Harnessing neuroplasticity for clinical applications

Brain

Volumn 134, Issue 6, 2011, Pages 1591-1609

  Cramer, Steven C ^a,ab   Sur, Mriganka ^b   Dobkin, Bruce H ^c   O'Brien, Charles ^d   Sanger, Terence D ^e   Trojanowski, John Q ^d   Rumsey, Judith M ^f   Hicks, Ramona ^g   Cameron, Judy ^h   Chen, Daofen ^g   Chen, Wen G ⁱ   Cohen, Leonardo G ^g   Decharms, Christopher ^j   Duffy, Charles J ^k   Eden, Guinevere F ^l   Fetz, Eberhard E ^m   Filart, Rosemarie ⁿ   Freund, Michelle ^f   Grant, Steven J ^o   Haber, Suzanne ^k   Kalivas, Peter W ^p   Kolb, Bryan ^q   Kramer, Arthur F ^r   Lynch, Minda ^o   Mayberg, Helen S ^s   McQuillen, Patrick S ^t   Nitkin, Ralph ^u   Pascual Leone, Alvaro ^v   Reuter Lorenz, Patricia ^w   Schiff, Nicholas ^x   Sharma, Anu ^y   Shekim, Lana ^z   Stryker, Michael ^t   Sullivan, Edith V ^aa   Vinogradov, Sophia ^t   more..

^a UNIVERSITY OF CALIFORNIA   (United States)

^b MASSACHUSETTS INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY   (United States)

^c UNIVERSITY OF CALIFORNIA   (United States)

^d UNIVERSITY OF PENNSYLVANIA   (United States)

^e UNIVERSITY OF SOUTHERN CALIFORNIA   (United States)

^f NATIONAL INSTITUTE OF MENTAL HEALTH   (United States)

^g NATIONAL INSTITUTE OF NEUROLOGICAL DISORDERS AND STROKE   (United States)

^h OREGON HEALTH AND SCIENCE UNIVERSITY   (United States)

ⁱ National Institute of Aging   (United States)

^j Omneuron Inc   (United States)

^k UNIVERSITY OF ROCHESTER   (United States)

^l GEORGETOWN UNIVERSITY SCHOOL OF MEDICINE   (United States)

^m UNIVERSITY OF WASHINGTON   (United States)

ⁿ National Centre for Research Resources   (United States)

^o NATIONAL INSTITUTE ON DRUG ABUSE   (United States)

^p MEDICAL UNIVERSITY OF SOUTH CAROLINA   (United States)

^q UNIVERSITY OF LETHBRIDGE   (Canada)

^r UNIVERSITY OF ILLINOIS AT URBANA CHAMPAIGN   (United States)

^s EMORY UNIVERSITY   (United States)

^t UNIVERSITY OF CALIFORNIA   (United States)

^u EUNICE KENNEDY SHRIVER NATIONAL INSTITUTE OF CHILD HEALTH AND HUMAN DEVELOPMENT   (United States)

^v HARVARD MEDICAL SCHOOL   (United States)

^w UNIVERSITY OF MICHIGAN DEARBORN   (United States)

^x WEILL CORNELL MEDICAL COLLEGE   (United States)

^y UNIVERSITY OF COLORADO   (United States)

^z NATIONAL INSTITUTE ON DEAFNESS AND OTHER COMMUNICATION DISORDERS   (United States)

^aa STANFORD UNIVERSITY   (United States)

^ab UNIVERSITY OF CALIFORNIA   (United States)

more..

Author keywords

clinical assessment; neuroplasticity; retraining; therapeutics

Indexed keywords

BIOLOGICAL MARKER; N METHYL DEXTRO ASPARTIC ACID RECEPTOR BLOCKING AGENT;

AEROBIC EXERCISE; AGING; APHASIA; BRAIN DEPTH STIMULATION; CENTRAL NERVOUS SYSTEM; COGNITION; COGNITIVE THERAPY; CONSTRAINT INDUCED THERAPY; CONVALESCENCE; DEMENTIA; DEVELOPMENTAL DISORDER; EXERCISE; FUNCTIONAL MAGNETIC RESONANCE IMAGING; HUMAN; MENTAL DISEASE; MOTOR CORTEX; MOTOR PERFORMANCE; MOVEMENT THERAPY; NERVE CELL PLASTICITY; NERVE DEGENERATION; NERVOUS SYSTEM INJURY; NEUROBIOLOGY; NEUROIMAGING; NEUROPATHOLOGY; NEUROPHARMACOLOGY; NEUROPHYSIOLOGY; NEUROPSYCHIATRY; NONHUMAN; NUCLEAR MAGNETIC RESONANCE IMAGING; PARKINSON DISEASE; PHENOTYPE; POSTSTROKE APHASIA; PREDICTION; PRIORITY JOURNAL; QUALITY OF LIFE; REVIEW; SCHIZOPHRENIA; SPEECH THERAPY; SPINAL CORD INJURY; STROKE; SYNAPSE; TRAUMATIC BRAIN INJURY;

AGING; ANIMALS; BIOMEDICAL RESEARCH; BRAIN DISEASES; COGNITION DISORDERS; HUMANS; NEURONAL PLASTICITY; RECOVERY OF FUNCTION; STROKE;

EID: 79957794091     PISSN: 00068950     EISSN: 14602156     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1093/brain/awr039     Document Type: Review

References (225)

1. Awaya S. Stimulus deprivation amblyopia in humans. In: Reinecke R, editor. Strabismus. New York: Grune and Stratton; 1987.
2. Aylward EH, Richards TL, Berninger VW, Nagy WE, Field KM, Grimme AC, et al. Instructional treatment associated with changes in brain activation in children with dyslexia. Neurology 2003; 61: 212-9. (Pubitemid 36875303)
3. Bagati D, Nizamie SH, Prakash R. Effect of augmentatory repetitive tran-scranial magnetic stimulation on auditory hallucinations in schizophrenia: randomized controlled study. Aust N Z J Psychiatry 2009; 43: 386-92.
4. Baillieux H, De Smet HJ, Dobbeleir A, Paquier PF, De Deyn PP, Marien P. Cognitive and affective disturbances following focal cerebellar damage in adults: a neuropsychological and SPECT study. Cortex 2010; 46: 869-79.
5. Balu DT, Coyle JT. Neuroplasticity signaling pathways linked to the pathophysiology of schizophrenia. Neurosci Biobehav Rev 2011; 35: 848-70.
6. Beauregard M, Levesque J, Bourgouin P. Neural correlates of conscious self-regulation of emotion. J Neurosci 2001; 21: RC165.
7. Beck AT. The current state of cognitive therapy: a 40-year retrospective. Arch Gen Psychiatry 2005; 62: 953-9. (Pubitemid 41248374)
8. Belanger HG, Vanderploeg RD, Curtiss G, Warden DL. Recent neuroima-ging techniques in mild traumatic brain injury. J Neuropsychiatry Clin Neurosci 2007; 19: 5-20. (Pubitemid 46294440)
9. Bewernick BH, Hurlemann R, Matusch A, Kayser S, Grubert C, Hadrysiewicz B, et al. Nucleus accumbens deep brain stimulation decreases ratings of depression and anxiety in treatment-resistant depression. Biol Psychiatry 2010; 67: 110-6.
10. Bhogal S, Teasell R, Speechley M. Intensity of aphasia therapy, impact on recovery. Stroke 2003; 34: 987-93.
11. Brion J-P, Demeurisse G, Capon A. Evidence of cortical reorganization in hemiparetic patients. Stroke 1989; 20: 1079-84. (Pubitemid 19204023)
12. Bucher H, Guyatt G, Cook D, Holbrook A, McAlister F. Users' guides to the medical literature: XIX. Applying clinical trial results. A. How to use an article measuring the effect of an intervention on surrogate end points. Evidence-Based Medicine Working Group. JAMA 1999; 282: 771-8. (Pubitemid 29404385)
13. Buma FE, Lindeman E, Ramsey NF, Kwakkel G. Functional Neuroimaging Studies of Early Upper Limb Recovery After Stroke: A Systematic Review of the Literature. Neurorehabil Neural Repair 2010; 24: 589-608.
14. Buonomano DV, Merzenich MM. Cortical plasticity: from synapses to maps. Annu Rev Neurosci 1998; 21: 149-86. (Pubitemid 28150662)
15. Butefisch C, Davis B, Wise S, Sawaki L, Kopylev L, Classen J, et al. Mechanisms of use-dependent plasticity in the human motor cortex. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 2000; 97: 3661-5. (Pubitemid 30183359)
16. Cabeza R, Anderson N, Locantore J, McIntosh A. Aging gracefully: compensatory brain activity in high-performing older adults. Neuroimage 2002; 17: 1394-402. (Pubitemid 35339393)
17. Carey J, Kimberley T, Lewis S, Auerbach E, Dorsey L, Rundquist P, et al. Analysis of fMRI and finger tracking training in subjects with chronic stroke. Brain 2002; 125: 773-88. (Pubitemid 34279773)
18. Carey LM, Matyas TA. Training of somatosensory discrimination after stroke: facilitation of stimulus generalization. Am J Phys Med Rehabil 2005; 84: 428-42. (Pubitemid 40705787)
19. Caria A, Veit R, Sitaram R, Lotze M, Weiskopf N, Grodd W, et al. Regulation of anterior insular cortex activity using real-time fMRI. Neuroimage 2007; 35: 1238-46. (Pubitemid 46507822)
20. Carmichael ST, Archibeque I, Luke L, Nolan T, Momiy J, Li S. Growth-associated gene expression after stroke: evidence for a growth-promoting region in peri-infarct cortex. Exp Neurol 2005; 193: 291-311. (Pubitemid 40616180)
21. Chen P, Goldberg D, Kolb B, Lanser M, Benowitz L. Inosine induces axonal rewiring and improves behavioral outcome after stroke. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 2002a; 99: 9031-6. (Pubitemid 34693678)
22. Chen R, Cohen L, Hallett M. Nervous system reorganization following injury. Neuroscience 2002b; 111: 761-73. (Pubitemid 34603248)
23. Chollet F, DiPiero V, Wise R, Brooks D, Dolan R, Frackowiak R. The functional anatomy of motor recovery after stroke in humans: A study with positron emission tomography. Ann Neurol 1991; 29: 63-71.
24. Cohen LG, Celnik P, Pascual-Leone A, Corwell B, Falz L, Dambrosia J, et al. Functional relevance of cross-modal plasticity in blind humans. Nature 1997; 389: 180-3. (Pubitemid 27400599)
25. Cohen LG, Weeks RA, Sadato N, Celnik P, Ishii K, Hallett M. Period of susceptibility for cross-modal plasticity in the blind. Ann Neurol 1999; 45: 451-60. (Pubitemid 29165811)
26. Colcombe SJ, Erickson KI, Raz N, Webb AG, Cohen NJ, McAuley E, et al. Aerobic fitness reduces brain tissue loss in aging humans. J Gerontol A Biol Sci Med Sci 2003; 58: 176-80. (Pubitemid 36222821)
27. Colcombe SJ, Erickson KI, Scalf PE, Kim JS, Prakash R, McAuley E, et al. Aerobic exercise training increases brain volume in aging humans. J Gerontol A Biol Sci Med Sci 2006; 61: 1166-70. (Pubitemid 46034467)
28. Colcombe SJ, Kramer AF, Erickson KI, Scalf P, McAuley E, Cohen NJ, et al. Cardiovascular fitness, cortical plasticity, and aging. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 2004; 101: 3316-21. (Pubitemid 38327778)
29. Conforto AB, Ferreiro KN, Tomasi C, dos Santos RL, Moreira VL, Marie SK, et al. Effects of somatosensory stimulation on motor function after subacute stroke. Neurorehabil Neural Repair 2010; 24: 263-72.
30. Corbetta M, Kincade MJ, Lewis C, Snyder AZ, Sapir A. Neural basis and recovery of spatial attention deficits in spatial neglect. Nat Neurosci 2005; 8: 1603-10. (Pubitemid 41573676)
31. Cotman CW, Berchtold NC. Exercise: a behavioral intervention to enhance brain health and plasticity. Trends Neurosci 2002; 25: 295-301. (Pubitemid 34667010)
32. Cox RW, Jesmanowicz A, Hyde JS. Real-time functional magnetic resonance imaging. Magn Reson Med 1995; 33: 230-6.
33. Cramer S. Clinical issues in animal models of stroke and rehabilitation. Ilar J 2003; 44: 83-4. (Pubitemid 36410961)
34. Cramer S, Chopp M. Recovery recapitulates ontogeny. Trends Neurosci 2000; 23: 265-71. (Pubitemid 30331113)
35. Cramer SC, Crafton KR. Somatotopy and movement representation sites following cortical stroke. Exp Brain Res 2006; 168: 25-32. (Pubitemid 41752808)
36. Cramer SC, Koroshetz WJ, Finklestein SP. The case for modality-specific outcome measures in clinical trials of stroke recovery-promoting agents. Stroke 2007a; 38: 1393-5. (Pubitemid 351664265)
37. Cramer SC, Lastra L, Lacourse MG, Cohen MJ. Brain motor system function after chronic, complete spinal cord injury. Brain 2005; 128: 2941-50. (Pubitemid 41746647)
38. Cramer SC, Orr EL, Cohen MJ, Lacourse MG. Effects of motor imagery training after chronic, complete spinal cord injury. Exp Brain Res 2007b; 177: 233-42.
39. Cramer SC, Parrish TB, Levy RM, Stebbins GT, Ruland SD, Lowry DW, et al. Predicting functional gains in a stroke trial. Stroke 2007c; 38: 2108-14. (Pubitemid 47012276)
40. Dahlin E, Neely AS, Larsson A, Backman L, Nyberg L. Transfer of learning after updating training mediated by the striatum. Science 2008; 320: 1510-2. (Pubitemid 351929433)
41. Dale CL, Findlay AM, Adcock RA, Vertinski M, Fisher M, Genevsky A, et al. Timing is everything: neural response dynamics during syllable processing and its relation to higher-order cognition in schizophrenia and healthy comparison subjects. Int J Psychophysiol 2010; 75: 183-93.
42. de Bode S, Firestine A, Mathern GW, Dobkin B. Residual motor control and cortical representations of function following hemispherectomy: effects of etiology. J Child Neurol 2005; 20: 64-75. (Pubitemid 40394271)
43. deCharms RC. Applications of real-time fMRI. Nat Rev Neurosci 2008; 9: 720-9.
44. deCharms RC, Maeda F, Glover GH, Ludlow D, Pauly JM, Soneji D, et al. Control over brain activation and pain learned by using real-time functional MRI. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 2005; 102: 18626-31.
45. DeKosky ST, Scheff SW, Styren SD. Structural correlates of cognition in dementia: quantification and assessment of synapse change. Neurodegeneration 1996; 5: 417-21. (Pubitemid 27077903)
46. Denys D, Mantione M. Deep brain stimulation in obsessive-compulsive disorder. Prog Brain Res 2009; 175: 419-27.
47. DeRubeis RJ, Siegle GJ, Hollon SD. Cognitive therapy versus medication for depression: treatment outcomes and neural mechanisms. Nat Rev Neurosci 2008; 9: 788-96.
48. Dobkin BH. Rehabilitation and functional neuroimaging dose-response trajectories for clinical trials. Neurorehabil Neural Repair 2005; 19: 276-82. (Pubitemid 41705656)
49. Dobkin BH. Confounders in rehabilitation trials of task-oriented training: lessons from the designs of the EXCITE and SCILT multicenter trials. Neurorehabil Neural Repair 2007; 21: 3-13. (Pubitemid 44926967)
50. Dobkin B, Apple D, Barbeau H, Basso M, Behrman A, Deforge D, et al. Weight-supported treadmill vs over-ground training for walking after acute incomplete SCI. Neurology 2006; 66: 484-93.
51. Duncan PW, Sullivan KJ, Behrman AL, Azen SP, Wu SS, Nadeau SE, et al. Protocol for the Locomotor Experience Applied Post-stroke (LEAPS) trial: a randomized controlled trial. BMC Neurol 2007; 7: 39.
52. Dustman RE, Emmerson RY, Ruhling RO, Shearer DE, Steinhaus LA, Johnson SC, et al. Age and fitness effects on EEG, ERPs, visual sensitivity, and cognition. Neurobiol Aging 1990; 11: 193-200. (Pubitemid 20181896)
53. Eack SM, Hogarty GE, Cho RY, Prasad KM, Greenwald DP, Hogarty SS, et al. Neuroprotective effects of cognitive enhancement therapy against gray matter loss in early schizophrenia: results from a 2-year randomized controlled trial. Arch Gen Psychiatry 2010; 67: 674-682.
54. Eden GF, Jones KM, Cappell K, Gareau L, Wood FB, Zeffiro TA, et al. Neural changes following remediation in adult developmental dyslexia. Neuron 2004; 44: 411-22. (Pubitemid 39423344)
55. Edwards DJ, Krebs HI, Rykman A, Zipse J, Thickbroom GW, Mastaglia FL, et al. Raised corticomotor excitability of M1 forearm area following anodal tDCS is sustained during robotic wrist therapy in chronic stroke. Restor Neurol Neurosci 2009; 27: 199-207.
56. Ehninger D, Li W, Fox K, Stryker MP, Silva AJ. Reversing neurodevelop-mental disorders in adults. Neuron 2008; 60: 950-60.
57. Endres M, Engelhardt B, Koistinaho J, Lindvall O, Meairs S, Mohr JP, et al. Improving outcome after stroke: overcoming the translational roadblock. Cerebrovasc Dis 2008; 25: 268-78. (Pubitemid 351450431)
58. Eyre JA. Corticospinal tract development and its plasticity after perinatal injury. Neurosci Biobehav Rev 2007; 31: 1136-49. (Pubitemid 350160952)
59. Failor S, Nguyen V, Darcy DP, Cang J, Wendland MF, Stryker MP, et al. Neonatal cerebral hypoxia-ischemia impairs plasticity in rat visual cortex. J Neurosci 2010; 30: 81-92.
60. Farb NA, Anderson AK, Mayberg H, Bean J, McKeon D, Segal ZV. Minding one's emotions: mindfulness training alters the neural expression of sadness. Emotion 2010; 10: 25-33.
61. Farmer J, Zhao X, van Praag H, Wodtke K, Gage FH, Christie BR. Effects of voluntary exercise on synaptic plasticity and gene expression in the dentate gyrus of adult male Sprague-Dawley rats in vivo. Neuroscience 2004; 124: 71-9. (Pubitemid 38186618)
62. Feeney D, Gonzalez A, Law W. Amphetamine, Halperidol, and experience interact to affect the rate of recovery after motor cortex injury. Science 1982; 217: 855-7. (Pubitemid 12042921)
63. Fernandez R, Kavcic V, Duffy CJ. Neurophysiologic analyses of low- and high-level visual processing in Alzheimer disease. Neurology 2007; 68: 2066-76. (Pubitemid 46912124)
64. Fleming T, DeMets D. Surrogate end points in clinical trials: are we being misled? Ann Intern Med 1996; 125: 605-13. (Pubitemid 126450094)
65. Fleming TR, Prentice RL, Pepe MS, Glidden D. Surrogate and auxiliary endpoints in clinical trials, with potential applications in cancer and AIDS research. Stat Med 1994; 13: 955-68. (Pubitemid 24141115)
66. Floel A, Cohen LG. Recovery of function in humans: cortical stimulation and pharmacological treatments after stroke. Neurobiol Dis 2010; 37: 243-51.
67. Floel A, Garraux G, Xu B, Breitenstein C, Knecht S, Herscovitch P, et al. Levodopa increases memory encoding and dopamine release in the striatum in the elderly. Neurobiol Aging 2008; 29: 267-79.
68. Fregni F, Pascual-Leone A. Technology insight: noninvasive brain stimulation in neurology-perspectives on the therapeutic potential of rTMS and tDCS. Nat Clin Pract Neurol 2007; 3: 383-93. (Pubitemid 47040328)
69. Frewen PA, Dozois DJ, Lanius RA. Neuroimaging studies of psychological interventions for mood and anxiety disorders: empirical and methodological review. Clin Psychol Rev 2008; 28: 228-46.
70. Fujii Y, Nakada T. Cortical reorganization in patients with subcortical hemiparesis: neural mechanisms of functional recovery and prognostic implication. J Neurosurg 2003; 98: 64-73. (Pubitemid 36050449)
71. Garcia-Alias G, Barkhuysen S, Buckle M, Fawcett JW. Chondroitinase ABC treatment opens a window of opportunity for task-specific rehabilitation. Nat Neurosci 2009; 12: 1145-51.
72. Gardner W, Karnosh L, McClure C, Gardner A. Residual function following hemispherectomy for tumor and for infantile hemiplegia. Brain 1955; 78: 487-502.
73. Gauthier LV, Taub E, Perkins C, Ortmann M, Mark VW, Uswatte G. Remodeling the brain: plastic structural brain changes produced by different motor therapies after stroke. Stroke 2008; 39: 1520-5.
74. Gazdzinski S, Durazzo TC, Mon A, Yeh PH, Meyerhoff DJ. Cerebral white matter recovery in abstinent alcoholics-a multimodality magnetic resonance study. Brain 2010; 133: 1043-53.
75. Gladstone DJ, Danells CJ, Armesto A, McIlroy WE, Staines WR, Graham SJ, et al. Physiotherapy coupled with dextroamphetamine for rehabilitation after hemiparetic stroke: a randomized, double-blind, placebo-controlled trial. Stroke 2006; 37: 179-85. (Pubitemid 43732068)
76. Goldapple K, Segal Z, Garson C, Lau M, Bieling P, Kennedy S, et al. Modulation of cortical-limbic pathways in major depression: treatment-specific effects of cognitive behavior therapy. Arch Gen Psychiatry 2004; 61: 34-41. (Pubitemid 38044639)
77. Goldberg MP, Ransom BR. New light on white matter. Stroke 2003; 34: 330-2. (Pubitemid 36206313)
78. Goldstein L. Sygen in Acute Stroke Study InvestigatorsCommon drugs may influence motor recovery after stroke. Neurology 1995; 45: 865-71.
79. Gomez-Pinilla F, Ying Z, Roy RR, Molteni R, Edgerton VR. Voluntary exercise induces a BDNF-mediated mechanism that promotes neuro-plasticity. J Neurophysiol 2002; 88: 2187-95. (Pubitemid 35346024)
80. Goto Y, Grace AA. Limbic and cortical information processing in the nucleus accumbens. Trends Neurosci 2008; 31: 552-8.
81. Goto Y, Yang CR, Otani S. Functional and dysfunctional synaptic plasticity in prefrontal cortex: roles in psychiatric disorders. Biol Psychiatry 2010; 67: 199-207.
82. Gould RL, Arroyo B, Brown RG, Owen AM, Bullmore ET, Howard RJ. Brain mechanisms of successful compensation during learning in Alzheimer disease. Neurology 2006; 67: 1011-7. (Pubitemid 44454595)
83. Green CS, Bavelier D. Exercising your brain: a review of human brain plasticity and training-induced learning. Psychol Aging 2008; 23: 692-701.
84. Greenberg BD, Gabriels LA, Malone DA Jr, Rezai AR, Friehs GM, Okun MS, et al. Deep brain stimulation of the ventral internal capsule/ventral striatum for obsessive-compulsive disorder: worldwide experience. Mol Psychiatry 2010a; 15: 64-79.
85. Greenberg BD, Rauch SL, Haber SN. Invasive circuitry-based neurother-apeutics: stereotactic ablation and deep brain stimulation for OCD. Neuropsychopharmacology 2010b; 35: 317-36.
86. Grefkes C, Nowak DA, Eickhoff SB, Dafotakis M, Kust J, Karbe H, et al. Cortical connectivity after subcortical stroke assessed with functional magnetic resonance imaging. Ann Neurol 2008; 63: 236-46. (Pubitemid 351355302)
87. Grossman AW, Churchill JD, McKinney BC, Kodish IM, Otte SL, Greenough WT. Experience effects on brain development: possible contributions to psychopathology. J Child Psychol Psychiatry 2003; 44: 33-63. (Pubitemid 36943949)
88. Guo Y, Weller P, Allard J, Usuka J, Masjedizadeh M, Wu SY, et al. Understanding our drugs and our diseases. Proc Am Thorac Soc 2006; 3: 409-12. (Pubitemid 44033354)
89. Hachinski V, Donnan GA, Gorelick PB, Hacke W, Cramer SC, Kaste M, et al. Stroke: working toward a prioritized world agenda. Stroke 2010; 41: 1084-99.
90. Haut KM, Lim KO, Macdonald A, 3rd. Prefrontal Cortical Changes Following Cognitive Training in Patients with Chronic Schizophrenia: Effects of Practice, Generalization, and Specificity. Neuropsychopharmacology 2010; 35: 1850-9.
91. Hertzog C, Kramer AF, Wilson RS, Lindenberg U. Enrichment effects on adult cognitive development: Can the functional capacity of older adults be preserved and enhanced? Psychol Sci Public Int 2009; 9: 1-65.
92. Hidler J, Nichols D, Pelliccio M, Brady K, Campbell DD, Kahn JH, et al. Multicenter randomized clinical trial evaluating the effectiveness of the Lokomat in subacute stroke. Neurorehabil Neural Repair 2009; 23: 5-13.
93. Hillman CH, Erickson KI, Kramer AF. Be smart, exercise your heart: exercise effects on brain and cognition. Nature Reviews Neuroscience 2008; 9: 58-65. (Pubitemid 350295689)
94. Hodics T, Cohen LG, Cramer SC. Functional imaging of intervention effects in stroke motor rehabilitation. Arch Phys Med Rehabil 2006; 87: S36-42.
95. Hoffman RE, Hampson M, Wu K, Anderson AW, Gore JC, Buchanan RJ, et al. Probing the pathophysiology of auditory/verbal hallucinations by combining functional magnetic resonance imaging and transcranial magnetic stimulation. Cereb Cortex 2007; 17: 2733-43. (Pubitemid 47537834)
96. Holland D, Brewer JB, Hagler DJ, Fennema-Notestine C, Dale AM. Subregional neuroanatomical change as a biomarker for Alzheimer's disease. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 2009; 106: 20954-9.
97. Housman SJ, Scott KM, Reinkensmeyer DJ. A randomized controlled trial of gravity-supported, computer-enhanced arm exercise for individuals with severe hemiparesis. Neurorehabil Neural Repair 2009; 23: 505-14.
98. Hummel FC, Heise K, Celnik P, Floel A, Gerloff C, Cohen LG. Facilitating skilled right hand motor function in older subjects by anodal polarization over the left primary motor cortex. Neurobiol Aging 2010; 31: 2160-8.
99. Jackson A, Mavoori J, Fetz EE. Long-term motor cortex plasticity induced by an electronic neural implant. Nature 2006; 444: 56-60. (Pubitemid 44684753)
100. Jacobs R, Harvey AS, Anderson V. Executive function following focal frontal lobe lesions: impact of timing of lesion on outcome. Cortex 2007; 43: 792-805. (Pubitemid 47189042)
101. Jay TM, Rocher C, Hotte M, Naudon L, Gurden H, Spedding M. Plasticity at hippocampal to prefrontal cortex synapses is impaired by loss of dopa-mine and stress. Neurotoxicity Research 2004; 6: 223-244.
102. Johnson MD, Miocinovic S, McIntyre CC, Vitek JL. Mechanisms and targets of deep brain stimulation in movement disorders. Neurotherapeutics 2008; 5: 294-308. (Pubitemid 351446215)
103. Johnston MV, Ishida A, Ishida WN, Matsushita HB, Nishimura A, Tsuji M. Plasticity and injury in the developing brain. Brain Dev 2009; 31: 1-10.
104. Jonsdottir J, Cattaneo D, Recalcati M, Regola A, Rabuffetti M, Ferrarin M, et al. Task-oriented biofeedback to improve gait in individuals with chronic stroke: motor learning approach. Neurorehabil Neural Repair 2010; 24: 478-85.
105. Kalivas PW. Addiction as a pathology in prefrontal cortical regulation of corticostriatal habit circuitry. Neurotox Res 2008; 14: 185-9.
106. Kalivas PW, Lalumiere RT, Knackstedt L, Shen H. Glutamate transmission in addiction. Neuropharmacology 2009; 56 (Suppl 1): 169-73.
107. Karl A, Birbaumer N, Lutzenberger W, Cohen LG, Flor H. Reorganization of motor and somatosensory cortex in upper extremity amputees with phantom limb pain. J Neurosci 2001; 21: 3609-18. (Pubitemid 32422825)
108. Keller TA, Just MA. Altering cortical connectivity: remediation-induced changes in the white matter of poor readers. Neuron 2009; 64: 624-31.
109. Kennard M. Cortical reorganization of motor function. Studies on series of monkeys of various ages from infancy to maturity. Arch Neurol Psychiatr 1942; 48: 227-240.
110. Kennedy SH, Konarski JZ, Segal ZV, Lau MA, Bieling PJ, McIntyre RS, et al. Differences in brain glucose metabolism between responders to CBT and venlafaxine in a 16-week randomized controlled trial. Am J Psychiatry 2007; 164: 778-88. (Pubitemid 46808533)
111. Kleim JA, Jones TA. Principles of experience-dependent neural plasticity: implications for rehabilitation after brain damage. J Speech Lang Hear Res 2008; 51: S225-39. (Pubitemid 351206588)
112. Kleim J, Kleim E, Cramer S. Systematic assessment of training-induced changes in corticospinal output to hand using frameless stereotaxic transcranial magnetic stimulation. Nature Protocols 2007; 2: 1675-84.
113. Klingberg T, Fernell E, Olesen PJ, Johnson M, Gustafsson P, Dahlstrom K, et al. Computerized training of working memory in children with ADHD-a randomized, controlled trial. J Am Acad Child Adolesc Psychiatry 2005; 44: 177-86. (Pubitemid 40189829)
114. Koob GF, LeMoal M. Neurobiology of addiction. London: Academic Press; 2006.
115. Koob GF, Volkow ND. Neurocircuitry of addiction. Neuropsycho-pharmacology 2010; 35: 217-38.
116. Koski L, Mernar T, Dobkin B. Immediate and long-term changes in cor-ticomotor output in response to rehabilitation: correlation with functional improvements in chronic stroke. Neurorehabil Neural Repair 2004; 18: 230-49. (Pubitemid 39552734)
117. Krakauer JW. Motor learning: its relevance to stroke recovery and neu-rorehabilitation. Curr Opin Neurol 2006; 19: 84-90. (Pubitemid 43172710)
118. Kral A, Tillein J, Heid S, Klinke R, Hartmann R. Cochlear implants: cortical plasticity in congenital deprivation. Prog Brain Res 2006; 157: 283-313.
119. Kramer AF, Erickson KI. Capitalizing on cortical plasticity: influence of physical activity on cognition and brain function. Trends Cogn Sci 2007; 11: 342-8. (Pubitemid 47077916)
120. Kurzweil R. The Singularity Is Near: When Humans Transcend Biology. New York: Penguin Group USA; 2005.
121. Kwakkel G, Wagenaar R, Twisk J, Lankhorst G, Koetsier J. Intensity of leg and arm training after primary middle-cerebral-artery stroke: a randomised trial. Lancet 1999; 354: 191-6. (Pubitemid 29329157)
122. La Rue A. Healthy brain aging: role of cognitive reserve, cognitive stimulation, and cognitive exercises. Clin Geriatr Med 2010; 26: 99-111.
123. Larson PS. Deep brain stimulation for psychiatric disorders. Neurotherapeutics 2008; 5: 50-8. (Pubitemid 350299310)
124. Lazar RM, Fitzsimmons BF, Marshall RS, Mohr JP, Berman MF. Midazolam challenge reinduces neurological deficits after transient is-chemic attack. Stroke 2003; 34: 794-6. (Pubitemid 36307413)
125. Lazarov O, Robinson J, Tang YP, Hairston IS, Korade-Mirnics Z, Lee VM, et al. Environmental enrichment reduces Abeta levels and amyloid deposition in transgenic mice. Cell 2005; 120: 701-13. (Pubitemid 40343081)
126. Leonardo ED, Hen R. Anxiety as a developmental disorder. Neuropharmacol Rev 2008; 33: 134-40. (Pubitemid 350191317)
127. Levin MF, Kleim JA, Wolf SL. What do motor "recovery" and "compensation" mean in patients following stroke? Neurorehabil Neural Repair 2009; 23: 313-9.
128. Levy R, Benson R, Winstein C. for the Everest Study InvestigatorsCortical Stimulation for Upper-Extremity Hemiparesis from Ischemic Stroke: Everest Study Primary Endpoint Results. International Stroke Conference. New Orleans, LA, 2008.
129. Lewis DA. Neuroplasticity of excitatory and inhibitory cortical circuits in schizophrenia. Dialogues Clin Neurosci 2009; 11: 269-80.
130. Lewis DA, Gonzalez-Burgos G. Neuroplasticity of neocortical circuits in schizophrenia. Neuropsychopharmacology 2008; 33: 141-65. (Pubitemid 350191315)
131. Li S, Overman JJ, Katsman D, Kozlov SV, Donnelly CJ, Twiss JL, et al. An age-related sprouting transcriptome provides molecular control of axonal sprouting after stroke. Nat Neurosci 2010; 13: 1496-504.
132. Lin KC, Chen YA, Chen CL, Wu CY, Chang YF. The effects of bilateral arm training on motor control and functional performance in chronic stroke: a randomized controlled study. Neurorehabil Neural Repair 2010; 24: 42-51.
133. Lo AC, Guarino PD, Richards LG, Haselkorn JK, Wittenberg GF, Federman DG, et al. Robot-assisted therapy for long-term upper-limb impairment after stroke. N Engl J Med 2010; 362: 1772-83.
134. Lozano AM, Mayberg HS, Giacobbe P, Hamani C, Craddock RC, Kennedy SH. Subcallosal cingulate gyrus deep brain stimulation for treatment-resistant depression. Biol Psychiatry 2008; 64: 461-7.
135. Lujan JL, Chaturvedi A, McIntyre CC. Tracking the mechanism of deep brain stimulation for neuropsychiatric disorders. Front Biosci 2008; 13: 5892-904.
136. Mahncke HW, Bronstone A, Merzenich MM. Brain plasticity and functional losses in the aged: scientific bases for a novel intervention. Prog Brain Res 2006; 157: 81-109. (Pubitemid 44550260)
137. Malone DA Jr, Dougherty DD, Rezai AR, Carpenter LL, Friehs GM, Eskandar EN, et al. Deep brain stimulation of the ventral capsule/ventral striatum for treatment-resistant depression. Biol Psychiatry 2009; 65: 267-75.
138. Martin P, Naeser M, Theoret H, Tormos J, Nicholas M, Kurland J, et al. Transcranial magnetic stimulation as a complementary treatment for aphasia. Semin Speech Lang 2004; 25: 181-91. (Pubitemid 38702061)
139. Mayberg HS, Lozano AM, Voon V, McNeely HE, Seminowicz D, Hamani C, et al. Deep brain stimulation for treatment-resistant depression. Neuron 2005; 45: 651-60. (Pubitemid 40320700)
140. McNab F, Varrone A, Farde L, Jucaite A, Bystritsky P, Forssberg H, et al. Changes in cortical dopamine D1 receptor binding associated with cognitive training. Science 2009; 323: 800-2.
141. Milnerwood AJ, Raymond LA. Early synaptic pathophysiology in neuro-degeneration: insights from Huntington's disease. Trends Neurosci 2010; 33: 513-23.
142. Milot MH, Cramer SC. Biomarkers of recovery after stroke. Curr Opin Neurol 2008; 21: 654-9.
143. Muellbacher W, Richards C, Ziemann U, Wittenberg G, Weltz D, Boroojerdi B, et al. Improving hand function in chronic stroke. Arch Neurol 2002; 59: 1278-82. (Pubitemid 34856381)
144. Munoz-Cespedes JM, Rios-Lago M, Paul N, Maestu F. Functional neu-roimaging studies of cognitive recovery after acquired brain damage in adults. Neuropsychol Rev 2005; 15: 169-83. (Pubitemid 43052227)
145. Murase N, Duque J, Mazzocchio R, Cohen LG. Influence of interhemi-spheric interactions on motor function in chronic stroke. Ann Neurol 2004; 55: 400-9. (Pubitemid 38269592)
146. Neggers SF, Langerak TR, Schutter DJ, Mandl RC, Ramsey NF, Lemmens PJ, et al. A stereotactic method for image-guided transcra-nial magnetic stimulation validated with fMRI and motor-evoked potentials. Neuroimage 2004; 21: 1805-17. (Pubitemid 38446601)
147. Ninkovic J, Bally-Cuif L. The zebrafish as a model system for assessing the reinforcing properties of drugs of abuse. Methods 2006; 39: 262-74. (Pubitemid 44189881)
148. Nithianantharajah J, Hannan AJ. Enriched environments, experience-dependent plasticity and disorders of the nervous system. Nat Rev Neurosci 2006; 7: 697-709. (Pubitemid 44267494)
149. Nowak DA, Grefkes C, Ameli M, Fink GR. Interhemispheric competition after stroke: brain stimulation to enhance recovery of function of the affected hand. Neurorehabil Neural Repair 2009; 23: 641-56.
150. Nudo R. Recovery after damage to motor cortical areas. Curr Opin Neurobiol 1999; 9: 740-7.
151. Nudo RJ. Plasticity. NeuroRx 2006; 3: 420-7. (Pubitemid 44443014)
152. Nudo R, Wise B, SiFuentes F, Milliken G. Neural substrates for the effects of rehabilitative training on motor recovery after ischemic infarct. Science 1996; 272: 1791-4. (Pubitemid 26256399)
153. O'Brien RJ, Resnick SM, Zonderman AB, Ferrucci L, Crain BJ, Pletnikova O, et al. Neuropathologic studies of the Baltimore Longitudinal Study of Aging (BLSA). J Alzheimers Dis 2009; 18: 665-75.
154. O'Reardon JP, Solvason HB, Janicak PG, Sampson S, Isenberg KE, Nahas Z, et al. Efficacy and safety of transcranial magnetic stimulation in the acute treatment of major depression: a multisite randomized controlled trial. Biol Psychiatry 2007; 62: 1208-16. (Pubitemid 350060890)
155. Oberman L, Fritz I, Najib U, Bashir S, Woollacott I, Gonzalez-Heydrich J, et al. Transcranial magnetic stimulation provides means to assess cortical plasticity and excitability in humans with fragile X syndrome and autism spectrum disorder. Front Synaptic Neurosci 2010; 2: 1-8.
156. Packard MG. Anxiety, cognition, and habit: a multiple memory systems perspective. Brain Res 2009; 1293: 121-8.
157. Padberg F, George MS. Repetitive transcranial magnetic stimulation of the prefrontal cortex in depression. Exp Neurol 2009; 219: 2-13.
158. Pajonk FG, Wobrock T, Gruber O, Scherk H, Berner D, Kaizl I, et al. Hippocampal plasticity in response to exercise in schizophrenia. Arch Gen Psychiatry 2010; 67: 133-43.
159. Palop JJ, Chin J, Mucke L. A network dysfunction perspective on neu-rodegenerative diseases. Nature 2006; 443: 768-73. (Pubitemid 44622680)
160. Pariente J, Loubinoux I, Carel C, Albucher J, Leger A, Manelfe C, et al. Fluoxetine modulates motor performance and cerebral activation of patients recovering from stroke. Ann Neurol 2001; 50: 718-29. (Pubitemid 33116131)
161. Park DC, Reuter-Lorenz P. The adaptive brain: aging and neurocognitive scaffolding. Annu Rev Psychol 2009; 60: 173-96.
162. Pascual-Leone A, Torres F. Plasticity of the sensorimotor cortex representation of the reading finger in Braille readers. Brain 1993; 116 (Pt 1): 39-52. (Pubitemid 23087033)
163. Patten SB. Sensitization: the sine qua non of the depressive disorders? Med Hypotheses 2008; 71: 872-5.
164. Pearson-Fuhrhop KM, Kleim JA, Cramer SC. Brain plasticity and genetic factors. Top Stroke Rehabil 2009; 16: 282-99.
165. Penner IK, Kappos L, Rausch M, Opwis K, Radu EW. Therapy-induced plasticity of cognitive functions in MS patients: insights from fMRI. J Physiol Paris 2006; 99: 455-62. (Pubitemid 43850802)
166. Pereira AC, Huddleston DE, Brickman AM, Sosunov AA, Hen R, McKhann GM, et al. An in vivo correlate of exercise-induced neuro-genesis in the adult dentate gyrus. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 2007; 104: 5638-43. (Pubitemid 47175733)
167. Persson J, Reuter-Lorenz PA. Gaining control: training executive function and far transfer of the ability to resolve interference. Psychol Sci 2008; 19: 881-8.
168. Plow EB, Carey JR, Nudo RJ, Pascual-Leone A. Invasive cortical stimulation to promote recovery of function after stroke: a critical appraisal. Stroke 2009; 40: 1926-31.
169. Pontifex MB, Hillman CH, Polich J. Age, physical fitness, and attention: P3a and P3b. Psychophysiology 2009; 46: 379-87.
170. Post RM, Weiss SR. A speculative model of affective illness cyclicity based on patterns of drug tolerance observed in amygdala-kindled seizures. Mol Neurobiol 1996; 13: 33-60. (Pubitemid 126733048)
171. Potter WB, O'Riordan KJ, Barnett D, Osting SM, Wagoner M, Burger C, et al. Metabolic regulation of neuronal plasticity by the energy sensor AMPK. PLoS ONE 2010; 5: e8996.
172. Prince DA, Parada I, Scalise K, Graber K, Jin X, Shen F. Epilepsy following cortical injury: cellular and molecular mechanisms as targets for potential prophylaxis. Epilepsia 2009; 50 (Suppl 2): 30-40.
173. Prvulovic D, Van de Ven V, Sack AT, Maurer K, Linden DE. Functional activation imaging in aging and dementia. Psychiatry Res 2005; 140: 97-113. (Pubitemid 41540423)
174. Rathore S, Hinn A, Cooper L, Tyroler H, Rosamond W. Characterization of incident stroke signs and symptoms: findings from the atherosclerosis risk in communities study. Stroke 2002; 33: 2718-21. (Pubitemid 35266447)
175. Raymer AM, Beeson P, Holland A, Kendall D, Maher LM, Martin N, et al. Translational research in aphasia: from neuroscience to neuror-ehabilitation. J Speech Lang Hear Res 2008; 51: S259-75. (Pubitemid 351206590)
176. Reis J, Schambra HM, Cohen LG, Buch ER, Fritsch B, Zarahn E, et al. Noninvasive cortical stimulation enhances motor skill acquisition over multiple days through an effect on consolidation. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 2009; 106: 1590-5.
177. Ressler KJ, Rothbaum BO, Tannenbaum L, Anderson P, Graap K, Zimand E, et al. Cognitive enhancers as adjuncts to psychotherapy: use of D-cycloserine in phobic individuals to facilitate extinction of fear. Arch Gen Psychiatry 2004; 61: 1136-44. (Pubitemid 39463415)
178. Rhyu IJ, Bytheway JA, Kohler SJ, Lange H, Lee KJ, Boklewski J, et al. Effects of aerobic exercise training on cognitive function and cortical vascularity in monkeys. Neuroscience 2010; 167: 1239-48.
179. Riley J, Le V, Der-Yeghiaian L, See J, Newton J, Ward N, et al. Anatomy of Stroke Injury Predicts Gains from Therapy. Stroke 2011; 42: 421-6.
180. Robinson TE, Berridge KC. Review. The incentive sensitization theory of addiction: some current issues. Philos Trans R Soc Lond B Biol Sci 2008; 363: 3137-46.
181. Robinson TE, Kolb B. Structural plasticity associated with exposure to drugs of abuse. Neuropharmacology 2004; 47 (Suppl 1): 33-46. (Pubitemid 39298251)
182. Rosen H, Petersen S, Linenweber M, Snyder A, White D, Chapman L, et al. Neural correlates of recovery from aphasia after damage to left inferior frontal cortex. Neurology 2000; 55: 1883-94. (Pubitemid 32103972)
183. Rosenberg PB, Hillis AE. Biomarkers for Alzheimer's disease: ready for the next step. Brain 2009; 132 (Pt 8): 2002-4.
184. Rosenzweig ES, Courtine G, Jindrich DL, Brock JH, Ferguson AR, Strand SC, et al. Extensive spontaneous plasticity of corticospinal projections after primate spinal cord injury. Nat Neurosci 2010; 13: 1505-10.
185. Rosser N, Floel A. Pharmacological enhancement of motor recovery in subacute and chronic stroke. NeuroRehabilitation 2008; 23: 95-103. (Pubitemid 352038566)
186. Sahay A, Hen R. Adult hippocampal neurogenesis in depression. Nat Neurosci 2007; 10: 1110-5. (Pubitemid 47339960)
187. Saur D, Lange R, Baumgaertner A, Schraknepper V, Willmes K, Rijntjes M, et al. Dynamics of language reorganization after stroke. Brain 2006; 129: 1371-84. (Pubitemid 43999371)
188. Sawaki L, Butler AJ, Xiaoyan L, Wassenaar PA, Mohammad YM, Blanton S, et al. Constraint-induced movement therapy results in increased motor map area in subjects 3 to 9 months after stroke. Neurorehabil Neural Repair 2008; 22: 505-13.
189. Segal ZV, Kennedy S, Gemar M, Hood K, Pedersen R, Buis T. Cognitive reactivity to sad mood provocation and the prediction of depressive relapse. Arch Gen Psychiatry 2006; 63: 749-55.
190. Shaham Y, Shalev U, Lu L, De Wit H, Stewart J. The reinstatement model of drug relapse: history, methodology and major findings. Psychopharmacology 2003; 168: 3-20. (Pubitemid 36851158)
191. Shankar GM, Li S, Mehta TH, Garcia-Munoz A, Shepardson NE, Smith I, et al. Amyloid-beta protein dimers isolated directly from Alzheimer's brains impair synaptic plasticity and memory. Nat Med 2008; 14: 837-42.
192. Sharma A, Dorman MF, Spahr AJ. A sensitive period for the development of the central auditory system in children with cochlear implants: implications for age of implantation. Ear Hear 2002; 23: 532-9. (Pubitemid 35448635)
193. Sharma A, Nash AA, Dorman M. Cortical development, plasticity and re-organization in children with cochlear implants. J Commun Disord 2009a; 42: 272-9.
194. Sharma N, Baron JC, Rowe JB. Motor imagery after stroke: relating outcome to motor network connectivity. Ann Neurol 2009b; 66: 604-16.
195. Speer AM, Benson BE, Kimbrell TK, Wassermann EM, Willis MW, Herscovitch P, et al. Opposite effects of high and low frequency rTMS on mood in depressed patients: relationship to baseline cerebral activity on PET. J Affect Disord 2009; 115: 386-94.
196. Stanford AD, Sharif Z, Corcoran C, Urban N, Malaspina D, Lisanby SH. rTMS strategies for the study and treatment of schizophrenia: a review. Int J Neuropsychopharmacol 2008; 11: 563-76. (Pubitemid 351744807)
197. Staudt M. Reorganization after pre- and perinatal brain lesions. J Anat 2010; 217: 469-74.
198. Staudt M, Grodd W, Gerloff C, Erb M, Stitz J, Krageloh-Mann I. Two types of ipsilateral reorganization in congenital hemiparesis: a transcra-nial magnetic stimulation and fMRI study. Brain 2002; 125: 2222-37.
199. Stinear CM, Barber PA, Smale PR, Coxon JP, Fleming MK, Byblow WD. Functional potential in chronic stroke patients depends on corticospinal tract integrity. Brain 2007; 130: 170-80. (Pubitemid 46026233)
200. Stokes TF, Baer DM. An implicit technology of generalization. J Appl Behav Anal 1977; 10: 349-67.
201. Strangman G, O'Neil-Pirozzi TM, Burke D, Cristina D, Goldstein R, Rauch SL, et al. Functional neuroimaging and cognitive rehabilitation for people with traumatic brain injury. Am J Phys Med Rehabil 2005; 84: 62-75. (Pubitemid 40053294)
202. Subramanian SK, Massie CL, Malcolm MP, Levin MF. Does provision of extrinsic feedback result in improved motor learning in the upper limb poststroke? A systematic review of the evidence. Neurorehabilitation and Neural Repair 2010; 24: 113-24.
203. Sullivan EV, Pfefferbaum A. Neurocircuitry in alcoholism: a substrate of disruption and repair. Psychopharmacology 2005; 180: 583-94. (Pubitemid 41317855)
204. Swart CM, Stins JF, Beek PJ. Cortical changes in complex regional pain syndrome (CRPS). Eur J Pain 2009; 13: 902-7.
205. Takahashi CD, Der-Yeghiaian L, Le V, Motiwala RR, Cramer SC. Robot-based hand motor therapy after stroke. Brain 2008; 131: 425-37. (Pubitemid 351197615)
206. Tardy J, Pariente J, Leger A, Dechaumont-Palacin S, Gerdelat A, Guiraud V, et al. Methylphenidate modulates cerebral post-stroke reorganization. Neuroimage 2006; 33: 913-22. (Pubitemid 44584756)
207. Temple E, Deutsch GK, Poldrack RA, Miller SL, Tallal P, Merzenich MM, et al. Neural deficits in children with dyslexia ameliorated by behavioral remediation: evidence from functional MRI. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 2003; 100: 2860-5. (Pubitemid 36297589)
208. Temple R. A regulatory authority's opinion about surrogate endpoints. In: Nimmo W, Tucker G, editors. Clinical Measurement in Drug Evaluation. New York: J. Wiley; 1995.
209. Thickbroom GW, Byrnes ML, Archer SA, Mastaglia FL. Motor outcome after subcortical stroke correlates with the degree of cortical reorganization. Clin Neurophysiol 2004; 115: 2144-50. (Pubitemid 39037303)
210. Topka H, Cohen LG, Cole RA, Hallett M. Reorganization of corticospinal pathways following spinal cord injury. Neurology 1991; 41: 1276-83.
211. van Meer MPA, Dijkhuizen RM. Functional and Structural MR Imaging of Brain Reorganization after Stroke. In: Cramer SC, Nudo RJ, editors. Brain repair after stroke. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press; 2010.
212. Vecsey CG, Hawk JD, Lattal KM, Stein JM, Fabian SA, Attner MA, et al. Histone deacetylase inhibitors enhance memory and synaptic plasticity via CREB:CBP-dependent transcriptional activation. J Neurosci 2007; 27: 6128-40. (Pubitemid 46890024)
213. Vercammen A, Knegtering H, Bruggeman R, Westenbroek HM, Jenner JA, Slooff CJ, et al. Effects of bilateral repetitive transcranial magnetic stimulation on treatment resistant auditory-verbal hallucinations in schizophrenia: a randomized controlled trial. Schizophr Res 2009; 114: 172-9.
214. Vinogradov S, Luks TL, Schulman BJ, Simpson GV. Deficit in a neural correlate of reality monitoring in schizophrenia patients. Cereb Cortex 2008; 18: 2532-9.
215. Volpe BT, Lynch D, Rykman-Berland A, Ferraro M, Galgano M, Hogan N, et al. Intensive sensorimotor arm training mediated by therapist or robot improves hemiparesis in patients with chronic stroke. Neurorehabil Neural Repair 2008; 22: 305-10. (Pubitemid 351561668)
216. Wagner T, Valero-Cabre A, Pascual-Leone A. Noninvasive human brain stimulation. Annu Rev Biomed Eng 2007; 9: 527-65. (Pubitemid 350246667)
217. Walkup JT, Albano AM, Piacentini J, Birmaher B, Compton SN, Sherrill JT, et al. Cognitive behavioral therapy, sertraline, or a combination in childhood anxiety. N Engl J Med 2008; 359: 2753-66.
218. Ward N, Brown M, Thompson A, Frackowiak R. Neural correlates of outcome after stroke: a cross-sectional fMRI study. Brain 2003; 126: 1430-48. (Pubitemid 36644387)
219. Webster BR, Celnik PA, Cohen LG. Noninvasive brain stimulation in stroke rehabilitation. NeuroRx 2006; 3: 474-81. (Pubitemid 44443016)
220. Weiller C, Ramsay S, Wise R, Friston K, Frackowiak R. Individual patterns of functional reorganization in the human cerebral cortex after capsu-lar infarction. Ann Neurol 1993; 33: 181-9. (Pubitemid 23039927)
221. Wieloch T, Nikolich K. Mechanisms of neural plasticity following brain injury. Curr Opin Neurobiol 2006; 16: 258-64. (Pubitemid 43949227)
222. Woldag H, Hummelsheim H. Evidence-based physiotherapeutic concepts for improving arm and hand function in stroke patients: a review. J Neurol 2002; 249: 518-28. (Pubitemid 34507823)
223. Wolf S, Blanton S, Baer H, Breshears J, Butler A. Repetitive task practice: a critical review of constraint-induced movement therapy in stroke. The Neurologist 2002; 8: 325-38. (Pubitemid 35365220)
224. Wolf SL, Newton H, Maddy D, Blanton S, Zhang Q, Winstein CJ, et al. The Excite Trial: relationship of intensity of constraint induced movement therapy to improvement in the wolf motor function test. Restor Neurol Neurosci 2007; 25: 549-62. (Pubitemid 351525717)
225. Yakovlev P, Lecours A. The myelogenetic cycles of regional maturation of the brain. In: Minkowski A, editor. Regional development of the brain in early life. Oxford: Blackwell; 1967. p. 3-65.