Medical management of parkinson's disease: Focus on neuroprotection

Current Neuropharmacology

Volumn 9, Issue 2, 2011, Pages 350-359

  Boll, Marie Catherine ^a   Alcaraz Zubeldia, Mireya ^a   Rios, Camilo ^a  

^a NATIONAL INSTITUTE OF NEUROLOGY AND NEUROSURGERY   (Mexico)

Author keywords

Clinical trial; Neuroprotection; Parkinso s disease; Pramipexole; Rasagiline

Indexed keywords

ACETYLCARNITINE; ADENOSINE A2A RECEPTOR ANTAGONIST; AMANTADINE; ANTIPARKINSON AGENT; APOMORPHINE; BROMOCRIPTINE; CABERGOLINE; CAFFEINE; CARBIDOPA PLUS LEVODOPA; CREATINE; DOPAMINE RECEPTOR STIMULATING AGENT; GANGLIOSIDE GM1; GPI 1485; ISTRADEFYLLINE; LEVODOPA; LISURIDE; MINOCYCLINE; NICOTINAMIDE; PERGOLIDE; PRAMIPEXOLE; RASAGILINE; RESVERATROL; ROPINIROLE; ROTIGOTINE; SAFINAMIDE; SELEGILINE; TOCOPHEROL; UBIDECARENONE; UNINDEXED DRUG; ZONISAMIDE;

ALZHEIMER DISEASE; AMYOTROPHIC LATERAL SCLEROSIS; ARTICLE; BRADYCARDIA; BRAIN NERVE CELL; CLINICAL PRACTICE; DIZZINESS; DOPAMINERGIC NERVE CELL; DRUG EFFICACY; DRUG INDICATION; DYSKINESIA; ESTROGEN THERAPY; FOCAL EPILEPSY; GAIT DISORDER; HALLUCINATION; HUMAN; HUNTINGTON CHOREA; HYPOTENSION; LEG EDEMA; MONOTHERAPY; MOTOR DYSFUNCTION; NAUSEA; NEUROPROTECTION; NONHUMAN; OXIDATIVE STRESS; PARKINSON DISEASE; SOMNOLENCE; UNSPECIFIED SIDE EFFECT; VALVULAR HEART DISEASE; VOMITING;

EID: 79958142653     PISSN: 1570159X     EISSN: 18756190     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.2174/157015911795596577     Document Type: Article

References (107)

1. 18F-dopa uptake in Parkinson's disease, multiple system atrophy, and progressive supranuclear palsy. Ann. Neurol., 1990, 28, 547-555.
2. Drucker-Colín, R.; Verdugo-Díaz, L.; Morgado-Valle, C.; Solís-Maldonado, G.; Ondarza, R.; Boll, C.; Miranda, G.; Wang, G.J.; Volkow, N. Transplant of cultured neuron-like differentiated chromaffin cells in a Parkinson's disease patient. A preliminary report. Arch. Med. Res., 1999, 30, 33-39.
3. Bohnen, N.I.; Gedela, S.; Kuwabara, H.; Constantine, G.M.; Mathis, C.A.; Studenski, S.A.; Moore, R.Y. Selective hyposmia and nigrostriatal dopaminergic denervation in Parkinson's disease. J. Neurol., 2007, 254, 84-90.
4. Marek, K.; Parkinson Study Group. Dopamine transporter brain imaging to assess the effects of pramipexole vs. levodopa on Parkinson disease progression. JAMA, 2002, 287, 1653-1661.
5. Berendse, H.W.; Ponsen, M.M. Detection of preclinical Parkinson's disease along the olfactory tract. J. Neural. Transm., 2006, Suppl. 70, 321-325.
6. Stocchi. F.; Olanow, C.W. Neuroprotection in Parkinson's disease: Clinical trials. Ann. Neurol., 2003, 53, S87-S97.
7. Miller, G.W.; Erickson, J.D.; Perez, J.T.; Penland, S.N.; Mash, D.C.; Rye, D.B.; Levey, A.I. Immunochemical Analysis of Vesicular Monoamine Transporter (VMAT2) Protein in Parkinson's disease. Exp. Neurol., 1999, 156, 138-148.
8. Pan, T.; Xie, W.; Jankovic, J.; Le, W. Biological effects of pramipexole on dopaminergic neuron-associated genes: relevance to neuroprotection. Neurosci. Lett., 2005, 377, 106-109.
9. Clarke, C.E. Medical management of Parkinson's disease. J. Neurol. Neurosurg. Psychiatry, 2002, 72, i22-i27.
10. National Institute of Health and Clinical Excellence. Parkinson's disease. Diagnosis and management in primary and secondary care. Clin. Guideline, 2006, 35, 6.
11. Ravina, B.M.; Fagan, S.C.; Hart, R.G.; Hovinga, C.A.; Murphy, D.D.; Dawson, T.M.; Marler, J.R. Neuroprotective agents for clinical trials in Parkinson's disease: a systematic assessment. Neurology, 2003, 60, 1234-1240.
12. Wu, R.M.; Chen, R.C.; Chiueh C.C. Effect of MAO-B inhibitors on MPP+ toxicity in vivo. Ann. N.Y. Acad. Sci., 2000, 899, 255-261.
13. Hara, M.R.; Thomas, B.; Cascio, M.B.; Bae, B.I.; Hester, L.D.; Dawson, V.L.; Dawson, T.M.; Sawa, A.; Snyder, S.H. Neuroprotection by pharmacologic blockade of the GAPDH death cascade. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA, 2006, 103, 3887-3889.
14. Nagatsu, T., Sawada, M. Molecular mechanism of the relation of monoamine oxidase B and its inhibitors to Parkinson's disease: possible implications of glial cells. J. Neural. Transm. 2006, Suppl., 71, 53-65.
15. Tatton, W.G.; Ju, W.Y.; Holland, D.P.; Tai, C.; Kwan, M. (-)-Deprenyl reduces PC12 cell apoptosis by inducing new protein synthesis. J. Neurochem., 1994, 63, 1572-1575.
16. Wadia, J.S.; Chalmers-Redman, R.M.; Ju, W.J.; Carlile, G.W.; Phillips, J.L.; Fraser, A.D.; Tatton, W.G. Mitochondrial membrane potential and nuclear changes in apoptosis caused by serum and nerve growth factor withdrawal: time course and modification by (-)-deprenyl. J. Neurosci., 1998, 18, 932-947.
17. Olanow, C.W. Rationale for considering that propargylamines might be neuroprotective in Parkinson's disease. Neurology, 2006, 66, S69-S79.
18. The Parkinson Study Group. Effects of tocopherol and deprenyl on the progression of disability in early Parkinson's disease. N. Engl. J. Med., 1993, 328, 176-183.
19. Shoulson, I.; Oakes, D.; Fahn, S.; Lang, A.; Langston, J.W.; LeWitt, P.; Olanow, C.W.; Penney, J.B.; Tanner, C.; Kieburtz, K.; Rudolph, A.; Parkinson Study Group. Impact of sustained deprenyl (selegiline) in levodopa-treated Parkinson's disease: a randomized placebo-controlled extension of the deprenyl and tocopherol antioxidative therapy of parkinsonism trial. Ann. Neurol., 2002, 51, 604-612.
20. Olanow, C.W.; Hauser, R.A.; Gauger, L.; Malapira, T.; Koller, W.; Hubble, J.; Bushenbark, K.; Lilienfeld, D.; Esterlitz, J. The effect of deprenyl and levodopa on the progression of Parkinson's disease. Ann. Neurol., 1995, 38, 771-777.
21. Jenner, P. Preclinical evidence for neuroprotection with monoamine oxidase-B inhibitors in Parkinson's disease. Neurology, 2004, 63, S13-S22.
22. Bar-Am, O.B.; Amit, T.; Youdim, M.B. Contrasting neuroprotective and neurotoxic actions of respective metabolites of anti-Parkinson drugs rasagiline and selegiline. Neurosci. Lett., 2004, 355, 169-172.
23. Waibel, S.; Reuter, A.; Malessa, S.; Blaugrund, E.; Ludolph, A.C. Rasagiline alone and in combination with riluzole prolongs survival in an ALS mouse model. J. Neurol., 2004, 251, 1080-1084.
24. Parkinson Study Group. A controlled trial of rasagiline in early Parkinson disease: the TEMPO Study. Arch. Neurol., 2002, 59, 1937-1943.
25. Siderowf, A., Stern, M. Clinical trials with rasagiline: evidence for short-term and long-term effects. Neurology, 2006, 66, S80-S88.
26. Olanow, C.W.; Hauser, R.A.; Jankovic, J.; Langston, W.; Lang, A.; Poewe, W.; Tolosa, E.; Stocchi, F.; Melamed, E.; Eyal, E.; Rascol, O. A randomized, double-blind, placebo-controlled, delayed start study to assess rasagiline as a disease modifying therapy in Parkinson's disease (the ADAGIO study): rationale, design, and baseline characteristics. Mov. Disord., 2008, 23, 2194-2201.
27. Ross, G.W.; Abbott, R.D.; Petrovitch, H.; Morens, D.M.; Grandinetti, A.; Tung, K.H.; Tanner, C.M.; Masaki, K.H.; Blanchette, P.L.; Curb, J.D.; Popper, J.S.; White, L.R. Association of coffee and caffeine intake with the risk of Parkinson disease. JAMA, 2000, 283, 2674-2679.
28. Yu, L.; Shen, H.Y.; Coelho, J.E.; Araújo, I.M.; Huang, Q.Y.; Day, Y.J.; Rebola, N.; Canas, P.M.; Rapp, E.K.; Ferrara, J.; Taylor, D.; Müller, C.E.; Linden, J.; Cunha, R.A.; Chen, J.F. Adenosine A2A receptor antagonists exert motor and neuroprotective effects by distinct cellular mechanisms. Ann. Neurol., 2008, 63, 338-346.
29. Simola, N.; Fenu, S.; Baraldi, P.G.; Tabrizi, M.A.; Morelli, M. Blockade of globus pallidus adenosine A(2A) receptors displays antiparkinsonian activity in 6-hydroxydopamine-lesioned rats treated with D(1) or D(2) dopamine receptor agonists. Synapse, 2008, 62, 345-351.
30. Kalda, A.; Yu, L.; Oztas, E.; Chen, J.F. Novel neuroprotection by caffeine and adenosine A(2A) receptor antagonists in animal models of Parkinson's disease. J. Neurol. Sci., 2006, 248, 9-15.
31. LeWitt, P.A.; Guttman, M.; Tetrud, J.W.; Tuite, P.J.; Mori, A.; Chaikin, P.; Sussman, N.M. 6002-US-005 Study Group. Adenosine A2A receptor antagonist istradefylline (KW-6002) reduces "off" time in Parkinson's disease: a double-blind, randomized, multicenter clinical trial (6002-US-005). Ann. Neurol., 2008, 63, 295-302.
32. Liu, B.; Dluzen, D.E. Oestrogen and nigrostriatal dopaminergic neurodegeneration: animal models and clinical reports of Parkinson's disease. Clin. Exp. Pharmacol. Physiol., 2007, 34, 555-565.
33. Morale, M.C.; Serra, P.A.; L'Episcopo F.; Tirolo, C.; Caniglia. S.; Testa, N.; Gennuso, F.; Giaquinta, G.; Rocchitta, G.; Desole, M.S.; Miele, E.; Marchetti, B. Estrogen, neuroinflammation and neuroprotection in Parkinson's disease: glia dictates versus vulnerability to neurodegeneration. Neuroscience, 2006, 138, 869-878.
34. Sohrabji, F.; Lewis, D.K. Estrogen-BDNF interactions: implications for neurodegenerative diseases. Front. Neuroendocrinol., 2006, 27, 404-414.
35. Alexaki, V.I.; Charalampopoulos, I.; Kampa, M.; Nifli, A.P.; Hatzoglou, A.; Gravanis, A.; Castanas, E. Activation of membrane estrogen receptors induces pro-survival kinases. J. Steroid. Biochem. Mol. Biol., 2006, 98, 97-110.
36. Chen, H.Q.; Jin, Z.Y.; Li, G.H. Biochanin A protects dopaminergic neurons against lipopolysaccharide-induced damage through inhibition of microglia activation and proinflammatory factors generation. Neurosci. Lett., 2007, 417, 112-117.
37. Shulman, L.M. Gender differences in Parkinson's disease. Gend. Med., 2007, 4, 8-18.
38. Nicoletti, A.; Arabia, G.; Pugliese, P.; Nicoletti, G.; Torchia, G.; Condino, F.; Morgante, L.; Quattrone, A.; Zappia, M. Hormonal replacement therapy in women with Parkinson disease and levodopa-induced dyskinesia: a crossover trial. Clin. Neuropharmacol., 2007, 30, 276-280.
39. Rocca, W.A.; Bower, J.H.; Maraganore, D.M.; Ahlskog, J.E.; Grossardt, B.R.; de Andrade, M.; Melton, L.J. 3rd. Increased risk of parkinsonism in women who underwent oophorectomy before menopause. Neurology, 2008, 70, 200-209.
40. Ascherio, A.; Chen, H.; Schwarzschild, M.A.; Zhang, S.M.; Colditz, G.A.; Speizer, F.E. Caffeine, postmenopausal estrogen, and risk of Parkinson's disease. Neurology, 2003, 60, 790-795.
41. Yrjänheikki, J.; Keinänen, R.; Pellikka, M.; Hökfelt, T.; Koistinaho, J. Tetracyclines inhibit microglial activation and are neuroprotective in global brain ischemia. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA, 1998, 95, 15769-15774.
42. Yrjänheikki, J.; Tikka, T.; Keinänen, R.; Goldsteins, G.; Chan, P.H.; Koistinaho, J. A tetracycline derivative, minocycline, reduces inflammation and protects against focal cerebral ischemia with a wide therapeutic window. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA, 1999, 96, 13496-13500.
43. Tikka, T.M.; Koistinaho, J.E. Minocycline provides neuroprotection against N-methyl-D-aspartate neurotoxicity by inhibiting microglia. J. Immunol., 2001, 166, 7527-7533.
44. Chen, M.; Ona, VO.; Li, M.; Ferrante, R.J.; Fink, K.B.; Zhu, S.; Bian, J.; Guo, L.; Farrell, L.A.; Hersch, S.M.; Hobbs, W.; Vonsattel, J.P.; Cha, J.H.; Friedlander, R.M. Minocycline inhibits caspase-1 and caspase-3 expression and delays mortality in a transgenic mouse model of Huntington disease. Nat. Med., 2000, 6, 797-801.
45. Kriz, J.; Nguyen, M.D.; Julián, J.P. Minocycline slows disease progression in a mouse model of amyotrophic lateral sclerosis. Neurobiol. Dis., 2002, 10, 268-278.
46. Friedlander, R.M. Apoptosis and caspases in neurodegenerative diseases. N. Engl. J. Med., 2003, 348, 1365-1375.
47. Wu, D.C.; Jackson-Lewis, V.; Vila, M.; Tieu, K.; Teismann, P.; Vadseth, C.; Choi, D.K.; Ischiropoulos, H.; Przedborski, S. Blockade of microglial activation is neuroprotective in the 1-methyl-4-phenyl-1, 2, 3, 6-tetrahydropyridine mouse model of Parkinson disease. J. Neurosci., 2002, 22, 1763-1771.
48. NINDS NET-PD Investigators. A randomized, double-blind, futility clinical trial of creatine and minocycline in early Parkinson's disease. Neurology, 2006, 66, 664-671.
49. Bonuccelli, U.; Del Dotto, P. New pharmacologic horizons in the treatment of Parkinson disease. Neurology, 2006, 67, S30-S38.
50. Beal, M.F. Bioenergetic approaches for neuroprotection in Parkinson's disease. Ann. Neurol., 2003, 53, S39-S47.
51. Schapira, A.H.; Cooper, J.M.; Dexter, D.; Clark, J.B.; Jenner, P.; Marsden, C.D. Mitochondrial complex I deficiency in Parkinson's disease. J. Neurochem., 1990, 54, 823-827.
52. Ebadi, M.; Govitrapong, P.; Sharma, S.; Muralikrishnan, D.; Shavali, S.; Pellett, L.; Schafer, R.; Albano, C.; Eken, J. Ubiquinone (coenzyme q10) and mitochondria in oxidative stress of Parkinson's disease. Biol. Signals Recept., 2001, 10, 224-253.
53. Shults, C.W.; Oakes, D.; Kieburtz, K.; Beal, M.F.; Haas, R.; Plumb, S.; Juncos, J.L.; Nutt, J.; Shoulson, I.; Carter, J.; Kompoliti, K.; Perlmutter, J.S.; Reich, S.; Stern, M.; Watts, R.L.; Kurlan, R.; Molho, E.; Harrison, M.; Lew, M.; Parkinson Study Group. Effects of coenzyme Q10 in early Parkinson disease: evidence of slowing of the functional decline. Arch. Neurol., 2002, 59, 1541-1550.
54. Shults, C.W.; Flint, B.M.; Song, D.; Fontaine, D. Pilot trial of high dosages of coenzyme Q10 in patients with Parkinson's disease. Exp. Neurol., 2004, 188, 491-494.
55. Guo, X.; Dillman, J.F.3rd.; Dawson, V.L.; Dawson, T.M. Neuroimmunophilins: novel neuroprotective and neuroregenerative targets. Ann. Neurol., 2001, 50, 6-16.
56. NINDS NET-PD Investigators. A randomized clinical trial of coenzyme Q10 and GPI-1485 in early Parkinson's disease. Neurology, 2007, 68, 20-28.
57. Rothblat, D.S.; Schneider, J.S. Effects of GM1 ganglioside treatment on dopamine innervation of the striatum of MPTP-treated mice. Ann. N.Y. Acad. Sci., 1998, 845, 274-277.
58. Zappia, M.; Crescibene, L.; Bosco, D.; Arabia, G.; Nicoletti, G.; Bagalà, A.; Bastone, L.; Napoli, I.D.; Caracciolo, M.; Bonacita, S.; Di Costanzo, A.; Gambardella, A.; Quattrone, A. Anti-GM1 ganglioside antibodies in Parkinson's disease. Acta Neurol. Scand., 2002, 106, 54-57.
59. Schneider, J.S. GM1 ganglioside in the treatment of Parkinson's disease. Ann. N.Y. Acad. Sci., 1998, 845, 363-373.
60. 3 receptor-deficient mice. Life Sci., 2005, 76, 1281-1296.
61. Waller, E.A., Kaplan, J., Heckman, M.G. Valvular heart disease in patients taking pergolide. Mayo Clin. Proc., 2005, 80, 1016-1020.
62. Reichmann, H.; Bilsing, A.; Ehret, R.; Greulich, W.; Schulz, J.B.; Schwartz, A.; Rascol, O. Ergoline and non-ergoline derivatives in the treatment of Parkinson's disease. J. Neurol., 2006, 253, IV36-IV38.
63. Antonini, A.; Poewe, W. Fibrotic heart-valve reactions to dopamine-agonist treatment in Parkinson's disease. Lancet Neurol., 2007, 6, 826-829.
64. Lewis, M.M.; Huang, X.; Nichols, D.E.; Mailman, R.B. D1 and functionally selective dopamine agonists as neuroprotective agents in Parkinson's disease. CNS Neurol. Disord. Drug Targets, 2006, 5, 345-353.
65. van Hilten, J.J.; Ramaker, C.C.; Stowe, R.; Ives, N.J. Bromocriptine versus levodopa in early Parkinson's disease. Cochrane Database Syst. Rev., 2007, 4, CD002258.
66. Truong, J.G.; Rau, K.S.; Hanson, G.R.; Fleckenstein, A.E. Pramipexole increases vesicular dopamine uptake: implications for treatment of Parkinson's neurodegeneration. Eur. J. Pharmacol., 2003, 474, 223-226.
67. Truong, J.G.; Newman, A.H.; Hanson, G.R.; Fleckenstein, A.E. Dopamine D2 receptor activation increases vesicular dopamine uptake and redistributes vesicular monoamine transporter-2 protein. Eur. J. Pharmacol., 2004, 504, 27-32.
68. Whone, A.L.; Watts, R.L.; Stoessl, A.J.; Davis, M.; Reske, S.; Nahmias, C.; Lang, A.E.; Rascol, O.; Ribeiro, M.J.; Remy, P.; Poewe, W.H.; Hauser, R.A.; Brooks, D.J.; REAL-PET Study Group. Slower progression of Parkinson's disease with ropinirole versus levodopa. Ann. Neurol., 2003, 54, 93-101.
69. Parkinson Study Group. Pramipexole vs levodopa as initial treatment for Parkinson's disease: a randomized controlled trial. JAMA, 2000, 284, 1931-1938.
70. Hobson, D.E.; Lang, A.E.; Martin, W.R.; Razmy, A.; Rivest, J.; Fleming, J. Excessive daytime sleepiness and sudden-onset sleep in Parkinson disease: a survey by the Canadian Movement Disorders Group. JAMA, 2002, 287, 455-463.
71. Ahlskog, J.E. Slowing Parkinson's disease progression: recent dopamine agonist trials. Neurology, 2003, 60, 381-389.
72. Lieberman, A.; Ranhosky, A.; Korts, D. Clinical evaluation of pramipexole in advanced Parkinson's disease: results of a doubleblind, placebo-controlled, parallel-group study. Neurology, 1997, 49, 162-168.
73. Bédard, P.J.; Gomez-Mancilla, B.; Blanchette, P.; Gagnon, C.; Falardeau, P.; DiPaolo, T. Role of selective D1 and D2 agonists in inducing dyskinesia in drug-naive MPTP monkeys. Adv. Neurol., 1993, 60, 113-118.
74. Nyholm, D. Pharmacokinetic optimisation in the treatment of Parkinson's disease: an update. Clin. Pharmacokinet., 2006, 45, 109-136.
75. Baldwin, C.M.; Keating, G.M. Spotlight on rotigotine in Parkinson's disease. Drugs Aging, 2008, 25, 175-177.
76. Farooq, M.U.; Moore, P.W.; Bhatt, A.; Aburashed, R.; Kassab, M.Y. Therapeutic role of zonisamide in neuropsychiatric disorders. Mini Rev. Med.Chem., 2008, 8, 968-975.
77. Murata, M.; Hasegawa, K.; Kanazawa, I.; Japan Zonisamide on PD Study Group. Zonisamide improves motor function in Parkinson disease: a randomized, double-blind study. Neurology, 2007, 68, 45-50.
78. Asanuma, M.; Miyazaki, I.; Diaz-Corrales, F.J.; Miyoshi, K.; Ogawa, N.; Murata, M. Preventing effects of a novel antiparkinsonian agent zonisamide on dopamine quinone formation. Neurosci. Res., 2008, 60, 106-113.
79. Fernández, H.H.; Chen, J.J. Monoamine oxidase-B inhibition in the treatment of Parkinson's disease. Parkinson's disease. Pharmacotherapy, 2007, 27, 174S-185S.
80. Onofrj, M.; Bonanni, L.; Thomas, A. An expert opinion on safinamide in Parkinson's disease. Expert Opin. Investig. Drugs, 2008, 17, 1115-1125.
81. Dillin, A.; Kelly, J.W. The yin-yang of sirtuins. Science, 2007, 317, 461-519.
82. Howitz K.T.; Bitterman K.J.; Cohen H.Y.; Lamming D.W.; Lavu S.; Wood J.G. Zipkin R.E., Chung P., Kisielewski A., Zhang L.L., Scherer B., Sinclair D.A. Small molecule activators of sirtuins extend Saccharomyces cerevisiae lifespan. Nature, 2003, 425(6954), 191-196.
83. Kim, D.; Nguyen, M.D.; Dobbin, M.M.; Fischer, A.; Sananbenesi, F.; Rodgers, J.T.; Delalle, I.; Baur, J.A.; Sui, G.; Armour, S.M.; Puigserver, P.; Sinclair, D.A.; Tsai, L.H. SIRT1 deacetylase protects against neurodegeneration in models for Alzheimer's disease and amyotrophic lateral sclerosis. EMBO J., 2007, 26, 3169-3179.
84. Timberlake, W.H.; Vance, M.A. Four-year treatment of patients with parkinsonism using amantadine alone or with levodopa. Ann. Neurol., 1978, 3, 119-128.
85. Uitti, R.J.; Rajput, A.H.; Ahlskog, J.E.; Offord, K.P.; Schroeder, D.R.; Ho, M.M.; Prasad, M.; Rajput, A.; Basran, P. Amantadine treatment is an independent predictor of improved survival in Parkinson's disease. Neurology, 1996, 46, 1551-1556.
86. Lange, K.W.; Kornhuber, J.; Riederer, P. Dopamine/glutamate interactions in Parkinson's disease. Neurosci. Biobehav. Rev., 1997, 21, 393-400.
87. Crosby, N.; Deane, K.H.; Clarke, C.E. Amantadine in Parkinson's disease. Cochrane Database Syst. Rev., 2003, 1, CD003468.
88. Vale, S. Current management of the cognitive dysfunction in Parkinson's disease: how far have we come? Exp. Biol. Med. (Maywood) 2008, 233, 941-951.
89. Sinn, D.I.; Kim, S.J.; Chu, K.; Jung, K.H.; Lee, S.T.; Song, E.C.; Kim, J.M.; Park, D.K.; Kun Lee, S.; Kim, M.; Roh, J.K. Valproic acid-mediated neuroprotection in intracerebral hemorrhage via histone deacetylase inhibition and transcriptional activation. Neurobiol. Dis., 2007, 26, 464-472.
90. Monti, B.; Gatta, V.; Piretti, F.; Raffaelli, S.S.; Virgili, M.; Contestabile, A. Valproic Acid is Neuroprotective in the Rotenone Rat Model of Parkinson's Disease: Involvement of alpha-Synuclein. Neurotox. Res., 2010, 17(2), 130-141.
91. Fornai, F.; Longote, P.; Cafaro, L.; Kastsiuchenka, O.; Ferrucci, M.; Manca, M.L.; Lazzeri, G.; Spalloni, A.; Bellio, N.; Lenzi, P.; Modugno, N.; Siciliano, G.; Isidoro, C.; Murri, L.; Ruggieri, S.; Paparelli, A. Lithium delays progression of amyotrophic lateral sclerosis. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA, 2008, 105, 2052-2057.
92. Renna, M.; Jimenez-Sanchez, M.; Sarkar, S.; Rubinsztein, D.C.; Chemical inducers of autophagy that enhance the clearance of mutant proteins in neurodegenerative diseases. J. Biol. Chem., 2010, 285, 11061-11067.
93. Leng, Y.; Liang, M.H.; Ren, M.; Marinova, Z.; Leeds, P.; Chuang, D.M. Synergistic neuroprotective effects of lithium and valproic acid or other histone deacetylase inhibitors in neurons: roles of glycogen synthase kinase-3 inhibition. J. Neurosci., 2008, 28, 2576-2588.
94. Harris, Z.L.; Takahashi, Y.; Miyajima, H.; Serizawa, M.; McGilliwray, R.T.; Gitlin, J.D. Aceruloplasminemia: molecular characterization of this disorder of iron metabolism. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA, 1995, 92, 2539-2543.
95. Boll, M.C.; Alcaraz-Zubeldia, M.; Montes, S.; Rios, C. Free copper, ferroxidase and SOD1 activities, NOx and lipid peroxidation. A different marker profile in four neurodegenerative diseases. Neurochem. Res., 2008, 33, 1717-1723.
96. Alcaraz-Zubeldia, M.; Rojas, P.; Boll, M.-C.; Rios, C. Neuroprotective effect of acute and chronic administration of copper (II) sulfate against MPP+ neurotoxicity in mice. Neurochem. Res., 2001, 26, 59-64.
97. Alcaraz-Zubeldia M.; Montes S.; Ríos C. Participation of manganese-superoxide dismutase in the neuroprotection exerted by copper sulfate against 1-methyl 4-phenylpyridinium neurotoxicity. Brain Res. Bull., 2001, 55, 277-279.
98. Rubio-Osornio, M.; Montes, S.; Pérez-Severiano, F.; Aguilera, P.; Floriano-Sánchez, E.; Monroy-Noyola, A.; Rubio, C.; Ríos, C. Copper reduces striatal protein nitration and tyrosine hydroxylase inactivation induced by MPP+ in rats. Neurochem. Int., 2009, 54, 447-451.
99. Alcaraz-Zubeldía, M.; Boll-Woehrlen M.C.; Montes-López, S.; Pérez-Severiano, F.; Martínez-Lascano, J.C.; Díaz-Ruiz, A.; Ríos, C. Copper sulfate prevents from tyrosine hydroxylase reduced activity and motor deficits in a Parkinson's disease model in mice. Rev. Invest. Clin., 2009, 61(5), 405-411.
100. Fahn, S. Parkinson disease, the effect of levodopa, and the ELLDOPA trial. Arch. Neurol., 1999, 56, 529-535.
101. The Parkinson Study Group. Levodopa and the Progression of Parkinson's Disease. N. Engl. J. Med., 2004, 351, 2498-2508.
102. Chan, P.L.; Nutt, J.G.; Holford, N.H. Levodopa slows progression of Parkinson's disease: external validation by clinical trial simulation. Pharm. Res., 2007, 24, 791-802.
103. Fahn, S.; Parkinson Study Group. Does levodopa slow or hasten the rate of progression of Parkinson's disease? J. Neurol., 2005, 252, IV37-IV42.
104. Wu, S.S.; Frucht, S.J. Treatment of Parkinson's disease. What's on the horizon? CNS Drugs, 2005, 19, 723-743.
105. Kaplitt, M.G.; Feigin, A.; Tang, C.; Fitzsimons, H.L.; Mattis, P.; Lawlor, P.A.; Bland, R.J.; Young, D.; Strybing, K.; Eidelberg, D.; During, M.J. Safety and tolerability of gene therapy with an adenoassociated virus (AAV) borne GAD gene for Parkinson's disease: an open label, phase I trial. Lancet, 2007, 369, 2097-2105.
106. Parkinson Study Group PRECEPT Investigators. Mixed lineage kinase inhibitor CEP-1347 fails to delay disability in early Parkinson disease. Neurology, 2007, 69, 1480-1490.
107. Bensimon, G.; Ludolph, A.; Agid, Y.; Vidailhet, M.; Payan, C.; Leigh, P.N. Riluzole treatment, survival and diagnostic criteria in Parkinson plus disorders: the NNIPPS study. Brain, 2009, 312, 156-171.