Ion channel blockers and spinal cord injury

Journal of Neuroscience Research

Volumn 89, Issue 6, 2011, Pages 791-801

  Liu, Wang Mi ^a   Wu, Jia Yan ^a   Li, Fang Cai ^a   Chen, Qi Xin ^a  

^a THE SECOND AFFILIATED HOSPITAL OF ZHEJIANG UNIVERSITY SCHOOL OF MEDICINE   (China)

Author keywords

Calcium; Potassium; Sodium; Spinal cord injury

Indexed keywords

2 [2 [4 (4 NITROBENZYLOXY)PHENYL]ETHYL]ISOTHIOUREA METHANESULFONATE; 4 AMINOBUTYRIC ACID RECEPTOR; 4 AMINOPYRIDINE; BACLOFEN; CALCIUM CHANNEL; CALCIUM CHANNEL BLOCKING AGENT; CALCIUM ION; CLOMETHIAZOLE; ETOMIDATE; GABAPENTIN; GACYCLIDINE; ION TRANSPORT AFFECTING AGENT; IONOTROPIC RECEPTOR; LIDOCAINE; MAGNESIUM; MEXILETINE; N METHYL DEXTRO ASPARTIC ACID RECEPTOR BLOCKING AGENT; NIFEDIPINE; NIMODIPINE; PHENYTOIN; PLACEBO; POTASSIUM CHANNEL; POTASSIUM CHANNEL BLOCKING AGENT; POTASSIUM ION; PREGABALIN; RILUZOLE; SODIUM CHANNEL; SODIUM CHANNEL BLOCKING AGENT; SODIUM ION; UNINDEXED DRUG;

ALLODYNIA; ANALGESIA; ANXIETY; ATAXIA; AUTONOMIC DYSREFLEXIA; DEMYELINATION; DIZZINESS; DROWSINESS; DRUG EFFICACY; DRUG SAFETY; DYSARTHRIA; DYSESTHESIA; HOMEOSTASIS; HUMAN; HYPERALGESIA; HYPOTENSION; LIPID PEROXIDATION; NAUSEA; NEUROPATHIC PAIN; NEUROPATHOLOGY; NEUROPROTECTION; NEUROTOXICITY; NONHUMAN; PERIPHERAL EDEMA; PRIORITY JOURNAL; RESPIRATORY DISTRESS; REVIEW; SEIZURE; SIDE EFFECT; SOMNOLENCE; SPINAL CORD INJURY; TREATMENT RESPONSE; WITHDRAWAL SYNDROME;

ANIMALS; HUMANS; ION CHANNELS; IONS; MEMBRANE TRANSPORT MODULATORS; SPINAL CORD INJURIES;

EID: 79954589239     PISSN: 03604012     EISSN: 10974547     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1002/jnr.22602     Document Type: Review

References (113)

1. Adams MM, Hicks AL. 2005. Spasticity after spinal cord injury. Spinal Cord 43: 577-586.
2. 2+ exchanger. J Neurosci 16: 545-552.
3. Agrawal SK, Nashmi R, Fehlings MG. 2000. Role of L- and N-type calcium channels in the pathophysiology of traumatic spinal cord white matter injury. Neuroscience 99: 179-188.
4. Akhtar AZ, Pippin JJ, Sandusky CB. 2009. Animal studies in spinal cord injury: a systematic review of methylprednisolone. Altern Lab Anim 37: 43-62.
5. Ates O, Cayli SR, Gurses I, Turkoz Y, Tarim O, Cakir CO, Kocak A. 2007. Comparative neuroprotective effect of sodium channel blockers after experimental spinal cord injury. J Clin Neurosci 14: 658-665.
6. Attwell D, Barbour B, Szatkowski M. 1993. Nonvesicular release of neurotransmitter. Neuron 11: 401-407.
7. Baastrup C, Finnerup NB. 2008. Pharmacological management of neuropathic pain following spinal cord injury. CNS Drugs 22: 455-475.
8. Banerjee R, Palumbo MA, Fadale PD. 2004. Catastrophic cervical spine injuries in the collision sport athlete, part 1: epidemiology, functional anatomy, and diagnosis. Am J Sports Med 32: 1077-1087.
9. Blight AR, Toombs JP, Bauer MS, Widmer WR. 1991. The effects of 4-aminopyridine on neurological deficits in chronic cases of traumatic spinal cord injury in dogs: a phase I clinical trial. J Neurotrauma 8: 103-119.
10. Botelho RV, Daniel JW, Boulosa JL, Colli BO, Farias Rde L, Moraes OJ, Pimenta WEJr, Ribeiro CH, Ribeiro FR, Taricco MA, de Carvalho MV, Bernardo WM. 2009. [Effectiveness of methylprednisolone in the acute phase of spinal cord injuries-a systematic review of randomized controlled trials]. Rev Assoc Med Bras 55: 729-737.
11. Bracken MB. 2000. Pharmacological interventions for acute spinal cord injury. Cochrane Database Syst Rev CD001046.
12. Bracken MB. 2001. Methylprednisolone and acute spinal cord injury: an update of the randomized evidence. Spine 26(Suppl 24): S47-S54.
13. Bracken MB, Shepard MJ, Collins WF, Holford TR, Young W, Baskin DS, Eisenberg HM, Flamm E, Leo-Summers L, Maroon J, et al. 1990. A randomized, controlled trial of methylprednisolone or naloxone in the treatment of acute spinal-cord injury. Results of the Second National Acute Spinal Cord Injury Study. N Engl J Med 322: 1405-1411.
14. Bracken MB, Shepard MJ, Holford TR, Leo-Summers L, Aldrich EF, Fazl M, Fehlings M, Herr DL, Hitchon PW, Marshall LF, Nockels RP, Pascale V, Perot PLJr, Piepmeier J, Sonntag VK, Wagner F, Wilberger JE, Winn HR, Young W. 1997. Administration of methylprednisolone for 24 or 48 hr or tirilazad mesylate for 48 hr in the treatment of acute spinal cord injury. Results of the Third National Acute Spinal Cord Injury Randomized Controlled Trial. National Acute Spinal Cord Injury Study. JAMA 277: 1597-1604.
15. Cardenas DD, Ditunno J, Graziani V, Jackson AB, Lammertse D, Potter P, Sipski M, Cohen R, Blight AR. 2007. Phase 2 trial of sustained-release fampridine in chronic spinal cord injury. Spinal Cord 45: 158-168.
16. Choi DW. 1992. Excitotoxic cell death. J Neurobiol 23: 1261-1276.
17. Danielisova V, Chavko M. 1998. Comparative effects of the N-methyl-D-aspartate antagonist MK-801 and the calcium channel blocker KB-2796 on neurologic and metabolic recovery after spinal cord ischemia. Exp Neurol 149: 203-208.
18. DeForge D, Nymark J, Lemaire E, Gardner S, Hunt M, Martel L, Curran D, Barbeau H. 2004. Effect of 4-aminopyridine on gait in ambulatory spinal cord injuries: a double-blind, placebo-controlled, crossover trial. Spinal Cord 42: 674-685.
19. Detrait E, Eddleman CS, Yoo S, Fukuda M, Nguyen MP, Bittner GD, Fishman HM. 2000. Axolemmal repair requires proteins that mediate synaptic vesicle fusion. J Neurobiol 44: 382-391.
20. Dib-Hajj SD, Cummins TR, Black JA, Waxman SG. 2010. Sodium channels in normal and pathological pain. Annu Rev Neurosci 33: 325-347.
21. Edwards L, Nashmi R, Jones O, Backx P, Ackerley C, Becker L, Fehlings MG. 2002. Upregulation of Kv1.4 protein and gene expression after chronic spinal cord injury. J Comp Neurol 443: 154-167.
22. Farooque M, Isaksson J, Jackson DM, Olsson Y. 1999. Clomethiazole (Zendra, CMZ) improves hind limb motor function and reduces neuronal damage after severe spinal cord injury in rat. Acta Neuropathol 98: 22-30.
23. Fehlings MG, Nashmi R. 1996. Changes in pharmacological sensitivity of the spinal cord to potassium channel blockers following acute spinal cord injury. Brain Res 736: 135-145.
24. Fehlings MG, Tator CH. 1995. The relationships among the severity of spinal-cord injury, residual neurological function, axon counts, and counts of retrogradely labeled neurons after experimental spinal-cord injury. Exp Neurol 132: 220-228.
25. Finnerup NB, Biering-Sorensen F, Johannesen IL, Terkelsen AJ, Juhl GI, Kristensen AD, Sindrup SH, Bach FW, Jensen TS. 2005. Intravenous lidocaine relieves spinal cord injury pain: a randomized controlled trial. Anesthesiology 102: 1023-1030.
26. Grijalva I, Guizar-Sahagun G, Castaneda-Hernandez G, Mino D, Maldonado-Julian H, Vidal-Cantu G, Ibarra A, Serra O, Salgado-Ceballos H, Arenas-Hernandez R. 2003. Efficacy and safety of 4-aminopyridine in patients with long-term spinal cord injury: a randomized, double-blind, placebo-controlled trial. Pharmacotherapy 23: 823-834.
27. Gwak YS, Tan HY, Nam TS, Paik KS, Hulsebosch CE, Leem JW. 2006. Activation of spinal GABA receptors attenuates chronic central neuropathic pain after spinal cord injury. J Neurotrauma 23: 1111-1124.
28. Haghighi SS, Clapper A, Johnson GC, Stevens A, Prapaisilp A. 1998. Effect of 4-aminopyridine and single-dose methylprednisolone on functional recovery after a chronic spinal cord injury. Spinal Cord 36: 6-12.
29. Hains BC, Klein JP, Saab CY, Craner MJ, Black JA, Waxman SG. 2003. Upregulation of sodium channel Nav1.3 and functional involvement in neuronal hyperexcitability associated with central neuropathic pain after spinal cord injury. J Neurosci 23: 8881-8892.
30. Halter JA, Blight AR, Donovan WH, Calvillo O. 2000. Intrathecal administration of 4-aminopyridine in chronic spinal injured patients. Spinal Cord 38: 728-732.
31. Hansebout RR, Blight AR, Fawcett S, Reddy K. 1993. 4-Aminopyridine in chronic spinal cord injury: a controlled, double-blind, crossover study in eight patients. J Neurotrauma 10: 1-18.
32. Hawryluk GW, Rowland J, Kwon BK, Fehlings MG. 2008. Protection and repair of the injured spinal cord: a review of completed, ongoing, and planned clinical trials for acute spinal cord injury. Neurosurg Focus 25: E14.
33. Hayes KC. 2004. The use of 4-aminopyridine (fampridine) in demyelinating disorders. CNS Drug Rev 10: 295-316.
34. Hayes KC, Kakulas BA. 1997. Neuropathology of human spinal cord injury sustained in sports-related activities. J Neurotrauma 14: 235-248.
35. Hayes KC, Blight AR, Potter PJ, Allatt RD, Hsieh JT, Wolfe DL, Lam S, Hamilton JT. 1993. Preclinical trial of 4-aminopyridine in patients with chronic spinal cord injury. Paraplegia 31: 216-224.
36. Hirbec H, Gaviria M, Vignon J. 2001. Gacyclidine: a new neuroprotective agent acting at the N-methyl-D-aspartate receptor. CNS Drug Rev 7: 172-198.
37. Huang CS, Song JH, Nagata K, Yeh JZ, Narahashi T. 1997. Effects of the neuroprotective agent riluzole on the high voltage-activated calcium channels of rat dorsal root ganglion neurons. J Pharmacol Exp Ther 282: 1280-1290.
38. Hugenholtz H, Nelson RF, Dehoux E, Bickerton R. 1992. Intrathecal baclofen for intractable spinal spasticity-a double-blind cross-over comparison with placebo in 6 patients. Can J Neurol Sci 19: 188-195.
39. Hugenholtz H, Cass DE, Dvorak MF, Fewer DH, Fox RJ, Izukawa DM, Lexchin J, Tuli S, Bharatwal N, Short C. 2002. High-dose methylprednisolone for acute closed spinal cord injury-only a treatment option. Can J Neurol Sci 29: 227-235.
40. Hurlbert RJ. 2000. Methylprednisolone for acute spinal cord injury: an inappropriate standard of care. J Neurosurg 93(Suppl 1): 1-7.
41. Huston E, Scott RH, Dolphin AC. 1990. A comparison of the effect of calcium channel ligands and GABAB agonists and antagonists on transmitter release and somatic calcium channel currents in cultured neurons. Neuroscience 38: 721-729.
42. Jensen JM, Shi R. 2003. Effects of 4-aminopyridine on stretched mammalian spinal cord: the role of potassium channels in axonal conduction. J Neurophysiol 90: 2334-2340.
43. Kabalin JN, Lennon S, Gill HS, Wolfe V, Perkash I. 1993. Incidence and management of autonomic dysreflexia and other intraoperative problems encountered in spinal cord injury patients undergoing extracorporeal shock wave lithotripsy without anesthesia on a second generation lithotriptor. J Urol 149: 1064-1067.
44. Kakulas BA. 1999. A review of the neuropathology of human spinal cord injury with emphasis on special features. J Spinal Cord Med 22: 119-124.
45. Kaptanoglu E, Solaroglu I, Surucu HS, Akbiyik F, Beskonakli E. 2005. Blockade of sodium channels by phenytoin protects ultrastructure and attenuates lipid peroxidation in experimental spinal cord injury. Acta Neurochir 147: 405-412; discussion 412.
46. Kim DH, Vaccaro AR, Henderson FC, Benzel EC. 2003. Molecular biology of cervical myelopathy and spinal cord injury: role of oligodendrocyte apoptosis. Spine J 3: 510-519.
47. Koch RA, Barish ME. 1994. Perturbation of intracellular calcium and hydrogen ion regulation in cultured mouse hippocampal neurons by reduction of the sodium ion concentration gradient. J Neurosci 14: 2585-2593.
48. Krassioukov A, Warburton DE, Teasell R, Eng JJ. 2009. A systematic review of the management of autonomic dysreflexia after spinal cord injury. Arch Phys Med Rehabil 90: 682-695.
49. Kulbatski I, Cook DJ, Tator CH. 2004. Calcium entry through L-type calcium channels is essential for neurite regeneration in cultured sympathetic neurons. J Neurotraum 21: 357-374.
50. Kwon BK, Roy J, Lee JH, Okon E, Zhang H, Marx JC, Kindy MS. 2009. Magnesium chloride in a polyethylene glycol formulation as a neuroprotective therapy for acute spinal cord injury: preclinical refinement and optimization. J Neurotrauma 26: 1379-1393.
51. Kwon BK, Sekhon LH, Fehlings MG. 2010. Emerging repair, regeneration, and translational research advances for spinal cord injury. Spine 35(Suppl 21): S263-S270.
52. Levendoglu F, Ogun CO, Ozerbil O, Ogun TC, Ugurlu H. 2004. Gabapentin is a first line drug for the treatment of neuropathic pain in spinal cord injury. Spine 29: 743-751.
53. Leybaert L, de Hemptinne A. 1996. Changes of intracellular free calcium following mechanical injury in a spinal cord slice preparation. Exp Brain Res 112: 392-402.
54. +-dependent transport in spinal cord white matter. Neuroscience 107: 675-683.
55. +-dependent glutamate transport. J Neurosci 19: RC16.
56. 2+ exchange in spinal cord white matter injury at physiological temperature. J Neurophysiol 84: 1116-1119.
57. Liu D, McAdoo DJ. 1993. An experimental model combining microdialysis with electrophysiology, histology, and neurochemistry for exploring mechanisms of secondary damage in spinal cord injury: effects of potassium. J Neurotrauma 10: 349-362.
58. Liu D, Xu GY, Pan E, McAdoo DJ. 1999. Neurotoxicity of glutamate at the concentration released upon spinal cord injury. Neuroscience 93: 1383-1389.
59. LoPachin RM, Lehning EJ. 1997. Mechanism of calcium entry during axon injury and degeneration. Toxicol Appl Pharmacol 143: 233-244.
60. Matsumoto T, Tamaki T, Kawakami M, Yoshida M, Ando M, Yamada H. 2001. Early complications of high-dose methylprednisolone sodium succinate treatment in the follow-up of acute cervical spinal cord injury. Spine 26: 426-430.
61. McBride JM, Smith DT, Byrn SR, Borgens RB, Shi R. 2006. Dose responses of three 4-aminopyridine derivatives on axonal conduction in spinal cord trauma. Eur J Pharm Sci 27: 237-242.
62. McBride JM, Smith DT, Byrn SR, Borgens RB, Shi R. 2007. 4-Aminopyridine derivatives enhance impulse conduction in guinea-pig spinal cord following traumatic injury. Neuroscience 148: 44-52.
63. McNeil PL, Steinhardt RA. 2003. Plasma membrane disruption: repair, prevention, adaptation. Annu Rev Cell Dev Biol 19: 697-731.
64. Meisner JG, Marsh AD, Marsh DR. 2010. Loss of GABAergic interneurons in laminae I-III of the spinal cord dorsal horn contributes to reduced GABAergic tone and neuropathic pain after spinal cord injury. J Neurotrauma 27: 729-737.
65. Murphy D, Reid DB. 2001. Pain treatment satisfaction in spinal cord injury. Spinal Cord 39: 44-46.
66. Nashmi R, Fehlings MG. 2001a. Changes in axonal physiology and morphology after chronic compressive injury of the rat thoracic spinal cord. Neuroscience 104: 235-251.
67. Nashmi R, Fehlings MG. 2001b. Mechanisms of axonal dysfunction after spinal cord injury: with an emphasis on the role of voltage-gated potassium channels. Brain Res Brain Res Rev 38: 165-191.
68. + channels after chronic spinal cord injury. Eur J Neurosci 12: 491-506.
69. Nehrt A, Rodgers R, Shapiro S, Borgens R, Shi R. 2007. The critical role of voltage-dependent calcium channel in axonal repair following mechanical trauma. Neuroscience 146: 1504-1512.
70. Ouyang H, Sun W, Fu Y, Li J, Cheng JX, Nauman E, Shi R. 2010. Compression induces acute demyelination and potassium channel exposure in spinal cord. J Neurotrauma 27: 1109-1120.
71. Park E, Velumian AA, Fehlings MG. 2004. The role of excitotoxicity in secondary mechanisms of spinal cord injury: a review with an emphasis on the implications for white matter degeneration. J Neurotrauma 21: 754-774.
72. Petitjean ME, Pointillart V, Dixmerias F, Wiart L, Sztark F, Lassie P, Thicoipe M, Dabadie P. 1998. [Medical treatment of spinal cord injury in the acute stage]. Ann Fr Anesth Reanim 17: 114-122.
73. Pointillard V, Petitjean ME. 1993. [Medical treatment of spinal cord injury during the acute phase. Effect of a calcium inhibitor]. Agressologie 34(Spec 2): 93-95.
74. Regan RF, Choi DW. 1991. Glutamate neurotoxicity in spinal cord cell culture. Neuroscience 43: 585-591.
75. Rintala DH, Holmes SA, Courtade D, Fiess RN, Tastard LV, Loubser PG. 2007. Comparison of the effectiveness of amitriptyline and gabapentin on chronic neuropathic pain in persons with spinal cord injury. Arch Phys Med Rehabil 88: 1547-1560.
76. Rosenberg LJ, Wrathall JR. 2001. Time course studies on the effectiveness of tetrodotoxin in reducing consequences of spinal cord contusion. J Neurosci Res 66: 191-202.
77. Rosenberg LJ, Teng YD, Wrathall JR. 1999. Effects of the sodium channel blocker tetrodotoxin on acute white matter pathology after experimental contusive spinal cord injury. J Neurosci 19: 6122-6133.
78. 3H]aspartate release from primary astrocyte cultures. Am J Physiol 274: C1511-C1520.
79. Sattler R, Tymianski M. 2000. Molecular mechanisms of calcium-dependent excitotoxicity. J Mol Med 78: 3-13.
80. Schwartz G, Fehlings MG. 2001. Evaluation of the neuroprotective effects of sodium channel blockers after spinal cord injury: improved behavioral and neuroanatomical recovery with riluzole. J Neurosurg 94(Suppl 2): 245-256.
81. Segal JL, Brunnemann SR. 1997. 4-Aminopyridine improves pulmonary function in quadriplegic humans with longstanding spinal cord injury. Pharmacotherapy 17: 415-423.
82. Sekhon LH, Fehlings MG. 2001. Epidemiology, demographics, and pathophysiology of acute spinal cord injury. Spine 26(Suppl 24): S2-S12.
83. Shi R, Blight AR. 1997. Differential effects of low and high concentrations of 4-aminopyridine on axonal conduction in normal and injured spinal cord. Neuroscience 77: 553-562.
84. Shi R, Kelly TM, Blight AR. 1997. Conduction block in acute and chronic spinal cord injury: different dose-response characteristics for reversal by 4-aminopyridine. Exp Neurol 148: 495-501.
85. Shi R, Asano T, Vining NC, Blight AR. 2000. Control of membrane sealing in injured mammalian spinal cord axons. J Neurophysiol 84: 1763-1769.
86. Short DJ, El Masry WS, Jones PW. 2000. High dose methylprednisolone in the management of acute spinal cord injury-a systematic review from a clinical perspective. Spinal Cord 38: 273-286.
87. Siddall PJ, McClelland JM, Rutkowski SB, Cousins MJ. 2003. A longitudinal study of the prevalence and characteristics of pain in the first 5 years following spinal cord injury. Pain 103: 249-257.
88. Siddall PJ, Cousins MJ, Otte A, Griesing T, Chambers R, Murphy TK. 2006. Pregabalin in central neuropathic pain associated with spinal cord injury: a placebo-controlled trial. Neurology 67: 1792-1800.
89. Sills GJ. 2006. The mechanisms of action of gabapentin and pregabalin. Curr Opin Pharmacol 6: 108-113.
90. Stys PK. 2004. White matter injury mechanisms. Curr Mol Med 4: 113-130.
91. Sun W, Smith D, Fu Y, Cheng JX, Bryn S, Borgens R, Shi R. 2010. Novel potassium channel blocker, 4-AP-3-MeOH, inhibits fast potassium channels and restores axonal conduction in injured guinea pig spinal cord white matter. J Neurophysiol 103: 469-478.
92. Tadie M, Mathé J, Loubert G, Saint-Marc C, Menthonnex P, et al. 1994. Valproate for treatment of chronic central pain after spinal cord injury. A double-blind cross-over study. Paraplegia 32: 565-569.
93. Tadie M, D'Arbigny P, Mathé J, Saint-Marc C. 1999. Acute spinal cord injury: early care and treatment in a multicenter study with gacyclidine. Soc Neurosci Abstr 25: 1090.
94. Tai Q, Kirshblum S, Chen B, Millis S, Johnston M, DeLisa JA. 2002. Gabapentin in the treatment of neuropathic pain after spinal cord injury: a prospective, randomized, double-blind, crossover trial. J Spinal Cord Med 25: 100-105.
95. Tator CH. 1995. Update on the pathophysiology and pathology of acute spinal cord injury. Brain Pathol 5: 407-413.
96. Tator CH, Fehlings MG. 1991. Review of the secondary injury theory of acute spinal cord trauma with emphasis on vascular mechanisms. J Neurosurg 75: 15-26.
97. Teasell RW, Arnold JM, Krassioukov A, Delaney GA. 2000. Cardiovascular consequences of loss of supraspinal control of the sympathetic nervous system after spinal cord injury. Arch Phys Med Rehabil 81: 506-516.
98. 2+-dependent vesicle-vesicle fusion events. J Cell Biol 139: 63-74.
99. Thuret S, Moon LD, Gage FH. 2006. Therapeutic interventions after spinal cord injury. Nat Rev Neurosci 7: 628-643.
100. Thyberg M, Ertzgaard P, Gylling M, Granerus G. 1994. Effect of nifedipine on cystometry-induced elevation of blood pressure in patients with a reflex urinary bladder after a high level spinal cord injury. Paraplegia 32: 308-313.
101. 2+ exchanger after traumatic or hypoxic/ischemic injury to spinal cord white matter. Spine J 2: 35-40.
102. van der Bruggen MA, Huisman HB, Beckerman H, Bertelsmann FW, Polman CH, Lankhorst GJ. 2001. Randomized trial of 4-aminopyridine in patients with chronic incomplete spinal cord injury. J Neurol 248: 665-671.
103. Vink R, Cernak I. 2000. Regulation of intracellular free magnesium in central nervous system injury. Front Biosci 5: D656-665.
104. Vranken JH, Dijkgraaf MG, Kruis MR, van der Vegt MH, Hollmann MW, Heesen M. 2008. Pregabalin in patients with central neuropathic pain: a randomized, double-blind, placebo-controlled trial of a flexible-dose regimen. Pain 136: 150-157.
105. Wang SJ, Wang KY, Wang WC. 2004. Mechanisms underlying the riluzole inhibition of glutamate release from rat cerebral cortex nerve terminals (synaptosomes). Neuroscience 125: 191-201.
106. Warms CA, Turner JA, Marshall HM, Cardenas DD. 2002. Treatments for chronic pain associated with spinal cord injuries: many are tried, few are helpful. Clin J Pain 18: 154-163.
107. Waxman SG. 2006. Axonal conduction and injury in multiple sclerosis: the role of sodium channels. Nat Rev Neurosci 7: 932-941.
108. Winkler T, Sharma HS, Stalberg E, Badgaiyan RD, Gordh T, Westman J. 2003. An L-type calcium channel blocker, nimodipine influences trauma induced spinal cord conduction and axonal injury in the rat. Acta Neurochir Suppl 86: 425-432.
109. Wolfe DL, Hayes KC, Hsieh JT, Potter PJ. 2001. Effects of 4-aminopyridine on motor evoked potentials in patients with spinal cord injury: a double-blinded, placebo-controlled crossover trial. J Neurotrauma 18: 757-771.
110. Wrathall JR, Li W, Hudson LD. 1998. Myelin gene expression after experimental contusive spinal cord injury. J Neurosci 18: 8780-8793.
111. Xu GY, Hughes MG, Ye Z, Hulsebosch CE, McAdoo DJ. 2004. Concentrations of glutamate released following spinal cord injury kill oligodendrocytes in the spinal cord. Exp Neurol 187: 329-336.
112. Zhang Y, Hou S, Wu Y. 2002. Changes of intracellular calcium and the correlation with functional damage of the spinal cord after spinal cord injury. Chin J Traumatol 5: 40-42.
113. Zhuang C, Wang LM, Xu Y. 2008. Early methylprednisolone impact treatment for sensory and motor function recovery in patients with acute spinal cord injury-a self-control study. Neural Regen Res 3: 577-580.