Neuroinflammation and brain infections: Historical context and current perspectives

Brain Research Reviews

Volumn 66, Issue 1-2, 2011, Pages 152-173

  Bentivoglio, Marina ^a,b   Mariotti, Raffaella ^a   Bertini, Giuseppe ^a  

^a UNIVERSITY OF VERONA   (Italy)

^b National Institute of Neuroscience   (Italy)

Author keywords

Astrocytes; Cerebral malaria; Human African trypanosomiasis; Lymphocytes; Microglia; Neurodegeneration; Non cell autonomous; Rabies

Indexed keywords

AFRICAN TRYPANOSOMIASIS; ASTROCYTE; BRAIN INFECTION; BRAIN MALARIA; CELL ACTIVATION; CELL STRUCTURE; CLINICAL FEATURE; DEGENERATIVE DISEASE; ENCEPHALITIS; HUMAN; IMMUNE RESPONSE; IMMUNOPHENOTYPING; MICROGLIA; NERVE CELL; NERVE CELL NECROSIS; NONHUMAN; PATHOGENESIS; PLASMODIUM FALCIPARUM; PREVALENCE; PRIORITY JOURNAL; PROTEIN EXPRESSION; RABIES; RABIES VIRUS; REVIEW; SYNAPTIC TRANSMISSION; VIRUS TRANSMISSION;

ANIMALS; BRAIN DISEASES; COMMUNICABLE DISEASES; HISTORY, 19TH CENTURY; HISTORY, 20TH CENTURY; HUMANS; INFLAMMATION; NEURONS;

EID: 78751706153     PISSN: 01650173     EISSN: 18726321     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1016/j.brainresrev.2010.09.008     Document Type: Review

References (153)

1. Abbott N.J., Rönnbäck L., Hansson E. Astrocyte-endothelial interactions at the blood-brain barrier. Nat. Rev. Neurosci. 2006, 7:41-53.
2. Adams J.H., Doua A., Dago-Akribi A., Boa Y., Haller L. Human African trypanosomiasis (T.b. gambiense): a study of 16 fatal cases of sleeping sickness with some observations in acute reactive arsenical encephalopathy. Neuropathol. Appl. Neurobiol. 1986, 12:81-94.
3. Amin D.N., Rottenberg M.E., Thomsen A.R., Mumba D., Fenger C., Kristensson K., Büscher P., Finsen B., Masocha W. Expression and role of CXCL10 during the encephalitic stage of experimental and clinical African trypanosomiasis. J. Infect. Dis. 2009, 200:1556-1565.
4. Arck P.C., Gilhar A., Bienenstock J., Paus R. The alchemy of immune privilege explored from a neuroimmunological perspective. Curr. Opin. Pharmacol. 2008, 8:480-489.
5. Babes V. Sur certain charactères des lesions histologiques de la rage. Ann. Inst. Pasteur 1892, 6:209-223.
6. Bentivoglio M. The discovery of axonal transport. Brain Res. Bull. 1999, 56:383-384.
7. Bentivoglio M. Intraneuronal inclusion bodies: from Negri bodies to proteasomal dysfunction. Rend. Fis. Acc. Lincei 2003, 14:263-279.
8. Bentivoglio M., Kristensson K. Thalamus in flame: targeting of infectious agents to thalamic nuclei. Thal. Rel. Syst. 2004, 2:297-314.
9. Bentivoglio M., Grassi-Zucconi G., Kristensson K. From trypanosomes to the nervous system, from molecule to behavior: a survey, on the occasion of the 90th anniversary of Castellani's discovery of the parasites in sleeping sickness. Ital. J. Neurol. Sci. 1994, 15:77-89.
10. Berrang-Ford L., Breau L.J. Conflict and human trypanosomiasis. Soc. Sci. Med. 2010, (Epub ahead of print June 23).
11. Bertarelli E. Sopra le vie per le quali il virus rabido arriva alle ghiandole salivari del cane. Arch. Sci. Med. 1904, 28:179-191.
12. Bertarelli E. Ueber die Wege, auf denen das Wutvirus zu den Speicheldrüsen des Hundes gelangt. Centralbl. Bakt. Parasit. Infektionskrankh. 1904, 37:213-221.
13. Bertarelli E. Sulla trasmissione della sifilide al coniglio. Riv. Ig. San. Pubbl. 1906, 17:1-7.
14. Bertarelli E. Ueber die Transmission der Syphilis auf das Kaninchen. Centralbl. Bakt. Parasit. Infektionkrankh. 1906, 41:320-326.
15. Bertarelli E. Camillo Golgi ed il suo tempo nel venticinquesimo anniversario della sua morte 1950, Istituto Sieroterapico Milanese S. Belfanti, Milan.
16. Bertarelli E., Volpino G. Morphologische und biologische Beobachtungen über einen Fall von Wutkrankheit beim Menschen, mit besonderer Rücksicht auf die Gegenwart und Verteilung der Negrischen örpechen in Zentralnervensystem. Centralbl. Bakt. Parasit. Infektionkrankh. 1903, 35:221-223.
17. Block M.L., Zecca L., Hong J.-S. Microglia-mediated neurotoxicity: uncovering the molecular mechanisms. Nat. Rev. Neurosci. 2007, 8:57-69.
18. Boillée S., Vande Valde C., Cleveland D.W. ALS: a disease of motor neurons and their nonneuronal neighbors. Neuron 2006, 52:39-59.
19. Boyd J. Sleeping sickness. The Castellani-Bruce controversy. Notes Rec. R. Soc. Lond. 1973, 28:93-100.
20. Brown W.J., Voge M. Neuropathology of Parasitic Infections 1982, Oxford University Press, Oxford.
21. Brujin L.I., Becher M.W., Lee M.K., Anderson K.L., Jenkins N.A., Copeland N.G., Sisodia S.S., Rothstein J.D., Borchelt J.D., Price D.L., Cleveland D.W. ALS-linked SOD1 mutant G85R mediates damage to astrocytes and promotes rapidly progressive SOD1-containing inclusions. Neuron 1997, 18:327-338.
22. Brun R., Blum J., Chappuis F., Burri C. Human African trypanosomiasis. Lancet 2010, 375:148-159.
23. Bruzzone R., Dubois-Dalcq M., Grau G.E., Griffin D.E., Kristensson K. Infectious diseases of the nervous system and their impact in developing countries. PLoS Pathog. 2009, 5(2):e100199. 10.1371/journal.ppat.1000199.
24. Buchanan R.L., Benzer S. Defective glia in the Drosophila brain degeneration mutant drop-dead. Neuron 1993, 10:839-850.
25. Cajal S.R. Recollections of My Life. Translated by E.H. Craigie and J. Cano 1996, MIT Press, Cambridge, MA.
26. Cajal S.R., García D.Dalmacio Las lesiones del retículo de las células nerviosas en la rabia. Trab. Lab. Invest. 1904, 3:213-266.
27. Capello K., Mulatti P., Comin A., Gagliazzo L., Guberti V., Citterio C., De Benedictis P., Lorenzetto M., Costanzi C., Vio P., Zambotto P., Ferri G., Mutinelli F., Bonfanti L., Marangon S. Impact of emergency oral rabies vaccination of foxes in northeastern Italy, 28 December 2009-20 January 2010: preliminary evaluation. Euro Surveill. 2010, 15(28):pii=19617.
28. Carson M.J., Thrash J.C., Walter B. The cellular response in neuroinflammation: the role of leukocytes, microglia and astrocytes in neuronal death and survival. Clin. Neurosci. Res. 2006, 6:237-245.
29. Castellani A. On the discovery of a species of Trypanosoma in the cerebrospinal fluid of cases of sleeping sickness. Proc. R. Soc. Lond. 1903, 71:501-508.
30. Castellani A., Jacono I. Manuale di Clinica Tropicale 1937, Rosenber & Sellier, Turin.
31. Chianella S., Semprevivo M., Peng Z.-C., Zaccheo D., Bentivoglio M., Grassi-Zucconi G. Microglia activation in a model of sleep disorder: an immunohistochemical study in the rat brain during Trypanosoma brucei infection. Brain Res. 1999, 832:54-62.
32. Chinelli F., Scaravilli F. Trypanosomiasis. Brain Pathol. 1997, 7:599-611.
33. Clement A.M., Nguyen M.D., Roberts E.A., Garcia M.L., Boillée S., Rule M., McMahon A.P., Doucette W., Siwek D., Ferrante R.J., Brown R.H., Julien J.P., Goldstein L.S., Cleveland D.W. Wild-type nonneuronal cells extend survival of SOD1 mutant motor neurons in ALS mice. Science 2003, 302:113-117.
34. Combes V., El-Assaad, Faille D., Jambou R., Hunt N.H., Grau G.E.R. Microvesiculation and cell interactions at the brain-endothelial interface in cerebral malaria pathogenesis. Progr. Neurobiol. 2010, 91:140-151.
35. Cox F.E.G. History of human parasitology. Clin. Microbiol. Rev. 2002, 15:595-612.
36. Cox F.E.G. History of the discovery of the malaria parasites and their vectors. Parasites Vectors 2010, 3. 10.1186/1756-3305-3-5.
37. Dietzschold B., Schnell M., Koprowski H. Pathogenesis of rabies. Curr. Top. Microbiol. Immunol. 2005, 291:45-56.
38. Ehrlich P. Das Sauerstufbudurnis des Organismus. Eine Farbenanalytische Studie. Hirschwald, Belin, Germany 1885.
39. Engelhardt B. T cell migration into the central nervous system during health and disease: different molecular keys allow access to different central nervous system compartments. Clin. Exp. Neuroimmunol. 2010, 1:79-93.
40. Fales F.M. Mesopotamia. History of Neurology 2010, Vol. 95 (3rd series):15-27. Elsvier, Amsterdam.
41. Farina C., Aloisi F., Meinl E. Astrocytes are active players in cerebral innate immunity. Trends Immunol. 2007, 28:138-145.
42. Fèvre E.M., Wissmann B.V., Welburn S.C., Lutumba P. The burden of human African trypanosomiasis. PLoS Negl. Trop. Dis. 2008, 2:e333. 10.1371/journal.pntd.0000333.
43. Galea I., Beckmann I., Perry V.H. What is immune privilege (not)?. Trends Immunol. 2007, 28:12-18.
44. Galtier P.V. Etudes sur la rage. Ann. Med. Vet. 1879, 28:627-639.
45. Garcia-Lopez P., Garcia-Marin V., Freire M. The histological slides and drawings of Cajal. Front. Neuroanat. 2010, 4:9.
46. Garden G.A., La Spada A.R. Molecular pathogenesis and cellular pathology of spinocerebellar ataxia type 7 neurodegeneration. Cerebellum 2008, 7:138-149.
47. Gitau E.N., Newton C.R.J.C. Blood-brain barrier in falciparum malaria. Trop. Med. Int. Health 2005, 10:285-292.
48. Glass C.K., Saijo K., Winner B., Marchetto M.C., Gage F.H. Mechanisms underlying inflammation in neurodegeneration. Cell 2010, 140:918-934.
49. Glezer I., Simard A.R., Rivest S. Neuroprotective role of the innate immune system by microglia. Neuroscience 2007, 147:867-883.
50. Golgi C. Il Sistema Nervoso Centrale. Parte I. Del Sistema Nervoso in Generale. Generalità sul Sistema Nervoso ed Istologia del Tessuto Nervoso. Vallardi, Milan 1883.
51. Grafstein B. Subverting the hegemony of the synapse: complicity of neurons, astrocytes and vasculature in spreading depression and pathology of the cerebral cortex. Brain Res. Rev 2011, 66:123-132.
52. Gurney M.E. Transgenic mouse model of amyotrophic lateral sclerosis. N. Engl. J. Med. 1994, 331:1721-1723.
53. Hainard A., Tiberti N., Robin X., Lejon V., Mumba Ngoyi D., Matovu E., Enyaru J.C., Fouda C., Ndungu'u J.M., Lisacek F., Müller M., Turck N., Sanchez J.-C. A combined CXCL10, CXCL8 and H-FABP panel for the staging of human African trypanosomiasis patients. PLoS Negl. Trop. Dis. 2009, 3(6):e459. 10.1371/journal.pntd.0000459.
54. Haldar K., Murphy S.C., Milner D.A., Taylor T.E. Malaria: mechanisms of erythrocytic infection and pathological correlates of severe disease. Annu. Rev. Pathol. Mech. Dis. 2007, 2:217-249.
55. Hanisch U.-K., Kettenmann H. Microglia: active sensor and versatile effector cells in the normal and pathologic brain. Nat. Neurosci. 2007, 10:1387-1394.
56. Hemachudha T., Phanuphak P., Sriwantanthana B., Manutsahit S., Phanthumchinda K., Siriprasomsup W., Ukachoke C., Rasameechan S., Kaoroptham S. Immunologic study of human encephalitic and paralytic rabies. A preliminary study of 16 patients. Am. J. Med. 1988, 84:673-677.
57. Hemachudha T., Laothamatas J., Rupprecht C.E. Human rabies: a disease of complex neuropathogenetic mechanisms and diagnostic challenge. Lancet Neurol. 2002, 1:101-109.
58. Hirsch E.C., Hunot S. Neuroinflammation in Parkinson's disease: a target for neuroprotection?. Lancet Neurol. 2009, 8:382-397.
59. Hu R., Tang Q., Tang J., Fooks A.R. Rabies in China: an update. Vector Borne Zoonotic Dis. 2009, 9:1-11.
60. Hunt N.H., Grau G.E. Cytokines: accelerators and brakes in the pathogenesis of cerebral malaria. Trends Immunol. 2003, 24:491-499.
61. Hunt N.H., Golenser J., Chan-Ling T., Parekh S., Rae C., Potter S., Medana I.M., Miu J., Ball H.J. Immunopathogenesis of cerebral malaria. Int. J. Parasitol. 2006, 36:569-582.
62. Hunter C.A., Jennings F.W., Kennedy P.G.E., Murray M. Astrocyte activation correlates with cytokine production in central nervous system of Trypanosoma brucei brucei-infected mice. Lab. Investig. 1992, 67:635-642.
63. Hunter C.A., Jennings F.W., Kennedy P.G.E., Murray M. The use of azathioprine to ameliorate post-treatment encephalopathy associated with African trypanosomiasis. Neuropathol. Appl. Neurobiol. 1992, 18:619-625.
64. Ilieva H., Polymenidou M., Cleveland D.W. Non-cell autonomous toxicity in neurodegenerative disorders: ALS and beyond. J. Cell Biol. 2009, 187:761-772.
65. Jackson A.C. Rabies. Neurol. Clin. 2008, 26:717-726.
66. John C.C., Bangirana P., Byarugaba J., Opoka R.O., Idro R., Jurek A.M., Wu B., Boivin M.J. Cerebral malaria in children is associated with long-term cognitive impairment. Pediatrics 2008, 122:e92-e99. 10.1542/peds.2007-3709.
67. Kashyap A., Anand K., Kashyap S. Correspondence-rabies and other lyssavirus disease. Lancet 2004, 363:1906.
68. Keita M., Bouteille B., Enanga B., Vallat J.M., Dumas M. Trypanosoma brucei brucei: a long-term model of human African trypanosomiasis in mice, meningo-encephalitis, astrocytosis, and neurological disorders. Exp. Parasitol. 1997, 85:183-1992.
69. Kennedy P.G.E. The Fatal Sleep 2007, Luath Press Ltd, Edinburgh.
70. Kennedy P.G.E. The continuing problem of human African trypanosomiasis (sleeping sickness). Ann. Neurol. 2008, 64:116-127.
71. Kennedy P.G.E. Cytokines in central nervous system trypanosomiasis: cause, effect or both?. Trans. R. Soc. Trop. Med. Hyg. 2009, 103:213-214.
72. Kettenmann H., Verkhratsky A. Neuroglia: the 150years after. Trends Neurosci. 2008, 31:653-659.
73. Knobel D.L., Cleaveland S., Coleman P.G., Fèvre E.M., Meltzer M.I., Miranda M.E.G., Shaw A., Zinsstag J., Meslin F.-X. Re-evaluating the burden of rabies in Africa and Asia. Bull. World Health Organ. 2005, 83:360-368.
74. Kristensson K., Dastur D.K., Manghani D.K., Tsiang H., Bentivoglio M. Rabies: interactions between neurons and viruses. A review history Negri inclusion bodies. Neuropathol. Appl. Neurobiol. 1996, 22:179-187.
75. Kristensson K., Nygård M., Bertini G., Bentivoglio M. African trypanosome infections of the nervous system: parasite entry and effects on neuronal functions. Prog. Neurobiol. 2010, 91:152-171.
76. Kuang Y., Lackay S.N., Zhao L., Fu Z.F. Role of chemokines in the enhancement of BBB permeability and inflammatory infiltration after rabies virus infection. Virus Res. 2009, 144:18-26.
77. Lafon M. Rabies virus receptors. J. Neurovirol. 2005, 11:82-87.
78. Lafon M. Immune evasion, a critical strategy for rabies virus. Dev. Biol. 2008, 131:403-409.
79. Lahaye X., Vidy A., Pomier C., Obiang L., Harper F., Gaudin Y., Blondel D. Functional characterization of Negri bodies (NBs) in rabies virus-infected cells: evidence that NBs are sites of viral transcription and replication. J. Virol. 2009, 83:7948-7958.
80. Laothamatas J., Wacharapluesadee S., Lumlertdacha B., Ampawong S., Tepsumethanon V., Shuangshoti S., Phumesin P., Asavaphatiboon S., Worapruekjaru L., Avihingsanon Y., Israsena N., Lafon M., Wilde H., Hemachudha T. Furious and paralytic rabies of canine origin: neuroimaging with virological and cytokine studies. J. Neurovirol. 2008, 14:119-129.
81. Laveran A. Un nouveau parasite trouvé dans le sang de malades atteints de fièvre palustre. Origine parasitaire des accidents de l'impaludisme. Bull. Mém. Soc. Méd. Hopitaux Paris 1881, 17:158-164.
82. Laveran A. Paludism 1893, New Sydenhan Society, London.
83. Levine J.B., Kong J., Nadler M., Xu Z.S. Astrocytes interact intimately with degenerating motor neurons in mouse amyotrophic lateral sclerosis (ALS). Glia 1999, 28:215-224.
84. Li M., Ona V.O., Guégan C., Chen M., Jackson-Lewis V., Andrews L.J., Olszewki A.J., Stieg P.E., Lee J.P., Przedborski S., Friedlander R.M. Functional role of caspase-1 and caspase-3 in an ALS transgenic mouse model. Science 2000, 288:335-339.
85. Lino M.M., Schneider C., Caroni P. Accumulation of SOD1 mutants in postnatal motoneurons does not cause motoneuron pathology or motoneuron disease. J. Neurosci. 2002, 22:4825-4832.
86. Lundkvist G.B., Kristensson K., Bentivoglio M. Why trypanosomes cause sleeping sickness. Physiology 2004, 19:198-206.
87. Mantovani A., Sica A., Sozzani S., Allavena P., Vecchi A., Locati M. The chemokine system in diverse forms of macrophage activation and polarization. Trends Immunol. 2004, 25:677-686.
88. Marchiafava E., Bignami A. Sulle febbri malariche estivo-autunnali. Bollettino della Regia Accademia Medica di Roma 18, 1-169. English translation: on summer-autumnal malaria fevers. Malaria and the Parasites of Malaria Fevers 1892, Vol 150:1-234. The New Sydenham Society, London.
89. Marchiafava E., Celli A. Sull'infezione malarica. Bollettino Regia Accademia Medica di Roma 18 1887.
90. Margreth A. Adelchi Negri and schools of General Pathology in Italy between the end of the nineteenth and beginning of the twentieth century. Rend. Fis. Acc. Lincei 2003, 14:251-262.
91. Malerczyk C., Nel L.H., Gniel D., Blumberg L. Rabies in South Africa and the FIFA Soccer World Cup: travelers' awareness for an endemic but neglected disease. Hum. Vaccin. 2010, 6. (Epub ahead of print May 5).
92. Masocha W. CD200 receptors are differentially expressed and modulated by minocycline in the brain during Trypanosoma brucei infection. J. Neuroimmunol. 2010, 226:59-65.
93. Masocha W., Robertson B., Rottenberg M.E., Mhlanga J., Sorokin L., Kristensson K. Cerebral vessel laminins and IFN-γ define Trypanosoma brucei brucei penetration of the blood-brain barrier. J. Clin. Investig. 2004, 5:689-694.
94. Masocha W., Rottenberg M.E., Kristensson K. Migration of African trypanosomes across the blood-brain barrier. Physiol. Behav. 2007, 92:110-114.
95. Masocha W., Amin D.N., Kristensson K., Rottenberg M.E. Differential invasion of Trypanosoma brucei brucei and lymphocytes into the brain of C57BL/6 and 129Sv/EV mice. Scand. J. Immunol. 2008, 68:484-491.
96. Mazzarello P. Golgi 2010, Oxford University Press, Oxford.
97. Matteoli M., Verderio C. ATP in neuron-glia bidirectional signalling. Brain Res. Rev 2011, 66:106-114.
98. Medana I.M., Turner G.D.H. Human cerebral malaria and the blood-brain barrier. Int. J. Parasitol. 2006, 36:555-568.
99. Medana I.M., Chan-Ling T., Hunt N.H. Reactive changes of retinal microglia during fatal murine cerebral malaria: effects of dexamethasone and experimental permeabilization of the blood-brain barrier. Am. J. Pathol. 2000, 156:1055-1065.
100. Medana I.M., Chauduri G., Chan-Ling T., Hunt N.H. Central nervous system in cerebral malaria: 'innocent bystander' or active participant in the induction of immunopathology?. Immunol. Cell Biol. 2001, 79:101-120.
101. Medana I.M., Idro R., Newton C.R.J.C. Axonal and astrocyte injury markers in the cerebrospinal fluid of Kenyan children with severe malaria. J. Neurol. Sci. 2007, 258:93-98.
102. Medawar P.B. Immunity to homologous grafted skin. III. The fate of skin homografts transplanted to the brain, to subcutaneous tissue, and to the anterior chamber of eye. Br. J. Exp. Pathol. 1948, 29:58-69.
103. Medzhitov R. Origin and physiological roles of inflammation. Nature 2008, 454:428-435.
104. Ménager P., Roux P., Mégret F., Bourgeois J.-P., Le Sourd A.-M., Danckaert A., Lafage M., Préhaud C., Lafon M. Toll-like receptor 3 (TLR3) plays a major role in the formation of rabies virus Negri bodies. PLoS Pathog. 2009, 5(2):e10000315. 10.1371/journal.ppat.1000315.
105. Mhlanga J.D.M., Bentivoglio M., Kristensson K. Neurobiology of cerebral malaria and African sleeping sickness. Brain Res. Bull. 1997, 44:579-589.
106. Mitrabhakdi E., Shuangshoti S., Wannakroit P., Lewis R.A., Susuki K., Laothamatas J., Hemachudha T. Difference in neuropathogenetic mechanisms in human furious and paralytic rabies. J. Neurol. Sci. 2005, 238:3-10.
107. Miyamoto K., Matsumoto S. Comparative studies between pathogens of street and fixed rabies infection. J. Exp. Med. 1967, 125:447-456.
108. Mott F.W. Histological observations on the changes in the nervous system in trypanosome infections especially sleeping sickness and their relation to syphilitic lesions of the nervous system. Arch. Neurol. 1907, 3:581-646.
109. Mulenga C., Mhlanga J.D.M., Kristensson K., Robertson B. Trypanosoma brucei brucei crosses the blood-brain barrier while tight junction proteins are preserved in a rat chronic disease model. Neuropathol. Appl. Neurobiol. 2001, 27:77-85.
110. Muscatello U. Golgi's contribution to medicine. Brain Res. Rev. 2007, 55:3-7.
111. Nakamichi K., Saiki M., Sawada M., Takayama-Ito M., Yamamuro Y., Morimoto K., Kurane I. Rabies virus-induced activation of miogeno-activated protein kinase and NF-kB signaling pathways regulates expression of CXC and CC chemokine ligands in microglia. J. Virol. 2005, 179:11801-11812.
112. Negri A. Contributo allo studio dell'eziologia della rabbia. Boll. Soc. Med. Chir. Pavia 1903, 2:88-115.
113. Negri Luzzani L. Le diagnostic de la rage par la démonstration du parasite spécifique. Résultats de dix ans d'expériences. Ann. Inst. Pasteur 1913, 27:1039-1064.
114. Neumann H., Kotter M.R., Franklin R.J.M. Debris clearance by microglia: an essential link between degeneration and regeneration. Brain 2009, 132:288-295.
115. Newton C.R.J.C. Cerebral malaria. J. Neurol. Neurosurg. Psychiatry 2000, 69:433-441.
116. Nigg A.J., Walker P.L. Overview, prevention, and treatment of rabies. Pharmacotherapy 2009, 29:1182-1195.
117. Okun E., Griffioen K.J., Lathia J.D., Tang S.-C., Mattson M.P., Arumugam T.V. Toll-like receptors in neurodegeneration. Brain Res. Rev. 2009, 59:278-292.
118. Pasteur L. Méthode pour prevenir la rage après morsure. CR Acad. Sci. 1885, 101:765-773.
119. Pierce S.K., Miller L.H. World malaria day 2009: what malaria knows about the immune system that immunologists still do not. J. Immunol. 2009, 182:5171-5177.
120. Prosniak M., Hooper D.C., Dietzschold B., Koprowski H. Effect of rabies virus infection on gene expression in mouse brain. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA 2001, 98:2758-2763.
121. Quan N., Mhlanga J.D.M., Whiteside B., McCoy A.N., Kristensson K., Herkenham M. Chronic overexpression of proinflammatory cytokines and histopathology in the brains of rats infected with Trypanosoma brucei. J. Comp. Neurol. 1999, 414:114-130.
122. Quan N., He L., Lai W. Intraventricular infusion of antagonists of IL-1 and TNFα attenuates neurodegeneration induced by the infection of Trypanosoma brucei. J. Neuroimmunol. 2003, 138:92-98.
123. Rasti N., Wahlgren M., Chen Q. Molecular aspects of malaria pathogenesis. FEMS Immunol. Med. Microbiol. 2004, 41:9-26.
124. Ray N.B., Power C., Lynch W.P., Ewalt L.C., Lodmell D.L. Rabies viruses infect primary cultures of murine, feline, and human microglia and astrocytes. Arch. Virol. 1997, 142:1011-1019.
125. Rivest S. Regulation of innate immune responses in the brain. Nat. Rev. Immunol. 2009, 9:429-439.
126. Rock R.B., Gekker G., Xu S., Sheng W.S., Cheeran M., Lokensgard J.R., Peterson P.K. Role of microglia in central nervous system infections. Clin. Microbiol. Rev. 2004, 17:942-964.
127. Rupprecht C.E., Hanlon C.A., Hemachudha T. Rabies re-examined. Lancet Infect. Dis. 2002, 2:327-343.
128. Santamaria L. Camillo Golgi as clinical pathologist: epicritical reading of Golgi's works on malaria. Med. Secoli Arte Sci. 1994, 6:581-608.
129. Schnell M.J., McGettigan J.P., Wirblich C., Papaneri A. The cell biology of rabies virus: using stealth to reach the brain. Nat. Rev. Microbiol. 2010, 8:51-41.
130. Scott C.A., Rossiter J.P., Andrew R.D., Jackson A.C. Structural abnormalities in neurons are sufficient to explain the clinical disease and fatal outcome of experimental rabies in yellow fluorescent protein-expressing transgenic mice. J. Virol. 2008, 82:513-521.
131. Sherwood J. Syphilization: human experimentation in the search for a syphilis vaccine in the nineteenth century. J. Hist. Med. 1999, 54:364-386.
132. Simarro P.P., Jannin J., Cattand P. Eliminating human African trypanosomiasis: where do we stand and what comes next?. PLoS Med. 2008, 5(2):e55. 10.1371/journal.pmed.0050055.
133. Sofroniew M.V., Vinters H.V. Astrocytes: biology and pathology. Acta Neuropathol. 2010, 119:7-35.
134. Song M., Tang Q., Wang D.-M., Mo Z.-J., Guo S.-H., Li H., Tao X.-Y., Rupprecht C.E., Feng Z.-J., Liang G.-D. Epidemiological investigations of human rabies in China. BMC Infect. Dis. 2009, 9:210. 10.1186/1471-2334-9-210.
135. Spielmeyer W. Die Trypanosomenkrankheiten und ihre Beziehungen zu den syphilogenen Nervenkrankheiten 1908, Fischer, Jena.
136. Sterverding D. The history of African trypanosomiasis. Parasites Vectors 2008, 1:3. 10.1186/1756-3305-1-3.
137. Streit W.J., Mrak R.E., Griffin W.S.T. Microglia and neuroinflammation: a pathological perspective. J. Neuroinflamm. 2004, 1:14. 10.1186/1742-2094-1-14.
138. Suja M.S., Mahadevan A., Madhusudhana S.N., Vijayasarathi S.K., Shanakar S.K. Neuroanatomical mapping of rabies nucleocapsid viral antigen distribution and apoptosis in pathogenesis in street dog rabies-an immunohistochemical study. Clin. Neuropathol. 2009, 28:113-124.
139. Szklarczyk A., Stins M., Milward E.A., Ryu H., Fitzsimmons C., Sullivan D., Connat K. Glial activation and matrix metalloproteinase release in cerebral malaria. J. Neurovirol. 2007, 13:2-10.
140. Tepper R.I., Pattengale P.K., Leder P. Murine interleukin-4 displays potent anti-tumor activity in vivo. Cell 1989, 57:503-512.
141. Tobiume M., Sato Y., Katano H., Nakajima N., Tanaka K., Noguchi A., Inoue S., Hasegawa H., Iwasa Y., Tanaka J., Hayashi H., Yoshida S., Kurane I., Sata T. Rabies virus dissemination in neural tissues of autopsy cases due to rabies imported into Japan from the Philippines: immunohistochemistry. Pathol. Int. 2009, 59:555-566.
142. Tognotti E. Camillo Golgi e il contributo di scienziati italiani allo sviluppo della malariologia nell'ultimo quarto del diciannovesimo secolo. Med. Secoli 2007, 19:101-117.
143. Turner G. Cerebral malaria. Brain Pathol. 1997, 7:569-582.
144. Ugolini G. Specificity of rabies virus as a transneuronal tracer of motor networks: transfer from hypoglossal motoneurons to connected second-order and higher order central nervous system cell groups. J. Comp. Neurol. 1995, 356:457-480.
145. Ugolini, G., in press. Advances in viral transneuronal tracing. J. Neurosci. Meth. 194,2--20.
146. Verkhratsky A., Parpura V., Rodriguez J.J. Where the thoughts dwell: the physiology of neuronal-glial "diffuse neural net". Brain Res. Rev 2011, 66:133-151.
147. Vinson C.R., Adler P.N. Directional non-cell autonomy and the transmission of polarity information by the frizzled gene of Drosophila. Nature 1987, 329:549-551.
148. Walter L., Neumann H. Role of microglia in neuronal degeneration and regeneration. Semin. Immunopathol. 2009, 31:513-525.
149. White N.J., Turner G.D.H., Medana I.M., Dondorp A.M., Day N.P.J. The murine cerebral malaria phenomenon. Trends Parasitol. 2009, 26:11-15.
150. Wilson E.H., Weninger W., Hunter C.A. Trafficking of immune cells in the central nervous system. J. Clin. Investig. 2010, 120:1368-1379.
151. Wunner W.H., Briggs D.J. Rabies in the 21st century. PLoS Negl. Trop. Dis. 2010, 4(3):e591. 10.1371/journal.pntd.0000591.
152. Zhao W., Xie W., Le W., Beers D.R., He Y., Henkel J.S., Simpson E.P., Yen A.A., Xiao Q., Appel S.H. Activated microglia initiate motor neuron injury by nitric oxide and glutamate-mediated mechanism. J. Neurophathol. Exp. Neurol. 2004, 63:964-977.
153. Zhao L., Toriumi H., Kuang Y., Chen H., Fu Z.F. The role of chemokines in rabies virus infection: overexpression may not always be beneficial. J. Virol. 2009, 83:11808-11818.