Kemp. 2004. Scabies: new future for a neglected disease. Adv. Parasitol. 57: 309-327.
22. Cudmore, S.L. & G.E. Garber. 2010. Prevention or treatment: the benefits of Trichomonas vaginalis vaccine. J. Infect Public Health 3:47-53.
23. Malik, S.B., C.D. Brochu, I. Bilic et al. 2011. Phylogeny of parasitic Parabasalia and free-living relatives inferred from conventional markers vs. Rpb1, a single-copy gene. PLoS One. 6(6): e20774.
24. Slapeta, J., S. Craig, D. McDonell & D. Emery. 2010. Tritrichomonas foetus from domestic cats and cattle are genetically distinct. Exper. Parasitol.126: 209-213.
25. Carlton, J.M., R.P. Hirt, J.C. Silva et al. 2007. Draft genome sequence of the sexually transmitted pathogen Trichomonas vaginalis. Science 315: 207-212.
26. Lynch, M. & J.S. Conery. 2003. The origins of genome complexity. Science 302:1401-1404.
27. Knight, C.A., N.A. Molinari & D.A. Petrov. 2005. The large genome constraint hypothesis: evolution, ecology and phenotype. Ann. Bot. (Lond) 1: 177-190.
28. Gregory, T.R. 2001. Coincidence, coevolution, or causation? DNA content, cell size, and the C-value enigma. Biol. Rev. Camb. Philos. Soc. 1: 65-101.
29. Zubacova, Z., Z. Cimburek & J. Tachezy. 2008. Comparative analysis of trichomonad genome sizes and karyotypes. Mol. Biochem. Parasitol. 161: 49-54.
30. Gerbod, D., E. Sanders, S. Moriya et al. 2004. Molecular phylogenies of Parabasalia inferred from four protein genes and comparison with rRNA trees. Mol. Phylogenet Evol 2: 572-580.
31. Read, T.D., G.S. Myers, R.C. Brunham et al. 2003. Genome sequence of Chlamydophila caviae (Chlamydia psittaci GPIC): examining the role of niche-specific genes in the evolution of the Chlamydiaceae. Nucleic Acids Res. 31: 2134-2147.
32. Dean, D., W.J. Bruno, R. Wan et al. 2009. Predicting phenotype and emerging strains among Chlamydia trachomatis infections. Emerging Infect. Diseases 15: 1385-1394.
33. Myers, G.S., S.A. Mathews, M. Eppinger et al. 2009. Evidence that human Chlamydia pneumoniae was zoonotically acquired. J. Bacteriol. 191: 7225-7233.
34. Nietfeld, J.C. 2001. Chlamydial infections in small ruminants. Vet. Clin. North Am. Food Anim. Pract. 17: 301-314, vi.
35. DeGraves, F.J., D. Gao, H.R. Hehnen et al. 2003. Quantitative detection of Chlamydia psittaci and C. pecorum by high-sensitivity real-time PCR reveals high prevalence of vaginal infection in cattle. J. Clin. Microbiol. 41: 1726-1729.
36. Clarkson, M.J. & H.L. Philips. 1997. Isolation of faecal chlamydia from sheep in Britain and their characterization by cultural properties. Vet J. 153: 307-310.
37. Borel, N., C. Dumrese, U. Ziegler et al. 2010. Mixed infections with Chlamydia and porcine epidemic diarrhea virus - a new in vitro model of chlamydial persistence. BMC Microbiol. 10: 201.
38. Jackson, M., N. White P. Giffard, P. Timms. 1999. Epizootiology of Chlamydia infections in two free-range koala populations. Vet. Microbiol. 65: 255-264.
39. Dugan, J., D.D. Rockey, L. Jones A.A. Andersen. 2004. Tetracycline resistance in Chlamydia suis mediated by genomic islands inserted into the chlamydial inv-like gene. Antimicrob. Agents Chemother. 48: 3989-3995.
40. Carey, A.J., P. Timms, G. Rawlinson et al. 2010. A multi-subunit chlamydial vaccine induces antibody and cell-mediated immunity in immunized koalas (Phascolarctos cinereus): comparison of three different adjuvants. Am. J. Reprod. Immunol. 63: 161-172.
41. Davinson, A.J., R. Eberle, G.S Hayward et al. 2005. Family herpesviridae. In Virus Taxonomy: Classification and Nomenclature of Viruses. C.M. Fauquet, M.A. Mayo, J. Maniloff, E. Desselberger, L.A. Ball, Eds.: 193-212. Academic Press. San Diego.
42. Eberle, R. & D. Black. 1993. Sequence analysis of herpes simplex virus gB gene homologs of two platyrrhine monkey alpha-herpesviruses. Arch. Virol. 129: 167-182.
43. McGeoch, D.J., F.J. Rixon & A.J. Davison. 2006. Topics in herpesvirus genomics and evolution. Virus Res. 117: 90-104.
44. Weigler, B.J. 1992. Biology of B virus in macaque and human hosts: a review. Clin. Infect. Dis. 14: 555-567.
45. Loomis, M.R., T. O'Neill, M. Bush & R.J. Montali. 1981. Fatal herpesvirus infection in patas monkeys and a black and white colobus monkey. J. Am. Vet. Med. Assoc. 179: 1236-1239.
46. Ramsay, E., E.L. Stair, A.E. Castro & M.I. Marks. 1982. Fatal Herpesvirus hominis encephalitis in a white-handed gibbon. J. Am. Vet. Med. Assoc. 181: 1429-1430.
47. McGeoch, D.J., A. Dolan, S. Donald & D.H. Brauer. 1986. Complete DNA sequence of the short repeat region in the genome of herpes simplex virus type 1. Nucleic Acids Res. 4: 1727-1745.
48. McGeoch, D.J., A. Dolan, S. Donald & F.J. Rixon. 1985. Sequence determination and genetic content of the short unique region in the genome of herpes simplex virus type 1. J. Mol. Biol. 1: 1-13.
49. McGeoch, D.J., M.A. Dalrymple, A.J. Davison et al. 1988. The complete DNA sequence of the long unique region in the genome of herpes simplex virus type 1. J. Gen. Virol. 69: 1531-1574.
50. Dolan, A., F.E. Jamieson, C. Cunningham et al. 1998. The genome sequence of herpes simplex virus type 2. J. Virol. 3: 2010-2021.
51. Perelygina, L., L. Zhu, H. Zurkuhlen et al. 2003. Complete sequence and comparative analysis of the genome of herpes B virus (Cercopithecine herpesvirus 1) from a rhesus monkey. J. Virol. 11: 6167-6177.
52. Tyler, S.D., G.A. Peters & A. Severini. 2005. Complete genome sequence of cercopithecine herpesvirus 2 (SA8) and comparison with other simplexviruses. Virology 331: 429-440.
53. Tyler, S.D. & A. Severini. 2006. The complete genome sequence of herpesvirus papio 2 (Cercopithecine herpesvirus 16) shows evidence of recombination events among various progenitor herpesviruses. J. Virol. 80: 1214-1221.
54. Chou, J. & B. Roizman. 1992. The gamma 1(34.5) gene of herpes simplex virus 1 precludes neuroblastoma cells from triggering total shutoff of protein synthesis characteristic of programed cell death in neuronal cells. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA 89: 3266-3270.
55. Ashley, R.L., J. Militoni, F. Lee et al. 1988. Comparison of Western blot (immunoblot) and glycoprotein G-specific immunodot enzyme assay for detecting antibodies to herpes simplex virus types 1 and 2 in human sera. J. Clin. Microbiol. 26: 662-667.
56. Su, H.K., J.D. Fetherston, M.E. Smith & R.J. Courtney. 1993. Orientation of the cleavage site of the herpes simplex virus glycoprotein G-2. J. Virol. 67: 2954-2959.
57. Luebcke, E., E. Dubovi, D. Black et al. 2006. Isolation and characterization of a chimpanzee alphaherpesvirus. J. Gen. Virol. 87: 11-19.
58. McGeoch, D.J., S. Cook, A. Dolan et al. 1995. Molecular phylogeny and evolutionary timescale for the family of mammalian herpesviruses. J. Mol. Biol. 247: 443-458.
59. Tyler, S., A. Severini, D. Black et al. 2011. Structure and sequence of the saimiriine herpesvirus 1 genome. Virology 410: 181-191.
60. Apetrei, C., D.L. Robertson & P.A. Marx. 2004. The history of SIVS and AIDS: epidemiology, phylogeny and biology of isolates from naturally SIV infected non-human primates (NHP) in Africa. Front Biosci. 9: 225-254.
61. Gifford, R.J., A. Katzourakis, M. Tristem et al. 2008. A transitional endogenous lentivirus from the genome of a basal primate and implications for lentivirus evolution. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA 105: 20362-20367.
62. Hahn, B.H., G.M. Shaw, K.M. De Cock & P.M. Sharp. 2000. AIDS as a zoonosis: scientific and public health implications. Science 287: 607-614.
63. Desrosiers, R.C. 2001. Nonhuman Lentiviruses. Fields Virology. Knipe D. and Howley P. (eds.). Philadelphia, PA Lippincott Williams & Wilkins. pp. 2095-2121.
64. Paiardini, M., I. Pandrea, C. Apetrei & G. Silvestri. 2009. Lessons learned from the natural hosts of HIV-related viruses. Annu. Rev. Med. 60: 485-495.
65. Thomson, N.R. & I.N. Clarke. 2010. Chlamydia trachomatis: small genome, big challenges. Future Microbiol. 5: 555-561.
66. Gomes, J.P., W.J. Bruno, A. Nunes et al. 2007. Evolution of Chlamydia trachomatis diversity occurs by widespread interstrain recombination involving hotspots. Genome Res. 17: 50-60.
67. Stephens, R.S. 2002. Chlamydial evolution: a billion years and counting. In Proceedings of the Tenth International Symposium on Human Chlamydial Infections. J. Schachter, G. Christiansen, I.N. Clarke, M.R. Hammerschlag, B. Kaltenboeck, R.G. Rank, G.L. Ridgway, P. Saikku, W.E. Stamm, R.S. Stephens, J.T. Summersgill, P. Timms & P.B. Wyrick, Eds.: 3-12. International Chlamydia Symposium.
68. Ochman, H., M. Worobey, C.H. Kuo et al. 2010. Evolutionary relationships of wild hominids recapitulated by gut microbial communities. PLoS Biol. 8: e1000546.
69. Unemo, M. & I.N. Clarke. 2011. The Swedish new variant of Chlamydia trachomatis. Curr. Opin. Infect. Dis. 24: 62-69.
70. Lagergård, T. 2002. Haemophilus ducreyi. Chapter 86, in Molecular Medical Microbiology, ed. M. Sussman, Academic Press. A Harcourt Science and Technology Company. London UK, San Diego, USA. 2002. vol 3, pp. 1809-1824.
71. Gioia, J., X. Qin, H. Jiang et al. 2006. The genome sequence of Mannheimia haemolytica A1: insights into virulence, natural competence, and Pasteurellaceae phylogeny. J. Bacteriol. 188: 7257-7266.
72. Janowicz, D.M., W. Li & M.E. Bauer. 2010. Host-pathogen interplay of Haemophilus ducreyi. Curr. Opin. Infect Dis. 23: 64-69.
73. Carter, J.S., F.J. Bowden, I. Bastian et al. 1999. Phylogenetic evidence for reclassification of Calymmatobacterium granulomatis as Klebsiella granulomatis comb. nov. Int. J. Syst. Bacteriol. 49(Pt 4): 1695-1700.
74. Kharsany, A.B., A.A. Hoosen, P. Kiepiela et al. 1999. Phylogenetic analysis of Calymmatobacterium granulomatis based on 16S rRNA gene sequences. J. Med. Microbiol. 48: 841-847.
75. Mlengeya, T.D.K. 2004. Distribution pattern of a sexually transmitted diseast (STD) of Olive Baboon in Lake Manyara National Park, Tanzania. College of Wildlife Management. Moshi.
76. Knauf, S., E. Batamusi, T.D.K. Mlengeya et al. 2011. Treponema infection associated with Genital Ulceration in Wild Baboons. Vet. Pahtol. Mar 16. [Epub ahead of print].
77. Fribourg-Blanc A., H.H. Mollaret. 1969. Natural treponematosis of the African primate. Primates Med. 3:113-121.
78. Hackett, C.J. 1963. On the origin of the human treponematoses. Bull. World Health Org. 29: 7-41.
79. Hudson, E.H. 1965. Treponematosis in perspective. Bull. World Health Org. 32: 735-748.
80. Weinstock, G.M., D. Smajs, J.M. Hardham & S.J. Norris. 2000. From microbial genome sequence to applications. Res. Microbiol. 151: 151-158.
81. Mikalová, L., M. Strouhal, D. Čejková et al. 2010. Genome analysis of Treponema pallidum subsp. pallidum and subsp. pertenue strains: most of the genetic differences are localized in six regions. PLoS One 5: 15713.
82. Centurion-Lara, A., B.J. Molini, C. Godornes et al. 2006. Molecular differentiation of Treponema pallidum subspecies. J. Clin. Microbiol. 44: 3377-3380.
83. Gray, R., C. Mulligan, B. Molini et al. 2006. Molecular evolution of the tprC, D, I, K, G, and J genes in the pathogenic genus Treponema. Mol. Biol. Evol. 23: 2220-2233.
84. Harper, K.N., P.S. Ocampo, B.M. Steiner et al. 2008. On the origin of the Treponematoses: a phylogenetic approach. PLoS Negl. Trop. Dis. 2(1): e148.
85. de Melo, F.L., J.C. de Mello, A.M. Fraga et al. 2010. Syphilis at the crossroads of Phylogenetics and Paleopathology. PLoS Negl. Trop. Dis. 4: e575.
86. Marra, C.M., S.K. Sahi, L. Tantalo et al. 2010. Enhanced molecular typing of Treponema pallidum: geographical distribution of strain types and association with neurosyphilis. J. Infect. Dis. 202: 1380-1388.
87. Pillay, A., H. Liu, C.Y. Chen et al. 1998. Molecular subtyping of Treponema pallidum subspecies pallidum. Sex Transm. Dis. 25: 408-414.
88. Tapsall, J.W., F. Ndowa, D.A. Lewis & M. Unemo. 2009. Meeting the public health challenge of multidrug- and extensively drug-resistant Neisseria gonorrhoeae. Expert Rev. Anti. Infect. Ther. 7: 821-834.
89. Sparling, P.F. 2007. Biology of Neisseria gonorrhoeae. In Sexually Transmitted Diseases, 4th ed. K.K. Holmes, P.F. Sparling, W.E. Stamm, P. Piot, J.N. Wasserheit, L. Corey, M.S. Cohen, D.H. Watts, Eds.: 607-626. McGraw-Hill Professional. New York, USA.
90. Hamilton, H.L. & J.P. Dillard. 2006. Natural transformation of Neisseria gonorrhoeae: from DNA donation to homologous recombination. Mol. Microbiol. 59: 376-385.
91. Marri, P.R., M. Paniscus, N.J. Weyand et al. 2010. Genome sequencing reveals widespread virulence gene exchange among human Neisseria species. PLoS One 5: e11835.
92. Dunning Hotopp, J.C., R. Grifantini, N. Kumar et al. 2006. Comparative genomics of Neisseria meningitidis: core genome, islands of horizontal transfer and pathogen-specific genes. Microbiology 152(Pt 12): 3733-3749.
93. Tapsall, J.W., F. Ndowa, D.A. Lewis & M. Unemo. 2009. Meeting the public health challenge of multidrug- and extensively drug-resistant Neisseria gonorrhoeae. Expert Rev. Anti. Infect. Ther. 7: 821-834.
94. Shafer, W.M., J.P. Folster & R.A. Nicholas. 2010. Molecular mechanisms of antibiotic resistance expressed by the pathogenic Neisseriae. In Neisseria: Molecular Mechanisms of Pathogenesis. Caister Academic Press. Norfolk, UK.
95. Faruki, H., R.N. Kohmescher, W.P. McKinney & P.F. Sparling. 1985. A community-based outbreak of infection with penicillin-resistant Neisseria gonorrhoeae not producing penicillinase (chromosomally-mediated resistance). N. Engl. J. Med. 313: 607-611.
96. Warner, D.M., W.M. Shafer & A.E. Jerse. 2008. Clinically relevant mutations that cause derepression of the Neisseria gonorrhoeae MtrC-MtrD-MtrE Efflux pump system confer different levels of antimicrobial resistance and in vivo fitness. Mol. Microbiol. 70: 462-478.
97. Ohnishi, M., D. Golparian, K. Shimuta, et al. 2011. Is Neisseria gonorrhoeae initiating a future era of untreatable gonorrhea? Detailed characterization of the first strain with high-level resistance to ceftriaxone. Antimicrob Agents Chemother. 55: 3538-3545.
98. Hoofnagle, J.H. 1997. Hepatitis C: the clinical spectrum of disease. Hepatology 26(Suppl 1): 158-205.
99. Promrat, K. & J.R. Wands. 2005. Aetiology of fulminant hepatitis. In Viral Hepatitis, 3rd ed. H.C. Thomas, H.C., S. Lemon & A. Zuckerman, Eds.: 651-665. Blackwell.
100. Acharya, S.K., S. Dasarathy, T.L. Kumer et al. 1996. Fulminant Hepatitis in a tropical population: clinical course, cause, and early predictors of outcome. Hepatology 23: 1448-1455.
101. Anderson, D.A. & R.H. Cheng. 2005. Hepatitis E Virus Epidemiology, clinical and pathologic features, diagnosis, and experimental models. In Viral Hepatitis, 3rd ed. H.C. Thomas, H.C., S. Lemon & A. Zuckerman, Eds.: 603-610. Blackwell.
102. Simmonds, P. 2001. Reconstructing the origins of human hepatitis viruses. Philos. Trans. R. Soc. Lond. B. Biol. Sci. 356: 1013-1026.
103. Simmonds, P. 2001. The origin and evolution of hepatitis viruses in humans. J. Gen. Virol. 82: 693-712.
104. Meng, X.J. 2011. From barnyard to food table: the omnipresence of hepatitis E virus and risk for zoonotic infection and food safety. Virus Res. Feb 21. [Epub ahead of print].
105. Strickland, G.T. 2006. Liver disease in Egypt: hepatitis C superseded schistosomiasis as a result of iatrogenic and biological factors. Hepatology 43: 915-922.
106. Nordenfelt, E. 1990. Epidemiology of hepatitis delta virus and non-A, non-B hepatitis. Scand J. Infect. Dis. Suppl. 69: 49-53.
107. Stevens C.E., R.P. Beasley, J.J. Tsui & W.C. Lee. 1975. Vertical transmission of hepatitis B antigen in Taiwan. N. Eng. J. Med. 292: 771-774.
108. Mast E.E., L.Y. Hwang, D.S. Seto et al. 2005. Risk factors for perinatal transmission of hepatitis C virus (HCV) and the natural history of HCV infection acquired in infancy. J. Infect. Dis. 192: 1880-1889.
109. Quer, J. & J.I.E. Muir. 2005. Hepatitis C Virus Epidemiology. In Viral Hepatitis, 3rd ed. H.C. Thomas, S. Lemon & A. Zuckerman, Eds.: 407-425. Blackwell.
110. Rosina, F. & M. Rizzetto. 2005. Hepatitis D Virus: Epidemiology and natural history. In Viral Hepatitis, 3rd ed. H.C. Thomas, S. Lemon & A. Zuckerman, Eds.: 583-592. Blackwell.
111. Kulkarni, M.A., A.M. Walimbe, S. Cherian & V.A. Arankalle. 2009. Full length genomes of genotype IIIA Hepatitis A Virus strains (1995-2008) from India and estimates of the evolutionary rates and ages. Infect. Genet. Evol. 9: 1287-1294.
112. Hannoun, C.P., P. Horal & M. Lindh. 2000. Long-term mutation rates in the hepatitis B virus genome. J. Gen. Virol. 81: 75-83.
113. Smith, D.B., S. Pathirana, F. Davidson, et al. 1997. The origin of hepatitis C virus genotypes. J. Gen. Virol. 78: 321-328.
114. Nakao, H., H. Okamoto, M. Fukuda, et al. 1997. Mutation rate of GB virus C/hepatitis G virus over the entire genome and in subgenomic regions. Virology 233: 43-50.
115. Krugman, S. The ABC'S of Viral Hepatitis - The Gordon Lecture. 1992. Trans. Am. Clin. Climatol. Assoc. 101: 145-156.
116. Robertson, B.H., R.W. Jansen, B. Khanna, et al. 1992. Genetic relatedness of hepatitis A virus strains recovered from different geographical regions. J. Gen. Virol. 73: 1365-1377.
117. Costa-Mattioli, M., A. Di Napoli, V. Ferre et al. 2003. Genetic variability of hepatitis A virus. J. Gen. Virol. 84: 3191-3201.
118. Taylor J. & M. Pelchat. 2010. Origin of hepatitis delta virus. Future Microbiol. 5: 393-402.
119. Nelson, S.M. 1998. Ancestors for the Pigs. Pigs in prehistory. University of Pennsylvania Museum of Archaeology and Anthropology. ISBN 978-1-931707-09-1.
120. O'Connell, C., A. Oranje, D. Van Gysel & N.B. Silverberg. 2008. Congenital Molluscum Contagiosum: report of four cases and review of the literature. Pediatric Dermatol. 25: 553-556.
121. Gubser, C., S.P. Kellam & G.L. Smith. 2004. Poxvirus genomes: a phylogenetic analysis. J. Gen Virol 85: 105-117.
122. Moss, B., J.L. Shisler, Y. Xiang & T.G. Senkevich. 2000. Immune-defense molecules of Molluscum contagiosum virus, a human poxvirus. Trends Microbiol. 8: 473-477.
123. Senkevich, T.G., J.R. Sisler, E.V. Koonin, et al. 1996. Genome sequence of a human tumorigenic poxvirus: prediction of specific host response-evasion genes. Science 273: 813-816.
124. Tyring, S.K. 2003. Molluscum contagiosum: the importance of early diagnosis and treatment. Am. J. Obst. Gynecol. 189: S12-S16.
125. McGeoch, D.J., A.J. Davison, A. Dolan, et al. 2008. Molecular evolution of the Herpesvirales. In Origin and Evolution of Viruses, 2nd ed. E. Domingo, C.R. Parrish & J.J. Holland, Eds.: 447-475. Elsevier. London.
126. Gentry, G.A, M. Lowe, G. Alford & R. Nevins. 1988. Sequence analyses of herpesviral enzymes suggest an ancient origin for human sexual behavior. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA 85: 2658-2661.
127. Norberg, P. 2010. Divergence and genotyping of human alpha-herpesviruses: an overview. Infect. Genet. Evol. 10: 14-25.
128. Preston, C.M. & S. Efstathiou. 2007. Molecular basis of HSV latency and reactivation. In Human Herpesviruses: Biology, Therapy, and Immunoprophylaxis. A. Arvin, G. Campadelli-Fiume, E. Mocarski, P.S. Moore, B. Roizman, R. Whitley & K. Yamanishi, Eds.: 602-615. Cambridge University Press. Cambridge.
129. Lowhagen, G.B., P. Tunback, K. Andersson, et al. 2000. First episodes of genital herpes in a Swedish STD population: a study of epidemiology and transmission by the use of herpes simplex virus (HSV) typing and specific serology. Sex Transm. Infect. 76: 179-182.
130. McGeoch, D.J. & S. Cook. 1994. Molecular phylogeny of the alphaherpesvirinae subfamily and a proposed evolutionary timescale. J. Mol. Biol. 238: 9-22.
131. Norberg, P., T. Bergstrom, E. Rekabdar, et al. 2004. Phylogenetic analysis of clinical herpes simplex virus type 1 isolates identified three genetic groups and recombinant viruses. J. Virol. 78: 10755-10764.
132. Norberg, P., M.J. Kasubi, L. Haarr, et al. 2007. Divergence and recombination of clinical herpes simplex virus type 2 isolates. J. Virol. 81: 13158-13167.
133. Sharp, P.M. & B.H. Hahn. 2010. The evolution of HIV-1 and the origin of AIDS. Phil. Trans. Roy. Soc. London, Series B 365: 2487-2494.
134. Keele, B.F., et al. 2006. Chimpanzee reservoirs of pandemic and non-pandemic HIV-1. Science 313: 523-526.
135. Sharp, P.M. & B.H. Hahn 2008 Prehistory of HIV-1. Nature (London) 455: 605-606.
136. Keele, B.F., et al. 2009. Increased mortality and AIDS-like immunopathology in wild chimpanzees infected with SIVcpz. Nature 460: 515-519.
137. Sauter, D., et al. 2009. Tetherin-driven adaptation of Vpu and Nef function and the evolution of pandemic and non-pandemic HIV-1 strains. Cell Host Microbe 6: 409-421.
138. Hu, L. 2007. Expression of Endogenous Retroviruses in Humans. Thesis. Uppsala University. Uppsala.
139. Dewannieux, M., F. Harper, A. Richaud, et al. 2006. Identification of an infectious progenitor for the multiple-copy HERV-K human endogenous retroelements. Genome Res. 16: 1548-1556.
140. Lee Y.N. & P.D. Bieniasz. 2007. Reconstitution of an infectious human endogenous retrovirus. PLoS Pathog 3: e10.
141. Blomberg, J., F. Benachenhou, V. Blikstad, et al. 2009. Classification and nomenclature of endogenous retroviral sequences (ERVs) Problems and recommendations. Gene 448(2): 115-123.
142. Sperber, G., A. Lovgren, N.E. Eriksson, et al. 2009. RetroTector online, a rational tool for analysis of retroviral elements in small and medium size vertebrate genomic sequences. BMC bioinformatics 10(Suppl 6): S4.
143. Sperber, G.O., T. Airola, P. Jern & J. Blomberg. 2007. Automated recognition of retroviral sequences in genomic data-RetroTector. Nucleic Acids Res. 35: 4964-4976.
144. Blomberg, J., G. Sperber, P. Jern, F. Benachenhou, Eds. 2010. Towards a retrovirus database, RetroBank. In: R.D., Hejnar J., Skalka A, Svoboda J., editors, Proceedings of the Centennial Retrovirus Meeting. April 29-May 4; Prague. Medimond International Proceedings. Pp. 19-22.