Circadian rhythm of adrenal glucocorticoid: Its regulation and clinical implications

Biochimica et Biophysica Acta - Molecular Basis of Disease

Volumn 1812, Issue 5, 2011, Pages 581-591

  Chung, Sooyoung ^a   Son, Gi Hoon ^a   Kim, Kyungjin ^a  

^a Seoul National University   (South Korea)

Author keywords

Adrenal gland; Biological clock; Circadian rhythm; Glucocorticoid; HPA axis

Indexed keywords

CRYPTOCHROME 1; CRYPTOCHROME 2; GLUCOCORTICOID; HYDROCORTISONE; PER1 PROTEIN; PER2 PROTEIN; PROTEIN BMAL1; PROTEIN TIMELESS; TRANSCRIPTION FACTOR CLOCK;

ADRENAL CORTEX; ADRENAL CORTEX INSUFFICIENCY; AUTONOMIC NERVOUS SYSTEM; CHRONIC FATIGUE SYNDROME; CIRCADIAN RHYTHM; CUSHING SYNDROME; ENVIRONMENTAL FACTOR; GENE EXPRESSION; GENETIC TRANSCRIPTION; HORMONE RELEASE; HORMONE SUBSTITUTION; HORMONE SYNTHESIS; HUMAN; HYPOTHALAMUS HYPOPHYSIS SYSTEM; LOW DRUG DOSE; NONHUMAN; PRIORITY JOURNAL; PROTEIN FUNCTION; PROTEIN MODIFICATION; PROTEIN PROCESSING; REVIEW; SIGNAL TRANSDUCTION; STEROIDOGENESIS;

ADRENAL GLAND DISEASES; ADRENAL GLANDS; ANIMALS; CIRCADIAN RHYTHM; GLUCOCORTICOIDS; HUMANS;

EID: 79952697844     PISSN: 09254439     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1016/j.bbadis.2011.02.003     Document Type: Review

References (136)

1. Dunlap J.C. Molecular bases for circadian clocks. Cell 1999, 96:271-290.
2. Reppert S.M. A clockwork explosion!. Neuron 1998, 21:1-4.
3. Gachon F., Nagoshi E., Brown S.A., Ripperger J., Schibler U. The mammalian circadian timing system: from gene expression to physiology. Chromosoma 2004, 113:103-112.
4. Stratmann M., Schibler U. Properties, entrainment and physiological functions of mammalian peripheral oscillators. J. Biol. Rhythms 2006, 21:494-506.
5. Abe K., Kroning J., Greer M.A., Critchlow V. Effects of destruction of the suprachiasmatic nuclei on the circadian rhythms in plasma corticosterone, body temperature, feeding and plasma thyrotropin. Neuroendocrinology 1979, 29:119-131.
6. Crown A., Lightman S. Management of patients with glucocorticoid deficiency. Nat. Clin. Pract. Endocrinol. Metab. 2005, 1:62-63.
7. Carroll T., Raff H., Findling J.W. Late-night salivary cortisol measurement in the diagnosis of Cushing's syndrome. Nat. Clin. Pract. Endocrinol. Metab. 2008, 4:344-350.
8. Schibler U., Sassone-Corsi P. A web of circadian pacemakers. Cell 2002, 111:919-922.
9. Stephan F.K., Zucker I. Circadian rhythms in drinking behavior and locomotor activity of rats are eliminated by hypothalamic lesions. Proc. Natl Acad. Sci. USA 1972, 69:1583-1586.
10. Ralph M.R., Foster R.G., Davis F.C., Menaker M. Transplanted suprachiasmatic nucleus determines circadian period. Science 1990, 247:975-978.
11. Ko C.H., Takahashi J.S. Molecular components of the mammalian circadian clock. Hum. Mol. Genet. 2006, 2:R271-R277.
12. Gallego M., Virshup D.M. Post-translational modifications regulate the ticking of the circadian clock. Nat. Rev. Mol. Cell Biol. 2007, 8:139-148.
13. King D.P., Zhao Y., Sangoram A.M., Wilsbacher L.D., Tanaka M., Antoch M.P., Steeves T.D., Vitaterna M.H., Kornhauser J.M., Lowrey P.L., Turek F.W., Takahashi J.S. Positional cloning of the mouse circadian clock gene. Cell 1997, 89:641-653.
14. Gekakis N., Staknis D., Nguyen H.B., Davis F.C., Wilsbacher L.D., King D.P., Takahashi J.S., Weitz C.J. Role of the CLOCK protein in the mammalian circadian mechanism. Science 1998, 280:1564-1569.
15. Bunger M.K., Wilsbacher L.D., Moran S.M., Clendenin C., Radcliffe L.A., Hogenesch J.B., Simon M.C., Takahashi J.S., Bradfield C.A. Mop3 is an essential component of the master circadian pacemaker in mammals. Cell 2000, 103:1009-1017.
16. Preitner N., Damiola F., Lopez-Molina L., Zakany J., Duboule D., Albrecht U., Schibler U. The orphan nuclear receptor REV-ERBalpha controls circadian transcription within the positive limb of the mammalian circadian oscillator. Cell 2002, 110:251-260.
17. Sato T.K., Panda S., Miraglia L.J., Reyes T.M., Rudic R.D., McNamara P., Naik K.A., FitzGerald G.A., Kay S.A., Hogenesch J.B. A functional genomics strategy reveals Rora as a component of the mammalian circadian clock. Neuron 2004, 43:527-537.
18. Ueda H.R., Chen W., Adachi A., Wakamatsu H., Hayashi S., Takasugi T., Nagano M., Nakahama K., Suzuki Y., Sugano S., Iino M., Shigeyoshi Y., Hashimoto S. A transcription factor response element for gene expression during circadian night. Nature 2002, 418:534-539.
19. Guillaumond F., Dardente H., Giguère V., Cermakian N. Differential control of Bmal1 circadian transcription by REV-ERB and ROR nuclear receptors. J. Biol. Rhythms 2005, 20:391-403.
20. Akashi M., Tsuchiya Y., Yoshino T., Nishida E. Control of intracellular dynamics of mammalian period proteins by casein kinase I epsilon (CKIepsilon) and CKIdelta in cultured cells. Mol. Cell. Biol. 2002, 22:1693-1703.
21. Eide E.J., Vielhaber E.L., Hinz W.A., Virshup D.M. The circadian regulatory proteins BMAL1 and cryptochromes are substrates of casein kinase Iepsilon. J. Biol. Chem. 2002, 277:17248-17254.
22. Xu Y., Padiath Q.S., Shapiro R.E., Jones C.R., Wu S.C., Saigoh N., Saigoh K., Ptácek L.J., Fu Y.H. Functional consequences of a CKIdelta mutation causing familial advanced sleep phase syndrome. Nature 2005, 434:640-644.
23. Cardone L., Hirayama J., Giordano F., Tamaru T., Palvimo J.J., Sassone-Corsi P. Circadian clock control by SUMOylation of BMAL1. Science 2005, 309:1390-1394.
24. Lee J., Lee Y., Lee M.J., Park E., Kang S.H., Chung C.H., Lee K.H., Kim K. Dual modification of BMAL1 by SUMO2/3 and ubiquitin promotes circadian activation of the CLOCK/BMAL1 complex. Mol. Cell. Biol. 2008, 28:6056-6065.
25. Kwon I., Lee J., Chang S.H., Jung N.C., Lee B.J., Son G.H., Kim K., Lee K.H. BMAL1 shuttling controls transactivation and degradation of the CLOCK/BMAL1 heterodimer. Mol. Cell. Biol. 2006, 26:7318-7330.
26. Hirayama J., Sahar S., Grimaldi B., Tamaru T., Takamatsu K., Nakahata Y., Sassone-Corsi P. CLOCK-mediated acetylation of BMAL1 controls circadian function. Nature 2007, 450:1086-1090.
27. Shim H.S., Kim H., Lee J., Son G.H., Cho S., Oh T.H., Kang S.H., Seen D.S., Lee K.H., Kim K. Rapid activation of CLOCK by Ca2+-dependent protein kinase C mediates resetting of the mammalian circadian clock. EMBO Rep. 2007, 8:366-371.
28. Lee Y., Lee J., Kwon I., Nakajima Y., Ohmiya Y., Son G.H., Lee K.H., Kim K. Coactivation of the CLOCK-BMAL1 complex by CBP mediates resetting of the circadian clock. J. Cell Sci. 2010, 123:3547-3557.
29. Herzog E.D. Neurons and networks in daily rhythms. Nat. Rev. Neurosci. 2007, 8:790-802.
30. Balsalobre A., Damiola F., Schibler U. A serum shock induces circadian gene expression in mammalian tissue culture cells. Cell 1998, 93:929-937.
31. Balsalobre A., Brown S.A., Marcacci L., Tronche F., Kellendonk C., Reichardt H.M., Schutz G., Schibler U. Resetting of circadian time in peripheral tissues by glucocorticoid signaling. Science 2000, 289:2344-2347.
32. Nagoshi E., Saini C., Bauer C., Laroche T., Naef F., Schibler U. Circadian gene expression in individual fibroblasts: cell-autonomous and self-sustained oscillators pass time to daughter cells. Cell 2004, 119:693-705.
33. Welsh D.K., Yoo S.H., Liu A.C., Takahashi J.S., Kay S.A. Bioluminescence imaging of individual fibroblasts reveals persistent, independently phased circadian rhythms of clock gene expression. Curr. Biol. 2004, 14:2289-2295.
34. Levi F., Schibler U. Circadian rhythms: mechanisms and therapeutic implications. Annu. Rev. Pharmacol. Toxicol. 2007, 47:593-628.
35. Akhtar R.A., Reddy A.B., Maywood E.S., Clayton J.D., King V.M., Smith A.G., Gant T.W., Hastings M.H., Kyriacou C.P. Circadian cycling of the mouse liver transcriptome, as revealed by cDNA microarray, is driven by the suprachiasmatic nucleus. Curr. Biol. 2002, 12:540-550.
36. Duffield G.E., Best J.D., Meurers B.H., Bittner A., Loros J.J., Dunlap J.C. Circadian programs of transcriptional activation, signaling, and protein turnover revealed by microarray analysis of mammalian cells. Curr. Biol. 2002, 12:551-557.
37. Panda S., Antoch M.P., Miller B.H., Su A.I., Schook A.B., Straume M., Schultz P.G., Kay S.A., Takahashi J.S., Hogenesch J.B. Coordinated transcription of key pathways in the mouse by the circadian clock. Cell 2002, 109:307-320.
38. Storch K.F., Lipan O., Leykin I., Viswanathan N., Davis F.C., Wong W.H., Weitz C.J. Extensive and divergent circadian gene expression in liver and heart. Nature 2002, 417:78-83.
39. McDearmon E.L., Patel K.N., Ko C.H., Walisser J.A., Schook A.C., Chong J.L., Wilsbacher L.D., Song E.J., Hong H.K., Bradfield C.A., Takahashi J.S. Dissecting the functions of the mammalian clock protein BMAL1 by tissue-specific rescue in mice. Science 2006, 314:1304-1308.
40. Lamia K.A., Storch K.F., Weitz C.J. Physiological significance of a peripheral tissue circadian clock. Proc. Natl Acad. Sci. USA 2008, 105:15172-15177.
41. Le Martelot G., Claudel T., Gatfield D., Schaad O., Kornmann B., Sasso G.L., Moschetta A., Schibler U. REV-ERBalpha participates in circadian SREBP signaling and bile acid homeostasis. PLoS Biol. 2009, 7:e1000181.
42. Marcheva B., Ramsey K.M., Buhr E.D., Kobayashi Y., Su H., Ko C.H., Ivanova G., Omura C., Mo S., Vitaterna M.H., Lopez J.P., Philipson L.H., Bradfield C.A., Crosby S.D., JeBailey L., Wang X., Takahashi J.S., Bass J. Disruption of the clock components CLOCK and BMAL1 leads to hypoinsulinaemia and diabetes. Nature 2010, 466:627-631.
43. Westgate E.J., Cheng Y., Reilly D.F., Price T.S., Walisser J.A., Bradfield C.A., FitzGerald G.A. Genetic components of the circadian clock regulate thrombogenesis in vivo. Circulation 2008, 117:2087-2095.
44. Oster H., Damerow S., Kiessling S., Jakubcakova V., Abraham D., Tian J., Hoffmann M.W., Eichele G. The circadian rhythm of glucocorticoids is regulated by a gating mechanism residing in the adrenal cortical clock. Cell Metab. 2006, 4:163-173.
45. Son G.H., Chung S., Choe H.K., Kim H.D., Baik S.M., Lee H., Lee H.W., Choi S., Sun W., Kim H., Cho S., Lee K.H., Kim K. Adrenal peripheral clock controls the autonomous circadian rhythm of glucocorticoid by causing rhythmic steroid production. Proc. Natl Acad. Sci. USA 2008, 105:20970-20975.
46. Stratakis C.A., Chrousos G.P. Neuroendocrinology and pathophysiology of the stress system. Ann. NY Acad. Sci. 1995, 771:1-18.
47. Sapolsky R.M., Romero L.M., Munck A.U. How do glucocorticoids influence stress responses? Integrating permissive, suppressive, stimulatory, and preparative actions. Endocr. Rev. 2000, 21:55-89.
48. Munck A., Náray-Fejes-Tóth A. The ups and downs of glucocorticoid physiology. Permissive and suppressive effects revisited. Mol. Cell. Endocrinol. 1992, 90:C1-C4.
49. Chrousos G.P., Kino T. Glucocorticoid action networks and complex psychiatric and/or somatic disorders. Stress 2007, 10:213-219.
50. Simpson E.R., Waterman M.R. Regulation of the synthesis of steroidogenic enzymes in adrenal cortical cells by ACTH. Annu. Rev. Physiol. 1988, 50:427-440.
51. Côté M., Guillon G., Payet M.D., Gallo-Payet N. Expression and regulation of adenylyl cyclase isoforms in the human adrenal gland. J. Clin. Endocrinol. Metab. 2001, 86:4495-4503.
52. Stocco D.M. The role of the StAR protein in steroidogenesis: challenges for the future. J. Endocrinol. 2000, 164:247-253.
53. Mayr B., Montminy M. Transcriptional regulation by the phosphorylation-dependent factor CREB. Nat. Rev. Mol. Cell Biol. 2001, 2:599-609.
54. Payne A.H., Hales D.B. Overview of steroidogenic enzymes in the pathway from cholesterol to active steroid hormones. Endocr. Rev. 2004, 25:947-970.
55. Dickmeis T. Glucocorticoids and the circadian clock. J. Endocrinol. 2009, 200:3-22.
56. Nader N., Chrousos G.P., Kino T. Interactions of the circadian CLOCK system and the HPA axis. Trends Endocrinol. Metab. 2010, 21:277-286.
57. Buijs R.M., Kalsbeek A. Hypothalamic integration of central and peripheral clocks. Nat. Rev. Neurosci. 2001, 2:521-526.
58. Saper C.B., Lu J., Chou T.C., Gooley J. The hypothalamic integrator for circadian rhythms. Trends Neurosci. 2005, 28:152-157.
59. Buijs R.M., Kalsbeek A., van der Woude T.P., van Heerikhuize J.J., Shinn S. Suprachiasmatic nucleus lesion increases corticosterone secretion. Am. J. Physiol. 1993, 264:R1186-R1192.
60. Buijs R.M., Wortel J., Van Heerikhuize J.J., Feenstra M.G., Ter Horst G.J., Romijn H.J., Kalsbeek A. Anatomical and functional demonstration of a multisynaptic suprachiasmatic nucleus adrenal cortex pathway. Eur. J. Neurosci. 1999, 11:1535-1544.
61. Dallman M.F., Akana S.F., Bhatnagar S., Bell M.E., Choi S., Chu A., Horsley C., Levin N., Meijer O., Soriano L.R., Strack A.M., Viau V. Starvation: early signals, sensors, and sequelae. Endocrinology 1999, 140:4015-4023.
62. Watts A.G., Tanimura S., Sanchez-Watts G. Corticotropin-releasing hormone and arginine vasopressin gene transcription in the hypothalamic paraventricular nucleus of unstressed rats: daily rhythms and their interactions with corticosterone. Endocrinology 2004, 145:529-540.
63. Dalm S., Enthoven L., Meijer O.C., van der Mark M.H., Karssen A.M., de Kloet E.R., Oitzl M.S. Age-related changes in hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal axis activity of male C57BL/6J mice. Neuroendocrinology 2005, 81:372-380.
64. Chen A., Zorrilla E., Smith S., Rousso D., Levy C., Vaughan J., Donaldson C., Roberts A., Lee K.F., Vale W. Urocortin 2-deficient mice exhibit gender-specific alterations in circadian hypothalamus-pituitary-adrenal axis and depressive-like behavior. J. Neurosci. 2006, 26:5500-5510.
65. Meier A.H. Daily variation in concentration of plasma corticosteroid in hypophysectomized rats. Endocrinology 1976, 98:1475-1479.
66. Kalsbeek A., van Heerikhuize J.J., Wortel J., Buijs R.M. A diurnal rhythm of stimulatory input to the hypothalamo-pituitary-adrenal system as revealed by timed intrahypothalamic administration of the vasopressin V1 antagonist. J. Neurosci. 1996, 16:5555-5565.
67. Kalsbeek A., van der Vliet J., Buijs R.M. Decrease of endogenous vasopressin release necessary for expression of the circadian rise in plasma corticosterone: a reverse microdialysis study. J. Neuroendocrinol. 1996, 8:299-307.
68. Jasper M.S., Engeland W.C. Splanchnicotomy increases adrenal sensitivity to ACTH in nonstressed rats. Am. J. Physiol. 1997, 273:E363-E368.
69. Ishida A., Mutoh T., Ueyama T., Bando H., Masubuchi S., Nakahara D., Tsujimoto G., Okamura H. Light activates the adrenal gland: timing of gene expression and glucocorticoid release. Cell Metab. 2005, 2:297-307.
70. Ulrich-Lai Y.M., Arnhold M.M., Engeland W.C. Adrenal splanchnic innervation contributes to the diurnal rhythm of plasma corticosterone in rats by modulating adrenal sensitivity to ACTH. Am. J. Physiol. Regul. Integr. Comp. Physiol. 2006, 290:R1128-R1135.
71. Kaneko M., Kaneko K., Shinsako J., Dallman M.F. Adrenal sensitivity to adrenocorticotropin varies diurnally. Endocrinology 1981, 109:70-75.
72. Dallman M.F., Engeland W.C., Rose J.C., Wilkinson C.W., Shinsako J., Siedenburg F. Nycthemeral rhythm in adrenal responsiveness to ACTH. Am. J. Physiol. 1978, 235:R210-R218.
73. Dijkstra I., Binnekade R., Tilders F.J. Diurnal variation in resting levels of corticosterone is not mediated by variation in adrenal responsiveness to adrenocorticotropin but involves splanchnic nerve integrity. Endocrinology 1996, 137:540-547.
74. Atkinson H.C., Wood S.A., Kershaw Y.M., Bate E., Lightman S.L. Diurnal variation in the responsiveness of the hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal axis of the male rat to noise stress. J. Neuroendocrinol. 2006, 18:526-533.
75. Damiola F., Le Minh N., Preitner N., Kornmann B., Fleury-Olela F., Schibler U. Restricted feeding uncouples circadian oscillators in peripheral tissues from the central pacemaker in the suprachiasmatic nucleus. Genes Dev. 2000, 14:2950-2961.
76. Holmes M.C., French K.L., Seckl J.R. Dysregulation of diurnal rhythms of serotonin 5-HT2C and corticosteroid receptor gene expression in the hippocampus with food restriction and glucocorticoids. J. Neurosci. 1997, 17:4056-4065.
77. Le Minh N., Damiola F., Tronche F., Schütz G., Schibler U. Glucocorticoid hormones inhibit food-induced phase-shifting of peripheral circadian oscillators. EMBO J. 2001, 20:7128-7136.
78. Lemos D.R., Downs J.L., Urbanski H.F. Twenty-four-hour rhythmic gene expression in the rhesus macaque adrenal gland. Mol. Endocrinol. 2006, 20:1164-1176.
79. Andrews R.V., Folk G.E. Circadian metabolic patterns in cultured hamster adrenal glands. Comp. Biochem. Physiol. 1964, 11:393-409.
80. Andrews R.V. Phase response profile of hamster adrenal organ cultures treated with ACTH and exogenous steroid. Comp. Biochem. Physiol. 1980, 67:275-277.
81. Lehoux J.G., Lefebvre A. De novo synthesis of corticosteroids in hamster adrenal glands. J. Steroid Biochem. 1980, 12:479-485.
82. Clark B.J., Wells J., King S.R., Stocco D.M. The purification, cloning, and expression of a novel luteinizing hormone-induced mitochondrial protein in MA-10 mouse Leydig tumor cells. Characterization of the steroidogenic acute regulatory protein (StAR). J. Biol. Chem. 1994, 269:28314-28322.
83. Stocco D.M. Steroidogenic acute regulatory protein. Vitam. Horm. 1999, 55:399-441.
84. Nakao N., Yasuo S., Nishimura A., Yamamura T., Watanabe T., Anraku T., Okano T., Fukada Y., Sharp P.J., Ebihara S., Yoshimura T. Circadian clock gene regulation of steroidogenic acute regulatory protein gene expression in preovulatory ovarian follicles. Endocrinology 2007, 148:3031-3038.
85. Alvarez J.D., Hansen A., Ord T., Bebas P., Chappell P.E., Giebultowicz J.M., Williams C., Moss S., Sehgal A. The circadian clock protein BMAL1 is necessary for fertility and proper testosterone production in mice. J. Biol. Rhythms 2008, 23:26-36.
86. Buckingham J.C. Glucocorticoids: exemplars of multi-tasking. Br. J. Pharmacol. 2006, 147:S258-S268.
87. Wang M. The role of glucocorticoid action in the pathophysiology of the metabolic syndrome. Nutr. Metab. 2005, 2:3.
88. Koyanagi S., Okazawa S., Kuramoto Y., Ushijima K., Shimeno H., Soeda S., Okamura H., Ohdo S. Chronic treatment with prednisolone represses the circadian oscillation of clock gene expression in mouse peripheral tissues. Mol. Endocrinol. 2006, 20:573-583.
89. Malek Z.S., Sage D., Pévet P., Raison S. Daily rhythm of tryptophan hydroxylase-2 messenger ribonucleic acid within raphe neurons is induced by corticoid daily surge and modulated by enhanced locomotor activity. Endocrinology 2007, 148:5165-5172.
90. Dickmeis T., Foulkes N.S. Glucocorticoids and circadian clock control of cell proliferation: at the interface between three dynamic systems. Mol. Cell. Endocrinol. 2011, 331:11-22.
91. Dickmeis T., Lahiri K., Nica G., Vallone D., Santoriello C., Neumann C.J., Hammerschmidt M., Foulkes N.S. Glucocorticoids play a key role in circadian cell cycle rhythms. PLoS Biol. 2007, 5:e78.
92. Lamont E.W., Robinson B., Stewart J., Amir S. The central and basolateral nuclei of the amygdala exhibit opposite diurnal rhythms of expression of the clock protein Period2. Proc. Natl Acad. Sci. USA 2005, 102:4180-4184.
93. Oishi K., Amagai N., Shirai H., Kadota K., Ohkura N., Ishida N. Genome-wide expression analysis reveals 100 adrenal gland-dependent circadian genes in the mouse liver. DNA Res. 2005, 12:191-202.
94. Reddy A.B., Maywood E.S., Karp N.A., King V.M., Inoue Y., Gonzalez F.J., Lilley K.S., Kyriacou C.P., Hastings M.H. Glucocorticoid signaling synchronizes the liver circadian transcriptome. Hepatology 2007, 45:1478-1488.
95. Sage D., Ganem J., Guillaumond F., Laforge-Anglade G., François-Bellan A.M., Bosler O., Becquet D. Influence of the corticosterone rhythm on photic entrainment of locomotor activity in rats. J. Biol. Rhythms 2004, 19:144-156.
96. Kiessling S., Eichele G., Oster H. Adrenal glucocorticoids have a key role in circadian resynchronization in a mouse model of jet lag. J. Clin. Invest. 2010, 120:2600-2609.
97. Ferrari E., Casarotti D., Muzzoni B., Albertelli N., Cravello L., Fioravanti M., Solerte S.B., Magri F. Age-related changes of the adrenal secretory pattern: possible role in pathological brain aging. Brain Res. Rev. 2001, 37:294-300.
98. Pasquali R., Vicennati V., Cacciari M., Pagotto U. The hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal axis activity in obesity and the metabolic syndrome. Ann. NY Acad. Sci. 2006, 1083:111-128.
99. Bao A.M., Meynen G., Swaab D.F. The stress system in depression and neurodegeneration: focus on the human hypothalamus. Brain Res. Rev. 2008, 57:531-553.
100. Debono M., Ross R.J., Newell-Price J. Inadequacies of glucocorticoid replacement and improvements by physiological circadian therapy. Eur. J. Endocrinol. 2009, 160:719-729.
101. Cleare A.J. The neuroendocrinology of chronic fatigue syndrome. Endocr. Rev. 2003, 24:236-252.
102. Dallman M.F., Pecoraro N.C., La Fleur S.E., Warne J.P., Ginsberg A.B., Akana S.F., Laugero K.C., Houshyar H., Strack A.M., Bhatnagar S., Bell M.E. Glucocorticoids, chronic stress, and obesity. Prog. Brain Res. 2006, 153:75-105.
103. De Kloet C.S., Vermetten E., Geuze E., Kavelaars A., Heijnen C.J., Westenberg H.G. Assessment of HPA-axis function in posttraumatic stress disorder: pharmacological and non-pharmacological challenge tests, a review. J. Psychiatr. Res. 2006, 40:550-567.
104. Etxabe J., Vazquez J.A. Morbidity and mortality in Cushing's disease: an epidemiological approach. Clin. Endocrinol. (Oxf) 1994, 40:479-484.
105. Lindholm J., Juul S., Jørgensen J.O., Astrup J., Bjerre P., Feldt-Rasmussen U., Hagen C., Jørgensen J., Kosteljanetz M., Kristensen L., Laurberg P., Schmidt K., Weeke J. Incidence and late prognosis of Cushing's syndrome: a population-based study. J. Clin. Endocrinol. Metab. 2001, 86:117-123.
106. Steffensen C., Bak A.M., Rubeck K.Z., Jørgensen J.O. Epidemiology of Cushing's syndrome. Neuroendocrinology 2010, 92(Suppl 1):1-5.
107. Lindholm J., Juul S., Jørgensen J.O., Astrup J., Bjerre P., Feldt-Rasmussen U., Hagen C., Jørgensen J., Kosteljanetz M., Kristensen L., Laurberg P., Schmidt K., Weeke J. Incidence and late prognosis of Cushing's syndrome: a population-based study. J. Clin. Endocrinol. Metab. 2001, 86:117-123.
108. Terzolo M., Pia A., Al̀ A., Osella G., Reimondo G., Bovio S., Daffara F., Procopio M., Paccotti P., Borretta G., Angeli A. Adrenal incidentaloma: a new cause of the metabolic syndrome?. J. Clin. Endocrinol. Metab. 2002, 87:998-1003.
109. Orth D.N. Cushing's syndrome. N. Engl. J. Med. 1995, 332:791-803.
110. Shipley J.E., Schteingart D.E., Tandon R., Starkman M.N. Sleep architecture and sleep apnea in patients with Cushing's disease. Sleep 1992, 15:514-518.
111. Friedman T.C., García-Borreguero D., Hardwick D., Akuete C.N., Doppman J.L., Dorn L.D., Barker C.N., Yanovski J.A., Chrousos G.P. Decreased delta-sleep and plasma delta-sleep-inducing peptide in patients with Cushing syndrome. Neuroendocrinology 1994, 60:626-634.
112. Gillin J.C., Jacobs L.S., Fram D.H., Snyder F. Acute effect of a glucocorticoid on normal human sleep. Nature 1972, 237:398-399.
113. Born J., Späth-Schwalbe E., Schwakenhofer H., Kern W., Fehm H.L. Influences of corticotropin-releasing hormone, adrenocorticotropin, and cortisol on sleep in normal man. J. Clin. Endocrinol. Metab. 1989, 68:904-911.
114. Rosenberg D., Groussin L., Jullian E., Perlemoine K., Bertagna X., Bertherat J. Role of the PKA-regulated transcription factor CREB in development and tumorigenesis of endocrine tissues. Ann. NY Acad. Sci. 2002, 968:65-74.
115. Stratakis C.A. New genes and/or molecular pathways associated with adrenal hyperplasias and related adrenocortical tumors. Mol. Cell. Endocrinol. 2009, 300:152-157.
116. O'Neill J.S., Maywood E.S., Chesham J.E., Takahashi J.S., Hastings M.H. cAMP-dependent signaling as a core component of the mammalian circadian pacemaker. Science 2008, 320:949-953.
117. Anglin R.E., Rosebush P.I., Mazurek M.F. The neuropsychiatric profile of Addison's disease: revisiting a forgotten phenomenon. J. Neuropsychiatry Clin. Neurosci. 2006, 18:450-459.
118. Restituto P., Galofré J.C., Gil M.J., Mugueta C., Santos S., Monreal J.I., Varo N. Advantage of salivary cortisol measurements in the diagnosis of glucocorticoid related disorders. Clin. Biochem. 2008, 41:688-692.
119. Besser G.M., Jeffcoate W.J. Endocrine and metabolic diseases. Adrenal diseases. Br. Med. J. 1976, 1:448-451.
120. Newell-Price J., Whiteman M., Rostami-Hodjegan A., Darzy K., Shalet S., Tucker G.T., Ross R.J. Modified-release hydrocortisone for circadian therapy: a proof-of-principle study in dexamethasone-suppressed normal volunteers. Clin. Endocrinol. (Oxf) 2008, 68:130-135.
121. Hamilos D.L., Nutter D., Gershtenson J., Redmond D.P., Clementi J.D., Schmaling K.B., Make B.J., Jones J.F. Core body temperature is normal in chronic fatigue syndrome. Biol. Psychiatry 1998, 43:293-302.
122. Cleare A.J. The HPA axis and the genesis of chronic fatigue syndrome. Trends Endocrinol. Metab. 2004, 15:55-59.
123. Garaulet M., Madrid J.A. Chronobiology, genetics and metabolic syndrome. Curr. Opin. Lipidol. 2009, 20:127-134.
124. Filipski E., Delaunay F., King V.M., Wu M.W., Claustrat B., Gréchez-Cassiau A., Guettier C., Hastings M.H., Francis L. Effects of chronic jet lag on tumor progression in mice. Cancer Res. 2004, 64:7879-7885.
125. Cho K., Ennaceur A., Cole J.C., Suh C.K. Chronic jet lag produces cognitive deficits. J. Neurosci. 2000, 20:1-5.
126. Cho K. Chronic "jet lag" produces temporal lobe atrophy and spatial cognitive deficits. Nat. Neurosci. 2001, 4:567-568.
127. Penev P.D., Kolker D.E., Zee P.C., Turek F.W. Chronic circadian desynchronization decreases the survival of animals with cardiomyopathic heart disease. Am. J. Physiol. 1998, 275:H2334-H2337.
128. Davidson A.J., Sellix M.T., Daniel J., Yamazaki S., Menaker M., Block G.D. Chronic jet-lag increases mortality in aged mice. Curr. Biol. 2006, 16:R914-R916.
129. Anagnostis P., Athyros V.G., Tziomalos K., Karagiannis A., Mikhailidis D.P. Clinical review: the pathogenetic role of cortisol in the metabolic syndrome: a hypothesis. J. Clin. Endocrinol. Metab. 2009, 94:2692-2701.
130. Hagen C., Kehlet H., Binder C. Diurnal variation in plasma cortisol and prolactin in patients with Cushing's syndrome. Acta Endocrinol. (Copenh) 1978, 88:737-743.
131. Boyar R.M., Witkin M., Carruth A., Ramsey J. Circadian cortisol secretory rhythms in Cushing's disease. J. Clin. Endocrinol. Metab. 1979, 48:760-765.
132. Raff H., Raff J.L., Findling J.W. Late-night salivary cortisol as a screening test for Cushing's syndrome. J. Clin. Endocrinol. Metab. 1998, 83:2681-2686.
133. Görges R., Knappe G., Gerl H., Ventz M., Stahl F. Diagnosis of Cushing's syndrome: re-evaluation of midnight plasma cortisol vs urinary free cortisol and low-dose dexamethasone suppression test in a large patient group. J. Endocrinol. Invest. 1999, 22:241-249.
134. Viardot A., Huber P., Puder J.J., Zulewski H., Keller U., Müller B. Reproducibility of nighttime salivary cortisol and its use in the diagnosis of hypercortisolism compared with urinary free cortisol and overnight dexamethasone suppression test. J. Clin. Endocrinol. Metab. 2005, 90:5730-5736.
135. MacHale S.M., Cavanagh J.T., Bennie J., Carroll S., Goodwin G.M., Lawrie S.M. Diurnal variation of adrenocortical activity in chronic fatigue syndrome. Neuropsychobiology 1998, 38:213-217.
136. Strickland P., Morriss R., Wearden A., Deakin B. A comparison of salivary cortisol in chronic fatigue syndrome, community depression and healthy controls. J. Affect. Disord. 1998, 47:191-194.