Antipsychotic Drugs

Psychiatry: Third Edition

Volumn 2, Issue , 2008, Pages 2161-2201

  Miyamoto, Seiya ^a   Merrill, David B ^b,c   Lieberman, Jeffrey A ^b,c,f   Fleischacker, W Wolfgang ^d   Marder, Stephen R ^e   Roose, Steven P ^b  

^a ST MARIANNA UNIVERSITY SCHOOL OF MEDICINE   (Japan)

^b New York Presbyterian Columbia University Medical Center   (United States)

^c NEW YORK STATE PSYCHIATRIC INSTITUTE   (United States)

^d UNIVERSITY HOSPITAL INNSBRUCK   (Austria)

^e UNIVERSITY OF CALIFORNIA   (United States)

^f Department of Medicine   (United States)

Author keywords

Amisulpride; Antipsychotics; Aripiprazole; Bifeprunox; Clozapine; First generation antipsychotic medications; Iloperidone; Olanzapine; Paliperidone; Perospirone; Quetiapine; Risperidone; Second generation antipsychotic medications; Sertindole; Ziprasidone; Zotepine

Indexed keywords

EID: 78650925713     PISSN: None     EISSN: None     Source Type: Book    
DOI: 10.1002/9780470515167.ch102     Document Type: Chapter

References (347)

1. Abi-Dargham A and Moore H (2003) Prefrontal DA transmission at D1 receptors and the pathology of schizophrenia. Neuroscientist 9, 404-416.
2. Agid O, Kapur S, Arenovich T, et al. (2003) Delayed-onset hypothesis of antipsychotic action: A hypothesis tested and rejected. Archives of General Psychiatry 60, 1228-1235.
3. Allen MH (2000) Managing the agitated psychotic patient: A reappraisal of the evidence. Journal of Clinical Psychiatry 61 (Suppl 14), 11-20.
4. Allen MH, Currier GW, Hughes DH, et al. (2001) The Expert Consensus Guideline Series: Treatment of behavioral emergencies. Postgraduate Medicine Spec no, 1-88.
5. Allison DB, Mentore JL, Heo M, et al. (1999) Antipsychotic-induced weight gain: A comprehensive research synthesis. The American Journal of Psychiatry 156, 1686-1696.
6. American Diabetes Association, American Psychiatric Association, American Association of Clinical Endocrinologists, et al. (2004) Consensus development conference on antipsychotic drugs and obesity and diabetes. Diabetes Care 27, 596-601.
7. nd edition. American Psychiatric Publishing, Inc, Washington DC, USA, 1-184.
8. th edition. Lippincott, Williams & Wilkins, Baltimore, USA.
9. Arnt J and Skarsfeldt T (1998) Do novel antipsychotics have similar pharmacological characteristics? A review of the evidence. Neuropsychopharmacology 18, 63-101.
10. Arranz MJ, Munro J, Birkett J, et al. (2000) Pharmacogenetic prediction of clozapine response. Lancet 355, 1615-1616.
11. Artaloytia JF, Arango C, Lahti A, et al. (2006) Negative signs and symptoms secondary to antipsychotics: A double-blind, randomized trial of a single dose of placebo, haloperidol, and risperidone in healthy volunteers. The American Journal of Psychiatry 163, 488-493.
12. Arvanitis LA, Miller BG, and The Seroquel Trial 13 Study Group (1997) Multiple fixed doses of "Seroquel" (quetiapine) in patients with acute exacerbation of schizophrenia: A comparison with haloperidol and placebo. Biological Psychiatry 42, 233-246.
13. Awad AG and Voruganti LN (1999) Quality of life and new antipsychotics in schizophrenia. Are patients better off? International Journal of Social Psychiatry 45, 268-275.
14. Awad AG and Voruganti LN (2004) Impact of atypical antipsychotics on quality of life in patients with schizophrenia. CNS Drugs 18, 877-893.
15. Bia O, Chlan-Fourney J, Bowen R, et al. (2003) Expression of brain-derived neurotrophic factor mRNA in rat hippocampus after treatment with antipsychotic drugs. Journal of Neuroscience Research 71, 127-131.
16. Bai O, Wei Z, Lu W, et al. (2002) Protective effects of antipsychotic drugs on PC12 cells after serum withdrawal. Journal of Neuroscience Research 69, 278-283.
17. Baker RW, Kinon BJ, Maguire GA, et al. (2003) Effectiveness of rapid initial dose escalation of up to forty milligrams per day of oral olanzapine in acute agitation. Journal of Clinical Psychopharmacology 23, 342-348.
18. Baldessarini RJ and Viguera AC (1995) Neuroleptic withdrawal in schizophrenic patients. Archives of General Psychiatry 52, 189-192.
19. Barnas C, Quiner S, Tauscher J, et al. (2001) In vivo (123)I IBZM SPECT imaging of striatal dopamine 2 receptor occupancy in schizophrenic patients. Psychopharmacology 157, 236-242.
20. Barnas C, Stuppack CH, Miller C, et al. (1992) Zotepine in the treatment of schizophrenic patients with prevailingly negative symptoms: A doubleblind trial vs. haloperidol. International Clinical Psychopharmacology 7, 23-27.
21. Barnes TR and McPhillips MA (1998) Novel antipsychotics, extrapyramidal side effects and tardive dyskinesia. International Clinical Psychopharmacology 13 (Suppl 3), S49-S57.
22. Barnes TRE and McPhillips MA (1999) Critical analysis and comparison of the side-effect and safety profiles of the new antipsychotics. British Journal of Psychiatry 174 (Suppl 38), 34-43.
23. Basile VS, Masellis M, Ozdemir V, et al. (2001) Application of pharmacogenetics to schizophrenia: Emerging insights from studies of clozapine response and tardive dyskinesia. In Current Issues in the Psychopharmacology of Schizophrenia, Breier A, Tran PV, Herrera JM, et al. (eds). Lippincott Williams & Wilkins Healthcare, Philadelphia, USA, pp 85-110.
24. Bauer R, Mayr A, Lederer W, et al. (2000) Further evidence that behavioral tests and neuropeptide mRNA and tissue level alterations can differentiate between typical and atypical antipsychotic drugs. Neuropsychopharmacology 23, 46-55.
25. Bench CJ, Lammertsma AA, Grasby PM, et al. (1996) The time course of binding to striatal dopamine D2 receptors by the neuroleptic ziprasidone (CP-88, 059-01) determined by positron emission tomography. Psychopharmacology 124, 141-147.
26. Bhana N, Foster RH, Olney R, et al. (2001) Olanzapine: An updated review of its use in the management of schizophrenia. Drugs 61, 111-161.
27. Bigliani V, Mulligan RS, Acton PD, et al. (2000) Striatal and temporal cortical D2/D3 receptor occupancy by olanzapine and sertindole in vivo: A [1231]epidepride single photon emission tomography (SPET) study. Psycho pharmacology 150, 132-140.
28. Blin O (1999) A comparative review of new antipsychotics. Canadian Journal of Psychiatry 44, 235-244.
29. Bondolfi G, Dufour H, Patris M, et al. (1998) Risperidone versus clozapine in treatment-resistant chronic schizophrenia: A randomized doubleblind study. The Risperidone Study Group. The American Journal of Psychiatry 155, 499-504.
30. Boyer P, Lecrubier Y, Puech AJ, et al. (1995) Treatment of negative symptoms in schizophrenia with amisulpride. British Journal of Psychiatry 166, 68-72.
31. Braude WM, Barnes TR, and Gore SM (1983) Clinical characteristics of akathisia: A systematic investigation of acute psychiatric inpatient admissions. British Journal of Psychiatry 143, 139-150.
32. Buchanan RW, Davis M, Goff D, et al. (2005) A summary of the FDA-NIMH-MATRICS workshop on clinical trial design for neurocognitive drugs for schizophrenia. Schizophrenia Bulletin 31, 5-19.
33. Buchanan RW and Gold JM (1996) Negative symptoms: Diagnosis, treatment and prognosis. International Clinical Psychopharmacology 11 (Suppl 2), 3-11.
34. Buckley PF (2001) Broad therapeutic uses of atypical antipsychotic medications. Biological Psychiatry 50, 912-924.
35. Burns MJ (2001) The pharmacology and toxicology of atypical antipsychotic agents. Journal of Toxicology. Clinical Toxicology 39, 1-14.
36. Burton S (2006) Symptom domains of schizophrenia: The role of atypical antipsychotic agents. Journal of Psychopharmacology 20, 6-19.
37. Bymaster FP, Calligaro DO, Falcone JF, et al. (1996) Radioreceptor binding profile of the atypical antipsychotic olanzapine. Neuropsychopharmacology 14, 87-96.
38. Bymaster FP, Felder C, Ahmed S, et al. (2002) Muscarinic receptors as a target for drugs treating schizophrenia. Current Drug Targets. CNS and Neurological Disorders 1, 163-181.
39. Bymaster FP, Rasmussen K, Calligaro DO, et al. (1997) In vitro and in vivo biochemistry of olanzapine: A novel, atypical antipsychotic drug. Journal of Clinical Psychiatry 58 (Suppl 10), 28-36.
40. Cabeza IG, Amador MS, Lopez CA, et al. (2000) Subjective response to antipsychotics in schizophrenic patients: Clinical implications and related factors. Schizophrenia Research 41, 349-355.
41. Cahn W, Hulshoff Pol HE, Lems EB, et al. (2002) Brain volume changes in first-episode schizophrenia: A 1-year follow-up study. Archives of General Psychiatry 59, 1002-1010.
42. Caroff SN, Mann SC and Keck PE, Jr. (1998) Specific treatment of the neuroleptic malignant syndrome. Biological Psychiatry 44, 378-381.
43. Carpenter WT and Gold JM (2002) Another view of therapy for cognition in schizophrenia. Biological Psychiatry 51, 969-971.
44. Casey DE (1993) Neuroleptic-induced acute extrapyramidal syndromes and tardive dyskinesia. Psychiatric Clinics of North America 16, 589-610.
45. Casey DE (1995) Neuroleptic-induced extrapyramidal syndromes and tardive dyskinesia. In Schizophrenia, Hirsch SR and Weinberger DR (eds). Blackwell, Oxford, England, pp 546-565.
46. Casey DE (1997) The relationship of pharmacology to side effects. Journal of Clinical Psychiatry 58 (Suppl 10), 55-62.
47. Casey DE (1999) Tardive dyskinesia and atypical antipsychotic drugs. Schizophrenia Research 35(Suppl), S61-S66
48. Chakos M, Lieberman J, Hoffman E, et al. (2001) Effectiveness of second-generation antipsychotics in patients with treatment-resistant schizophrenia: A review and meta-analysis of randomized trials. The American Journal of Psychiatry 158, 518-526.
49. Chlan-Fourney J, Ashe P, Nylen K, et al. (2002) Differential regulation of hippocampal BDNF mRNA by typical and atypical antipsychotic administration. Brain Research 954, 11-20.
50. Conley RR and Kelly DL (2001) Management of treatment resistance in schizophrenia. Biological Psychiatry 50, 898-911.
51. Conley RR, Tamminga CA, Bartko JJ, et al. (1998) Olanzapine compared with chlorpromazine in treatment-resistant schizophrenia. The American Journal of Psychiatry 155, 914-920.
52. Cooper SJ, Tweed J, Raniwalla J, et al. (2000) A placebo-controlled comparison of zotepine versus chlorpromazine in patients with acute exacerbation of schizophrenia. Acta Psychiatrica Scandinavica 101, 218-225.
53. Correll CU, Leucht S, and Kane JM (2004) Lower risk for tardive dyskinesia associated with second-generation antipsychotics: A systematic review of 1-year studies. The American Journal of Psychiatry 161, 414-425.
54. Cosi C, Waget A, Rollet K, et al. (2005) Clozapine, ziprasidone and arip-iprazole but not haloperidol protect against kainic acid-induced lesion of the striatum in mice, in vivo: role of 5-HT1A receptor activation. Brain Research 1043, 32-441.
55. Coyle JT (1996) The glutamatergic dysfunction hypothesis for schizophrenia. Harvard Review of Psychiatry 3, 241-253.
56. Crismon ML, DeLeon A, and Miller AL (2003) Aripiprazole: Does partial dopaminergic agonism translate into clinical benefits? Annals of Pharmacotherapy 37, 738-740.
57. Currier GW (2000) Atypical antipsychotic medications in the psychiatric emergency service. Journal of Clinical Psychiatry 61 (Suppl 14), 21-26.
58. Cutler AJ, Marcus RN, Hardy SA, et al. (2006) The efficacy and safety of lower doses of aripiprazole for the treatment of patients with acute exacerbation of schizophrenia. CNS Spectrums 11, 691-702.
59. Daniel DG and Copeland LF (2001) Second generation antipsychotics in the treatment of schizophrenia: Sertindole. In Current Issues in the Psychopharmacology of Schizophrenia, Breier A, Tran PV, Herrera JM, et al. (eds). Lippincott Williams & Wilkins Healthcare, Philadelphia, USA, pp 262-276.
60. Daniel DG, Zimbroff DL, Potkin SG, et al. (1999) Ziprasidone 80 mg/day and 160 mg/day in the acute exacerbation of schizophrenia and schizoaffective disorder: A 6-week placebo-controlled trial. Neuropsychopharmacology 20, 491-505.
61. Danion JM, Rein W, and Fleurot O (1999) Improvement of schizophrenic patients with primary negative symptoms treated with amisulpride. Ami-sulpride Study Group. The American Journal of Psychiatry 156, 610-616.
62. Davis JM (1975) Overview: Maintenance therapy in psychiatry: I. Schizophrenia. The American Journal of Psychiatry 132, 1237-1245.
63. Davis JM and Chen N (2004) Dose response and dose equivalence of antipsycho tics. Journal of Clinical Psycho pharmacology 24, 192-208.
64. Davis JM and Chen N (2005) Old versus new: Weighing the evidence between the first-and second-generation antipsychotics. European Psychiatry 20, 7-14.
65. Davis JM, Chen N, and Glick ID (2003) A meta-analysis of the efficacy of second-generation antipsychotics. Archives of General Psychiatry 60, 553-564.
66. Davis JM, Matalon L, Watanabe MD, et al. (1994) Depot antipsychotic drugs: Place in therapy. Drugs 47, 741-773.
67. Dawirs RR, Hildebrandt K, and Teuchert-Noodt G (1998) Adult treatment with haloperidol increases dentate granule cell proliferation in the gerbil hippocampus. Journal of Neural Transmission 105, 317-327.
68. Dawkins K, Lieberman JA, Lebowitz BD, et al. (1999) Antipsychotics: Past and future. National Institute of Mental Health Division of Services and Intervention Research Workshop (July 14, 1998). Schizophrenia Bulletin 25, 395-404.
69. De Vries MH, Udo de Haes J, and Long SK (2000) DU 127090: A highly potent, atypical dopamine receptor ligand: Pilot study of dopamine D2 receptor occupancy after multiple oral administration of DU 127090 to healthy male volunteers, using 11C-raclopride by means of positron emission tomography. European Neuropsychopharmacology 10 (Suppl 3), S294.
70. Dean CE (2006) Antipsychotic-associated neuronal changes in the brain: Toxic, therapeutic, or irrelevant to the long-term outcome of schizophrenia? Progress in Neuro-Psychopharmacology & Biological Psychiatry 30, 174-189.
71. Dev V and Rani walla J (2000) Quetiapine: A review of its safety in the management of schizophrenia. Drug Safety 23, 295-307.
72. Diav-Citrin O, Shechtman S, Ornoy S, et al. (2005) Safety of haloperidol and penfluridol in pregnancy: A multicenter, prospective, controlled study. Journal of Clinical Psychiatry 66, 317-322.
73. Dixon L, Weiden P, Delahanty J, et al. (2000) Prevalence and correlates of diabetes in national schizophrenia samples. Schizophrenia Bulletin 26, 903-912.
74. Dolder CR, Lacro JP, Dunn LB, et al. (2002) Antipsychotic medication adherence: Is there a difference between typical and atypical agents? The American Journal of Psychiatry 159, 103-108.
75. Donlon PT, Hopkin J, and Tupin JP (1979) Overview: Efficacy and safety of the rapid neuroleptization method with injectable haloperidol. The American Journal of Psychiatry 136, 273-278.
76. Dossenbach M, Dyachkova Y, Pirildar S, et al. (2006) Effects of atypical and typical antipsychotic treatments on sexual function in patients with schizophrenia: 12-month results from the Intercontinental Schizophrenia Outpatient Health Outcomes (IC-SOHO) study. European Psychiatry 21, 251-258.
77. Duncan GE, Miyamoto S, Leipzig JN, et al. (2000) Comparison of the effects of clozapine, risperidone, and olanzapine on ketamine-induced alterations in regional brain metabolism. Journal of Pharmacology and Experimental Therapeutics 293, 8-14.
78. Duncan GE, Zorn S, and Lieberman JA (1999) Mechanisms of typical and atypical antipsychotic drug action in relation to dopamine and NMDA receptor hypofunction hypotheses of schizophrenia. Molecular Psychiatry 4, 418-428.
79. Dursun SM, Gardner DM, Bird DC, et al. (1999) Olanzapine for patients with treatment-resistant schizophrenia: A naturalistic case-series outcome study. Canadian Journal of Psychiatry 44, 701-704.
80. Dwivedi Y and Pandey GN (1999) Effects of treatment with haloperidol, chlorpromazine, and clozapine on protein kinase C (PKC) and phosphoi-nositide-specific phospholipase C (PI-PLC) activity and on mRNA and protein expression of PKC and PLC isozymes in rat brain. Journal of Pharmacology and Experimental Therapeutics 291, 688-704.
81. Emsley RA and Risperidone Working Group (1999) Risperidone in the treatment of first-episode psychotic patients: A double-blind multicenter study. Schizophrenia Bulletin 25, 721-729.
82. Ereshefsky L (1996) Pharmacokinetics and drug interactions: Update for new antipsychotics. Journal of Clinical Psychiatry 57 (Suppl 11), 12-25.
83. Farber NB, Foster J, Duhan NL, et al. (1996) Olanzapine and fluperlap-ine mimic clozapine in preventing MK-801 neurotoxicity. Schizophrenia Research 21, 33-37.
84. Farde L, Nordstrom AL, Wiesel FA, et al. (1992) Positron emission tomographic analysis of central D1 and D2 dopamine receptor occupancy in patients treated with classical neuroleptics and clozapine: Relation to extrapyramidal side effects. Archives of General Psychiatry 49, 538-544.
85. Farde L, Nyberg S, Oxenstierna G, et al. (1995) Positron emission tomography studies on D2 and 5-HT2 receptor binding in risperidone-treated schizophrenic patients. Journal of Clinical Psychopharmacology 15, 19S-23S.
86. Faulkner G and Cohn TA (2006) Pharmacologic and nonpharmacologic strategies for weight gain and metabolic disturbance in patients treated with antipsychotic medications. Canadian Journal of Psychiatry 51, 502-511.
87. Feher LZ, Kalman J, Puskas LG, et al. (2005) Impact of haloperidol and risperidone on gene expression profile in the rat cortex. Neurochemistry International 47, 271-280.
88. Ferris P (2000) Ziprasidone. Current Opinion in CPNS Investigational Drugs 2, 58-70.
89. Fleischhacker WW (1995) New drugs for the treatment of schizophrenic patients. Acta Psychiatrica Scandinavica. Supplementum 388, 24-30.
90. Fleischhacker WW (2002) The first-episode of schizophrenia: A challenge for treatment. European Psychiatry 17, 371-375.
91. Fleischhacker WW, Hummer M, Kurz M, et al. (1994) Clozapine dose in the United States and Europe: Implications for therapeutic and adverse effects. Journal of Clinical Psychiatry 55 (Suppl B), 78-81.
92. Fleischhacker WW, Keet IP, and Kahn RS (2005) The European First Episode Schizophrenia Trial (EUFEST): Rationale and design of the trial. Schizophrenia Research 78, 147-156.
93. Friedman JI (2004) Cholinergic targets for cognitive enhancement in schizophrenia: Focus on cholinesterase inhibitors and muscarinic agonists. Psychopharmacology 174, 45-53.
94. Fujimura M, Hashimoto K, and Yamagami K. (2000) Effects of antipsychotic drugs on neurotoxicity, expression of fos-like protein and c-fos mRNA in the retrosplenial cortex after administration of dizocilpine. European Journal of Pharmacology 398, 1-10.
95. Fumagalli F, Molteni R, Roceri M, et al. (2003) Effect of antipsychotic drugs on brain-derived neurotophic factor expression under reduced N-methy1-D-aspartate receptor activity. Journal of Neuroscience Research 72, 622-628.
96. Gaebel W (1995) Is intermittent, early intervention medication an alternative for neuroleptic maintenance treatment? International Clinical Psychopharmacology 9 (Suppl 5), 11-16.
97. Gaebel W, Janner M, Frommann N, et al. (2002) First vs multiple episode schizophrenia: Two-year outcome of intermittent and maintenance medication strategies. Schizophrenia Research 53, 145-159.
98. Galderisi S, Maj M, Mucci A, et al. (2002) Historical, psychopathological, neurological, and neuropsychological aspects of deficit schizophrenia: A multicenter study. The American Journal of Psychiatry 159, 983-990.
99. Ganguli R (2007) Behavioral therapy for weight loss in patients with schizophrenia. Journal of Clinical Psychiatry 68, 19-25.
100. Gasquet I, Haro JM, Novick D, et al. (2005) Pharmacological treatment and other predictors of treatment outcomes in previously untreated patients with schizophrenia: Results from the European Schizophrenia Outpatient Health Outcomes (SOHO) study. International Clinical Psychopharmacology 20, 199-205.
101. Geddes J, Freemantle N, Harrison P, et al. (2000) Atypical antipsychotics in the treatment of schizophrenia: Systematic overview and meta-regression analysis. British Medical Association 321, 1371-1376.
102. Gefvert O, Bergstrom M, Langstrom B, et al. (1998) Time course of central nervous dopamine-D2 and 5-HT2 receptor blockade and plasma drug concentrations after discontinuation of quetiapine (Seroquel) in patients with schizophrenia. Psychopharmacology 135, 119-126.
103. Gentile S (2004) Clinical utilization of atypical antipsychotics in pregnancy and lactation. Annals of Pharmacotherapy 38, 1265-1271.
104. Gilbert PL, Harris MJ, McAdams LA, et al. (1995) Neuroleptic withdrawal in schizophrenic patients: A review of the literature. Archives of General Psychiatry 52, 173-188.
105. Gilbody SM, Bagnall AM, Duggan L, et al. (2000) Risperidone versus other atypical antipsychotic medication for schizophrenia. The Cochrane Database of Systematic Reviews CD002306.
106. Glassman AH and Bigger JT, Jr. (2001) Antipsychotic drugs: Prolonged QTc interval, torsade de pointes, and sudden death. The American Journal of Psychiatry 158, 1774-1782.
107. Glazer WM (2000) Expected incidence of tardive dyskinesia associated with atypical antipsychotics. Journal of Clinical Psychiatry 61 (Suppl 4), 21-26.
108. Glazer WM and Kane JM (1992) Depot neuroleptic therapy: An underutilized treatment option. Journal of Clinical Psychiatry 53, 426-433.
109. Glick ID, Murray SR, Vasudevan P, et al. (2001) Treatment with atypical antipsychotics: New indications and new populations. Journal of Psychiatric Research 35, 187-191.
110. Goff DC and Evins AE (1998) Negative symptoms in schizophrenia: Neuro-biological models and treatment response. Harvard Review of Psychiatry 6, 59-77.
111. Grace AA (1992) The depolarization block hypothesis of neuroleptic action: Implications for the etiology and treatment of schizophrenia. Journal of Neural Transmission. Supplementum. 36, 91-131.
112. Green AI, Drake RE, Brunette MF, et al. (2007) Schizophrenia and cooccurring substance use disorder. The American Journal of Psychiatry 164, 402-408.
113. Green MF (1996) What are the functional consequences of neurocogni-tive deficits in schizophrenia? The American Journal of Psychiatry 153, 321-330.
114. Green MF and Braff DL (2001) Translating the basic and clinical cognitive neuroscience of schizophrenia to drug development and clinical trials of antipsychotic medications. Biological Psychiatry 49, 374-384.
115. Green MF, Kern RS, Braff DL, et al. (2000) Neurocognitive deficits and functional outcome in schizophrenia: Are we measuring the "right stuff"? Schizophrenia Bulletin 26, 119-136.
116. Green MF, Marder SR, Glynn SM, et al. (2002) The neurocognitive effects of low-dose haloperidol: A two-year comparison with risperidone. Biological Psychiatry 51, 972-978.
117. Grunder G, Wetzel H, Schlosser R, et al. (1999) Neuroendocrine response to antipsychotics: Effects of drug type and gender. Biological Psychiatry 45, 89-97.
118. Haddad PM and Wieck A(2004)Antipsychotic-inducedhyperprolactinaemia: Mechanisms, clinical features and management. Drugs 64, 2291-2314.
119. Hafner H, Riecher-Rossler A, Maurer K, et al. (1992) First onset and early symptomatology of schizophrenia: A chapter of epidemiological and neurobiological research into age and sex differences. European Archives of Psychiatry and Clinical Neuroscience 242, 109-118.
120. Harrison PJ (1999) The neuropathological effects of antipsychotic drugs. Schizophrenia Research 40, 87-99.
121. Harvey PD, Howanitz E, Parrella M, et al. (1998) Symptoms, cognitive functioning, and adaptive skills in geriatric patients with lifelong schizophrenia: A comparison across treatment sites. The American Journal of Psychiatry 155, 1080-1086.
122. Harvey PD and Keefe RS (2001) Studies of cognitive change in patients with schizophrenia following novel antipsychotic treatment. The American Journal of Psychiatry 158, 176-184.
123. Harvey PD, Silverman JM, Mohs RC, et al. (1999) Cognitive decline in late-life schizophrenia: A longitudinal study of geriatric chronically hospitalized patients. Biological Psychiatry 45, 32-40.
124. Heinrich TW, Biblo LA, and Schneider J (2006) Torsades de pointes associated with ziprasidone. Psychosomatics 47, 264-268.
125. Heinrichs RW (2007) Cognitive improvement in response to antipsychotic drugs: Neurocognitive effects of antipsychotic medications in patients with chronic schizophrenia in the CATIE Trial. Archives of General Psychiatry 64, 631-632.
126. Heres S, Davis J, Maino K, et al. (2006) Why olanzapine beats risperidone, risperidone beats quetiapine, and quetiapine beats olanzapine: An exploratory analysis of head-to-head comparison studies of second-generation antipsychotics. The American Journal of Psychiatry 163, 185-194.
127. Hesselink JMK (2000) Iloperidone. Current Opinion in CPNS Investigational Drugs 2, 71-78.
128. Ho BC, Andreasen NC, Nopoulos P, et al. (2003) Progressive structural brain abnormalities and their relationship to clinical outcome: A longitudinal magnetic resonance imaging study early in schizophrenia. Archives of General Psychiatry 60, 585-594.
129. Hofer A, Kemmler G, Eder U, et al. (2004) Quality of life in schizophrenia: The impact of psychopathology, attitude toward medication, and side effects. Journal of Clinical Psychiatry 65, 932-939.
130. Hogarty GE, McEvoy JP, Munetz M, et al. (1988) Dose of fluphenazine, familial expressed emotion, and outcome in schizophrenia: Results of a two-year controlled study. Archives of General Psychiatry 45, 797-805.
131. Hogarty GE, McEvoy JP, Ulrich RF, et al. (1995) Pharmacotherapy of impaired affect in recovering schizophrenic patients. Archives of General Psychiatry 52, 29.
132. Iqbal MM, Kunwar A, Lee K, et al. (2005) Effects of commonly used antip-sychotics (typical and atypical) in pregnancy and lactation. Journal of the Louisiana State Medical Society 157, 94-97.
133. Janicak PG and Davis JM (1996) Antipsychotic dosing strategies in acute schizophrenia. International Clinical Psychopharmacology 11 (Suppl 2), 35-40.
134. Jarskog LF, Miyamoto S, and Lieberman JA. (2007) Schizophrenia: New Pathological Insights and Therapies Annual Review of Medicine 58, 49-61.
135. Javitt DC, Duncan L, Balla A, et al. (2005) Inhibition of system A-medi-ated glycine transport in cortical synaptosomes by therapeutic concentrations of clozapine: Implications for mechanisms of action. Molecular Psychiatry 10, 275-287.
136. Johnson KM, Phillips M, and Wang C (1998) Chronic phencyclidine induces behavioral sensitization and apoptotic cell death in the olfactory and piriform cortex. Journal of Neuroscience Research 52, 709-722.
137. Javitt DC and Zukin SR (1991) Recent advances in the phencyclidine model of schizophrenia. The American Journal of Psychiatry 148, 1301-1308.
138. Jones PB, Barnes TR, Davies L, et al. (2006) Randomized controlled trial of the effect on Quality of Life of second-vs first-generation antipsychotic drugs in schizophrenia: Cost Utility of the Latest Antipsychotic Drugs in Schizophrenia Study (CUtLASS 1). Archives of General Psychiatry 63, 1079-1087.
139. Kane J, Canas F, Kramer M, et al. (2007) Treatment of schizophrenia with paliperidone extended-release tablets: A 6-week placebo-controlled trial. Schizophrenia Research 90, 147-161.
140. Kane J, Honigfeld G, Singer J, et al. (1988) Clozapine for the treatment-resistant schizophrenic. A double-blind comparison with chlorpromazine. Archives of General Psychiatry 45, 789-796.
141. Kane JM (1989) The current status of neuroleptic therapy. Journal of Clinical Psychiatry 50, 322-328.
142. Kane JM, Eerdekens M, Lindenmayer JP, et al. (2003a) Long-acting injectable risperidone: Efficacy and safety of the first long-acting atypical antipsychotic.The American Journal of Psychiatry 160, 1125-1132.
143. Kane JM, Leucht S, Carpenter D, et al. (2003b) Expert consensus guideline series.Optimizing pharmacologic treatment of psychotic disorders. Introduction: Methods, commentary, and summary. Journal of Clinical Psychiatry 64 (Suppl 12), 5-19.
144. Kane JM and Lieberman JA (1992) Adverse Effects of Psychotropic Drugs. Guilford Press, NY, USA.
145. Kane JM and Marder SR (1993) Psychopharmacologic treatment of schizophrenia. Schizophrenia Bulletin 19, 287-302.
146. Kane JM, Rifkin A, Woerner M, et al. (1983) Low-dose neuroleptic treatment of outpatient schizophrenics. I. Preliminary results for relapse rates. Archives of General Psychiatry 40, 893-896.
147. Kane JM, Woerner M, Borenstein M, et al. (1986) Integrating incidence and prevalence of tardive dyskinesia. Psychopharmacology Bulletin 22, 254-258.
148. Kapur S, Arenovich T, Agid O, et al. (2005) Evidence for onset of antipsychotic effects within the first 24 hours of treatment. The American Journal of Psychiatry 162, 939-946.
149. Kapur S and Remington G (2001) Dopamine D(2) receptors and their role in atypical antipsychotic action: Still necessary and may even be sufficient. Biological Psychiatry 50, 873-883.
150. Kapur S, Remington G, Jones C, et al. (1996) High levels of dopamine D2 receptor occupancy with low-dose haloperidol treatment: a PET study. The American Journal of Psychiatry 153, 948-950.
151. Kapur S and Seeman P (2001) Does fast dissociation from the dopamine d(2) receptor explain the action of atypical antipsychotics?: A new hypothesis. The American Journal of Psychiatry 158, 360-369.
152. Kapur S, Zipursky R, Jones C, et al. (2000a) Relationship between dopamine D2 occupancy, clinical response, and side effects: A double-blind PET study of first-episode schizophrenia.The American Journal of Psychiatry 157, 514-520.
153. Kapur S, Zipursky R, Jones C, et al. (2000b) A positron emission tomography study of quetiapine in schizophrenia: A preliminary finding of an antipsychotic effect with only transiently high dopamine D2 receptor occupancy.Archives of General Psychiatry 57, 553-559.
154. Kapur S, Zipursky RB, Remington G, et al. (1998) 5-HT2 and D2 receptor occupancy of olanzapine in schizophrenia: A PET investigation. The American Journal of Psychiatry 155, 921-928.
155. Karow A and Naber D (2002) Subjective well-being and quality of life under atypical antipsychotic treatment. Psychopharmacology 162, 3-10.
156. Kasper S (1998) Risperidone and olanzapine: Optimal dosing for efficacy and tolerability in patients with schizophrenia. International Clinical Psy-chop harmacology 13, 253-262.
157. Keck PJ, Buffenstein A, Ferguson J, et al. (1998) Ziprasidone 40 and 120 mg/day in the acute exacerbation of schizophrenia and schizoaffective disorder: A 4-week placebo-controlled trial. Psychopharmacology 140, 173-184.
158. Keefe RS, Bilder RM, Davis SM, et al. (2007) Neurocognitive effects of antipsychotic medications in patients with chronic schizophrenia in the CATIE Trial. Archives of General Psychiatry 64, 633-647.
159. Keefe RS, Eesley CE, and Poe MP (2005) Defining a cognitive function decrement in schizophrenia. Biological Psychiatry 57, 688-691.
160. Keefe RS, Perkins DO, Gu H, et al. (2006a) A longitudinal study of neu-rocognitive function in individuals at-risk for psychosis.Schizophrenia Research 88, 26-35.
161. Keefe RS, Seidman LJ, Christensen BK, et al. (2004) Comparative effect of atypical and conventional antipsychotic drugs on neurocognition in first-episode psychosis: A randomized, double-blind trial of olanzapine versus low doses of haloperidol. The American Journal of Psychiatry 161, 985-995.
162. Keefe RS, Seidman LJ, Christensen BK, et al. (2006b) Long-term neuro-cognitive effects of olanzapine or low-dose haloperidol in first-episode psychosis.Biological Psychiatry 59, 97-105.
163. Keefe RS, Young CA, Rock SL, et al. (2006c) One-year double-blind study of the neurocognitive efficacy of olanzapine, risperidone, and haloperidol in schizophrenia.Schizophrenia Research 81, 1-15.
164. Keefe RSE, Silva SG, Perkins DO, et al. (1999) The effects of atypical antipsychotic drugs on neurocognitive impairment in schizophrenia: A review and meta-analysis. Schizophrenia Bulletin 25, 201-222.
165. Kelly DL, Conley RR, Richardson CM, et al. (2003) Adverse effects and laboratory parameters of high-dose olanzapine vs. clozapine in treatment-resistant schizophrenia. Annals of Clinical Psychiatry 15, 181-186.
166. Keltner NL and Johnson V (2002) Biological perspectives. Aripiprazole: A third generation of antipsychotics begins? Perspectives in Psychiatric Care 38, 157-159.
167. Kessler RM, Ansari MS, Riccardi P, et al. (2005) Occupancy of striatal and extrastriatal dopamine D2/D3 receptors by olanzapine and haloperidol. Neuropsycho pharmacology 30, 2283-2289.
168. Kessler RM, Ansari MS, Riccardi P, et al. (2006) Occupancy of striatal and extrastriatal dopamine D2 receptors by clozapine and quetiapine. Neuropsychopharmacology 31, 1991-2001.
169. Kikuchi T, Tottori K, Uwahodo Y, et al. (1995) 7-(4-[4-(2, 3-Dichlorophenyl)-1-piperazinyl]butyloxy)-3, 4-dihydro-2(1H)-quino linone (OPC-14597), a new putative antipsychotic drug with both presynaptic dopamine autoreceptor agonistic activity and postsynaptic D2 receptor antagonistic activity. Journal of Pharmacology and Experimental Therapeutics 274, 329-336.
170. Kissling W (1991) Guidelines for Neuroleptic Relapse Prevention in Schizophrenia. Springer-Verlag, Berlin, Germany.
171. Klein DJ, Cottingham EM, Sorter M, et al. (2006) A randomized, doubleblind, placebo-controlled trial of metformin treatment of weight gain associated with initiation of atypical antipsychotic therapy in children and adolescents. The American Journal of Psychiatry 163, 2072-2079.
172. Knable MB, Heinz A, Raedler T, et al. (1997) Extrapyramidal side effects with risperidone and haloperidol at comparable D2 receptor occupancy levels. Psychiatry Research 75, 91-101.
173. Kodama M, Fujioka T, and Duman RS (2004) Chronic olanzapine or fluoxetine administration increases cell proliferation in hippocampus and pre-frontal cortex of adult rat. Biological Psychiatry 56, 570-580.
174. Konradi C and Heckers S (2001) Antipsychotic drugs and neuroplasticity: Insights into the treatment and neurobiology of schizophrenia. Biological Psychiatry 50, 729-742.
175. Kontkanen O, Toronen P, Lakso M, et al. (2002) Antipsychotic drug treatment induces differential gene expression in the rat cortex. Journal of Neurochemistry 83, 1043-1053.
176. Krakowski MI, Czobor P, Citrome L, et al. (2006) Atypical antipsychotic agents in the treatment of violent patients with schizophrenia and schizoaffective disorder. Archives of General Psychiatry 63, 622-629.
177. Kramer MS, Vogel WH, Di Johnson C, et al. (1989) Antidepressants in "depressed" schizophrenic inpatients: A controlled trial. Archives of General Psychiatry 46, 922-928.
178. Krystal JH, Karper LP, Seibyl JP, et al. (1994) Subanesthetic effects of the noncompetitive NMDA antagonist, ketamine, in humans: Psychotomimetic, perceptual, cognitive, and neuroendocrine responses. Archives of General Psychiatry 51, 199-214.
179. Kumra S, Frazier JA, Jacobsen LK, et al. (1996) Childhood-onset schizophrenia: A double-blind clozapine-haloperidol comparison. Archives of General Psychiatry 53, 1090-1097.
180. Laruelle M, Kegeles LS, and Abi-Dargham A (2003) Glutamate, dopamine, and schizophrenia: From pathophysiology to treatment. Annals of the New York Academy of Sciences 1003, 138-158.
181. Lavin MR and Rifkin A (1991) Prophylactic antiparkinson drug use: I. Initial prophylaxis and prevention of extrapyramidal side effects. British Journal of Clinical Pharmacology 31, 763-768.
182. Lawler CP, Prioleau C, Lewis MM, et al. (1999) Interactions of the novel antipsychotic aripiprazole (OPC-14597) with dopamine and serotonin receptor subtypes. Neuropsychopharmacology 20, 612-627.
183. Lehman AF, Lieberman JA, Dixon LB, et al. (2004) Practice guideline for the treatment of patients with schizophrenia, second edition. The American Journal of Psychiatry 161, 1-56.
184. Lehman AF and Steinwachs DM (1998) Translating research into practice: The Schizophrenia Patient Outcomes Research Team (PORT) treatment recommendations. Schizophrenia Bulletin 24, 1-10.
185. Leucht S, Barnes TR, Kissling W, et al. (2003a) Relapse prevention in schizophrenia with new-generation antipsychotics: A systematic review and exploratory meta-analysis of randomized, controlled trials.The American Journal of Psychiatry 160, 1209-1222.
186. Leucht S, Pitschel-Walz G, Abraham D, et al. (1999) Efficacy and extrapy-ramidal side-effects of the new antipsychotics olanzapine, quetiapine, risperidone, and sertindole compared to conventional antipsychotics and placebo: A meta-analysis of randomized controlled trials. Schizophrenia Research 35, 51-68.
187. Leucht S, Pitschel-Walz G, Engel RR, et al. (2002) Amisulpride, an unusual "atypical" antipsychotic: A meta-analysis of randomized controlled trials. The American Journal of Psychiatry 159, 180-190.
188. Leucht S, Wahlbeck K, Hamann J, et al. (2003b) New generation antip-sychotics versus low-potency conventional antipsychotics: A systematic review and meta-analysis.Lancet 361, 1581-1589.
189. Lewis SW, Barnes TR, Davies L, et al. (2006a) Randomized controlled trial of effect of prescription of clozapine versus other second-generation antipsychotic drugs in resistant schizophrenia.Schizophrenia Bulletin 32, 715-723.
190. Lewis SW, Davies L, Jones PB, et al. (2006b) Randomised controlled trials of conventional antipsychotic versus new atypical drugs, and new atypical drugs versus clozapine, in people with schizophrenia responding poorly to, or intolerant of, current drug treatment.Health Technology Assessment 10, iii-xi, 1.
191. Li XM, Chlan-Fourney J, Juorio AV, et al. (1999) Differential effects of olanzapine on the gene expression of superoxide dismutase and the low affinity nerve growth factor receptor. Journal of Neuroscience Research 56, 72-75.
192. Lieberman J, Chakos M, Wu H, et al. (2001a) Longitudinal study of brain morphology in first episode schizophrenia.Biological Psychiatry 49, 487-499.
193. Lieberman JA (1993) Understanding the mechanism of action of atypical antipsychotic drugs: A review of compounds in use and development. British Journal of Psychiatry (Clinical Research Ed.) 163, 7-18.
194. Lieberman JA (1996) Atypical antipsychotic drugs as a first-line treatment of schizophrenia: A rationale and hypothesis. Journal of Clinical Psychiatry 57 (Suppl 11), 68-71.
195. Lieberman JA (1998) Maximizing clozapine therapy: Managing side effects. Journal of Clinical Psychiatry 59 (Suppl 3), 38-43.
196. Lieberman JA (1999a) Is schizophrenia a neurodegenerative disorder?: A clinical and pathophysiological perspective.Biological Psychiatry 46, 729-739.
197. Lieberman JA (1999b) Pathophysiologic mechanisms in the pathogenesis and clinical course of schizophrenia.Journal of Clinical Psychology. 60 (Suppl 12), 9-12.
198. Lieberman JA (2004) Dopamine partial agonists: A new class of antipsychotic. CNS Drugs 18, 251-267.
199. Lieberman JA (2006) Comparative effectiveness of antipsychotic drugs. A commentary on: Cost Utility of the Latest Antipsychotic Drugs in Schizophrenia Study (CUtLASS 1) and Clinical Antipsychotic Trials of Intervention Effectiveness (CATIE). Archives of General Psychiatry 63, 1069-1072.
200. Lieberman JA, Johns CA, Kane JM, et al. (1988) Clozapine-induced agranulocytosis: Non-cross-reactivity with other psychotropic drugs. Journal of Clinical Psychiatry 49, 271-277.
201. Lieberman JA, Kane JM, and Johns CA (1989) Clozapine: Guidelines for clinical management. Journal of Clinical Psychiatry 50, 329-338.
202. Lieberman JA, Kinon BJ, and Loebel AD (1990) Dopaminergic mechanisms in idiopathic and drug-induced psychoses. Schizophrenia Bulletin 16, 97-109.
203. Lieberman JA, Koreen A, Chakos M, et al. (1996) Factors influencing treatment response and outcome of first-episode schizophrenia implications for understanding the pathophysiology of schizophrenia. Journal of Clinical Psychiatry 57, 5-9.
204. Lieberman JA, Perkins D, Belger A, et al. (2001b) The early stages of schizophrenia: Speculations on pathogenesis, pathophysiology, and therapeutic approaches.Biological Psychiatry 50, 884-897.
205. Lieberman JA, Phillips M, Gu H, et al. (2003a) Atypical and conventional antipsychotic drugs in treatment-naive first-episode schizophrenia: A 52-week randomized trial of clozapine vs chlorpromazine.Neuropsychopharmacology 28, 995-1003.
206. Lieberman JA, Stroup TS, McEvoy JP, et al. (2005a) Effectiveness of ant ip-sychotic drugs in patients with chronic schizophrenia.New England Journal of Medicine 353, 1209-1223.
207. Lieberman JA, Tollefson G, Tohen M, et al. (2003b) Comparative efficacy and safety of atypical and conventional antipsychotic drugs in first-episode psychosis: A randomized, double-blind trial of olanzapine versus haloperidol.The American Journal of Psychiatry 160, 1396-1404.
208. Lieberman JA, Tollefson GD, Charles C, et al. (2005b) Antipsychotic drug effects on brain morphology in first-episode psychosis.Archives of General Psychiatry 62, 361-370.
209. Linden AM, Vaisanen J, Lakso M, et al. (2000) Expression of neurotrophins BDNF and NT-3, and their receptors in rat brain after administration of antipsychotic and psychotrophic agents. Journal of Molecular Neuroscience 14, 27-37.
210. Lipska BK, Khaing ZZ, Weickert CS, et al. (2001) BDNF mRNA expression in rat hippocampus and prefrontal cortex: Effects of neonatal ventral hippocampal damage and antipsychotic drugs. European Journal of Neuroscience 14, 135-144.
211. Loebel AD, Lieberman JA, Alvir JMJ, et al. (1992) Duration of psychosis and outcome in first-episode schizophrenia. The American Journal of Psychiatry 149, 1183-1188.
212. Luo C, Xu H, and Li XM (2005) Quetiapine reverses the suppression of hippocampal neurogenesis caused by repeated restraint stress. Brain Research 1063, 32-39.
213. Mamo D, Kapur S, Shammi CM, et al. (2004) A PET study of dopamine D2 and serotonin 5-HT2 receptor occupancy in patients with schizophrenia treated with therapeutic doses of ziprasidone. The American Journal of Psychiatry 161, 818-825.
214. Marco CA and Vaughan J (2005) Emergency management of agitation in schizophrenia. American Journal of Emergency Medicine 23, 767-776.
215. Marder SR (1996) Pharmacological treatment strategies in acute schizophrenia. International Clinical Psychopharmacology 11 (Suppl 2), 29-34.
216. Marder SR (1997) Antipsychotic drugs. In Psychiatry, Tasman A, Kay J, and Lieberman JA, (eds). W. B. Saunders Company, Philadelphia, USA, pp 1569-1585.
217. Marder SR (1999) Antipsychotic drugs and relapse prevention. Schizophrenia Research 35, S87-S92
218. Marder SR, Essock SM, Miller AL, et al. (2004) Physical health monitoring of patients with schizophrenia. The American Journal of Psychiatry 161, 1334-1349.
219. Marder SR and Meibach RC (1994) Risperidone in the treatment of schizophrenia. The American Journal of Psychiatry 151, 825-835.
220. Marder SR and Van Putten T (1995) Antipsychotic Medications. In The American Psychiatric Press Textbook of Psychopharmacology, Schatz-berg AF and Nemeroff CB (eds). American Psychiatric Press, Inc, Washington, DC, USA, pp 247-261.
221. Marder SR, Van Putten T, Mintz J, et al. (1987) Low-and conventional-dose maintenance therapy with fluphenazine decanoate. Two-year outcome. Archives of General Psychiatry 44, 518-521.
222. Markowitz JS, Brown CS, and Moore TR (1999) Atypical antipsychotics, Part I: pharmacology, pharmacokinetics, and efficacy. Annals of Pharmacotherapy 33, 73-85.
223. Marshall M, Lewis S, Lockwood A, et al. (2005) Association between duration of untreated psychosis and outcome in cohorts of first-episode patients: A systematic review. Archives of General Psychiatry 62, 975-983.
224. Masi G, Mucci M, and Pari C (2006) Children with schizophrenia: Clinical picture and pharmacological treatment. CNS Drugs 20, 841-866.
225. McCracken JT, McGough J, Shah B, et al. (2002) Risperidone in children with autism and serious behavioral problems. New England Journal of Medicine 347, 314-321.
226. McEvoy JP, Hogarty GE, and Steingard S (1991) Optimal dose of neuroleptic in acute schizophrenia: A controlled study of the neuroleptic threshold and higher haloperidol dose. Archives of General Psychiatry 48, 739-745.
227. McEvoy JP, Lieberman JA, Stroup TS, et al. (2006) Effectiveness of clozapine versus olanzapine, quetiapine, and risperidone in patients with chronic schizophrenia who did not respond to prior atypical antipsychotic treatment. The American Journal of Psychiatry 163, 600-610.
228. McEvoy JP, Meyer JM, Goff DC, et al. (2005) Prevalence of the metabolic syndrome in patients with schizophrenia: Baseline results from the Clinical Antipsychotic Trials of Intervention Effectiveness (CATIE) schizophrenia trial and comparison with national estimates from NHANES III. Schizophrenia Research 80, 19-32.
229. McEvoy JP, Scheifler PL, and Frances A (1999) The expert consensus guideline series: Treatment of schizophrenia 1999. Journal of Clinical Psychiatry 60, 1-80.
230. McGlashan TH (1996) Early detection and intervention in schizophrenia: Research. Schizophrenia Bulletin 22, 327-345.
231. McGlashan TH, Zipursky RB, Perkins D, et al. (2006) Randomized, double-blind trial of olanzapine versus placebo in patients prodromally symptomatic for psychosis. The American Journal of Psychiatry 163, 790-799.
232. McGorry PD, Yung AR, Phillips LJ, et al. (2002) Randomized controlled trial of interventions designed to reduce the risk of progression to first-episode psychosis in a clinical sample with subthreshold symptoms. Archives of General Psychiatry 59, 921-928.
233. McKenna K, Koren G, Tetelbaum M, et al. (2005) Pregnancy outcome of women using atypical antipsychotic drugs: A prospective comparative study. Journal of Clinical Psychiatry 66, 444-449.
234. Meltzer HY (1985) Long-term effects of neuroleptic drugs on the neuroendocrine system. Advances in Biochemical Psychopharmacology 40, 59-68.
235. Meltzer H Y, Alphs L, Green AI, et al. (2003) Clozapine treatment for suicid-ality in schizophrenia: International Suicide Prevention Trial (InterSePT). Archives of General Psychiatry 60, 82-91.
236. Meltzer HY, Matsubara S, and Lee JC (1989) Classification of typical and atypical antipsychotic drugs on the basis of dopamine D1, D2 and Sero-tonin2 pKi values. Journal of Pharmacology and Experimental Therapeutics 251, 238-246.
237. Merrill DB, Ahmari SE, Bradford JM, et al. (2006) Myocarditis during clozapine treatment. The American Journal of Psychiatry 163, 204-208.
238. Merrill DB, Dec GW, and Goff DC (2005) Adverse cardiac effects associated with clozapine. Journal of Clinical Psychopharmacology 25, 32-41.
239. Millan MJ (2000) Improving the treatment of schizophrenia: Focus on serotonin (5-HT)(1A) receptors. Journal of Pharmacology and Experimental Therapeutics 295, 853-861.
240. Miller CH and Fleischhacker WW (2000) Managing antipsychotic-induced acute and chronic akathisia. Drug Safety 22, 73-81.
241. Miller DD, Fleming F, Holman TL, et al. (1994) Plasma clozapine concentrations as a predictor of clinical response: A follow-up study. Journal of Clinical Psychiatry 55 (Suppl B), 117-121.
242. Miller DD, McEvoy JP, Davis SM, et al. (2005) Clinical correlates of tardive dyskinesia in schizophrenia: Baseline data from the CATIE schizophrenia trial. Schizophrenia Research 80, 33-43.
243. Mirnics K, Middleton FA, Marquez A, et al. (2000) Molecular characterization of schizophrenia viewed by microarray analysis of gene expression in prefrontal cortex. Neuron 28, 53-67.
244. Mishara AL and Goldberg TE (2004) A meta-analysis and critical review of the effects of conventional neuroleptic treatment on cognition in schizophrenia: Opening a closed book. Biological Psychiatry 55, 1013-1022.
245. Miyamoto S, Duncan GE, Goff DC, et al. (2002) Therapeutics of Schizophrenia. In Neuropsychopharmacology: The Fifth Generation of Progress, Davis KL, Charney D, Coyle JT, et al. (eds). Lippincott Williams & Wilkins, Philadelphia, USA, pp 775-807.
246. Miyamoto S, Duncan GE, and Lieberman JA (2001) Second generation antipsychotics in the treatment of schizophrenia: Olanzapine. In Current Issues in the Psychopharmacology of Schizophrenia, Breier A, Tran PV, Herrera JM, et al. (eds). Lippincott Williams & Wilkins Healthcare, Philadelphia, USA, pp 224-242.
247. Miyamoto S, Duncan GE, Marx CE, et al. (2005) Treatments for schizophrenia: A critical review of pharmacology and mechanisms of action of antipsychotic drugs. Molecular Psychiatry 10, 79-104.
248. nd edition, Tasman A, Kay J, and Lieberman JA (eds). John Wiley & Sons, Ltd, Chichester, UK, pp 1928-1964.
249. nd edition, Hirsch SR and Weinberger DR (eds). Blackwell Science, Oxford, UK, pp 442-473.
250. Moller HJ (1993) Neuroleptic treatment of negative symptoms in schizophrenic patients: Efficacy problems and methodological difficulties. European Neuropsychopharmacology 3, 1-11.
251. Moller HJ, Boyer P, Fleurot O, et al. (1997) Improvement of acute exacerbations of schizophrenia with amisulpride: A comparison with haloperidol. PROD-ASLP Study Group. Psycho pharmacology 132, 396-401.
252. Muller-Siecheneder F, Muller MJ, Hillert A, et al. (1998) Risperidone versus haloperidol and amitriptyline in the treatment of patients with a combined psychotic and depressive syndrome. Journal of Clinical Psychopharmacology 18, 111-120.
253. Murphy BP, Chung YC, Park TW, et al. (2006) Pharmacological treatment of primary negative symptoms in schizophrenia: A systematic review. Schizophrenia Research 88, 5-25.
254. Nasrallah HA, Meyer JM, Goff DC, et al. (2006) Low rates of treatment for hypertension, dyslipidemia and diabetes in schizophrenia: Data from the CATIE schizophrenia trial sample at baseline. Schizophrenia Research 86, 15-22.
255. Needham PL, Atkinson J, Skill MJ, et al. (1996) Zotepine: Preclinical tests predict antipsychotic efficacy and an atypical profile. Psychopharmacology Bulletin 32, 123-128.
256. Newcomer JW (2007) Antipsychotic medications: Metabolic and cardiovascular risk. Journal of Clinical Psychiatry 68, 8-13.
257. Newcomer JW and Haupt DW (2006) The metabolic effects of antipsychotic medications. Canadian Journal of Psychiatry 51, 480-491.
258. Nilsson E, Lichtenstein P, Cnattinqius S, et al. (2002) Women with schizophrenia: Pregnancy outcome and infant death among their offspring. Schizophrenia Research 58, 221-229.
259. Nyberg S, Eriksson B, Oxenstierna G, et al. (1999) Suggested minimal effective dose of risperidone based on PET-measured D2 and 5-HT2A receptor occupancy in schizophrenic patients. The American Journal of Psychiatry 156, 869-875.
260. Olfson M, Blanco C, Liu L, et al. (2006) National trends in the outpatient treatment of children and adolescents with antipsychotic drugs. Archives of General Psychiatry 63, 679-685.
261. Olfson M, Mechanic D, Hansell S, et al. (2000) Predicting medication noncompliance after hospital discharge among patients with schizophrenia. Psychiatric Services 51, 216-222.
262. Onrust SV and McClellan K (2001) Perospirone. CNS Drugs 15, 329-337.
263. Paillere-Martinot ML, Lecrubier Y, Martinot JL, et al. (1995) Improvement of some schizophrenic deficit symptoms with low doses of amisulpride. The American Journal of Psychiatry 152, 130-134.
264. Parikh V, Khan MM, and Mahadik SP (2003) Differential effects of antipsychotics on expression of antioxidant enzymes and membrane lipid peroxidation in rat brain. Journal of Psychiatric Research 37, 43-51.
265. Parikh V, Khan MM, Terry A, et al. (2004) Differential effects of typical and atypical antipsychotics on nerve growth factor and choline acetyl-transferase expression in the cortex and nucleus basalis of rats. Journal of Psychiatric Research 38, 521-529.
266. Perkins DO, Gu H, Boteva K, et al. (2005) Relationship between duration of untreated psychosis and outcome in first-episode schizophrenia: A critical review and meta-analysis. The American Journal of Psychiatry 162, 1785-1804.
267. Perlis RH, Welge JA, Vornik LA, et al. (2006) Atypical antipsychotics in the treatment of mania: A meta-analysis of randomized, placebo-controlled trials. Journal of Clinical Psychiatry 67, 509-516.
268. Petit M, Raniwalla J, Tweed J, et al. (1996) A comparison of an atypical and typical antipsychotic, zotepine versus haloperidol in patients with acute exacerbation of schizophrenia: A parallel-group double-blind trial. Psychopharmacology Bulletin 32, 81-87.
269. Peuskens J (1999) The evolving definition of treatment resistance. Journal of Clinical Psychiatry 60 (Suppl 12), 4-8.
270. Polsky D, Doshi JA, Bauer MS, et al. (2006) Clinical trial-based cost-effectiveness analyses of antipsychotic use. The American Journal of Psychiatry 163, 2047-2056.
271. Puech A, Fleurot O, and Rein W (1998) Amisulpride, and atypical antipsychotic, in the treatment of acute episodes of schizophrenia: A dose-ranging study vs. haloperidol. The Amisulpride Study Group. Acta Psychiatrica Scandinavica 98, 65-72.
272. Qing H, Xu H, Wei Z, et al. (2003) The ability of atypical antipsychotic drugs vs. haloperidol to protect PC12 cells against MPP+-induced apop-tosis. European Journal of Neuroscience 17, 1563-1570.
273. Raedler TJ, Knable MB, Jones DW, et al. (2000) In vivo olanzapine occupancy of muscarinic acetylcholine receptors in patients with schizophrenia. Neuropsychopharmacology 23, 56-68.
274. Remington G and Kapur S (1999) D2 and 5-HT2 receptor effects of antip-sychotics: Bridging basic and clinical findings using PET. Journal of Clinical Psychiatry 60 (Suppl 10), 15-19.
275. Remington G and Kapur S (2000) Atypical antipsychotics: Are some more atypical than others? Psycho pharmacology 148, 3-15.
276. Robinson DG, Woerner MG, Alvir JM, et al. (2002) Predictors of medication discontinuation by patients with first-episode schizophrenia and schizoaffective disorder. Schizophrenia Research 57, 209-219.
277. Robinson DG, Woerner MG, Delman HM, et al. (2005) Pharmacological treatments for first-episode schizophrenia. Schizophrenia Bulletin 31, 705-722.
278. Rosenheck R, Chang S, Choe Y, et al. (2000) Medication continuation and compliance: A comparison of patients treated with clozapine and haloperidol. Journal of Clinical Psychiatry 61, 382-386.
279. Rosenheck R, Perlick D, Bingham S, et al. (2003) Effectiveness and cost of olanzapine and haloperidol in the treatment of schizophrenia: A randomized controlled trial. The Journal of the American Medical Association 290, 2693-2702.
280. Rosenheck RA (2006) Outcomes, costs, and policy caution. A commentary on: The Cost Utility of the Latest Antipsychotic Drugs in Schizophrenia Study (CUtLASS 1). Archives of General Psychiatry 63, 1074-1076.
281. Rosenheck RA, Leslie DL, Sindelar J, et al. (2006) Cost-effectiveness of second-generation antipsychotics and perphenazine in a randomized trial of treatment for chronic schizophrenia. The American Journal of Psychiatry 163, 2080-2089.
282. Rowley M, Bristow LJ, and Hutson PH (2001) Current and novel approaches to the drug treatment of schizophrenia. Journal of Medicinal Chemistry 44, 477-501.
283. Ruhe HG, Becker HE, Jessurun P, et al. (2001) Agranulocytosis and granulocytopenia associated with quetiapine. Acta Psychiatrica Scandinavica 104, 311-313.
284. Rund DA, Ewing JD, Mitzel K, et al. (2006) The use of intramuscular benzodiazepines and antipsychotic agents in the treatment of acute agitation or violence in the emergency department. Journal of Emergency Medicine 31, 317-324.
285. Schneider LS, Dagerman K, and Insel PS (2006a) Efficacy and adverse effects of atypical antipsychotics for dementia: Meta-analysis of randomized, placebo-controlled trials.American Journal of Geriatric Psychiatry14, 191-210.
286. Schneider LS, Dagerman KS, and Insel P (2005) Risk of death with atypical antipsychotic drug treatment for dementia: Meta-analysis of randomized placebo-controlled trials. The Journal of the American Medical Association 294, 1934-1943.
287. Schneider LS, Tariot PN, Dagerman KS, et al. (2006b) Effectiveness of atypical antipsychotic drugs in patients with Alzheimer's disease.New England Journal of Medicine355, 1525-1538.
288. Schooler N, Rabinowitz J, Davidson M, et al. (2005) Risperidone and haloperidol in first-episode psychosis: A long-term randomized trial. The American Journal of Psychiatry 162, 947-953.
289. Schooler NR and Kane JM (1982) Research diagnoses for tardive dyskinesia. Archives of General Psychiatry 39, 486-487.
290. Schotte A, Janssen PFM, Gommeren W, et al. (1996) Risperidone compared with new and reference antipsychotic drugs: In vitro and in vivo receptor binding. Psychopharmacology 124, 57-73.
291. Schulz C and McGorry P (2000) Traditional antipsychotic medications: Contemporary clinical use. In Schizophrenia and Mood Disorders: The New Drug Therapies in Clinical Practice, Buckley PF and Waddington JL (eds). Butterworth-Heinemann, Woburn, MA, USA, pp 14-20.
292. Seeman P (1992) Dopamine receptor sequences: Therapeutic levels of neuroleptics occupy D2 receptors, clozapine occupies D4. Neuropsychopharmacology 7, 261-284.
293. Seeman P (2002) Atypical antipsychotics: Mechanism of action. Canadian Journal of Psychiatry 47, 27-38.
294. Sekine Y, Ouchi Y, Takei N, et al. (2006) Perospirone is a new generation antipsychotic: Evidence from a positron emission tomography study of serotonin 2 and D2 receptor occupancy in the living human brain. Journal of Clinical Psychopharmacology 26, 531-533.
295. Selim K and Kaplowitz N (1999) Hepatotoxicity of psychotropic drugs. Hepatology 29, 1347-1351.
296. Sernyak MJ (2007) Implementation of monitoring and management guidelines for second-generation antipsychotics. Journal of Clinical Psychiatry 68, 14-18.
297. Shapiro DA, Renock S, Arrington E, et al. (2003) Aripiprazole, a novel atypical antipsychotic drug with a unique and robust pharmacology. Neuropsychopharmacology 28, 1400-1411.
298. Sharif Z, Miyamoto S, and Lieberman JA (2007) Pharmacotherapy of schizophrenia. In The Handbook of Contemporary Neuropharmacology, Sibley DR, Hanin I, Kuhar M, et al. (eds). John Wiley & Sons, Inc, Hoboken, NJ, USA, pp 369-410.
299. Shastry BS (2002) Schizophrenia: A genetic perspective (review). International Journal of Molecular Medicine 9, 207-212.
300. Shaw P, Sporn A, Gogtay N, et al. (2006) Childhood-onset schizophrenia: A double-blind, randomized clozapine-olanzapine comparison. Archives of General Psychiatry 63, 721-730.
301. Shiloh R, Zemishlany Z, Aizenberg D, et al. (1997) Sulpiride augmentation in people with schizophrenia partially responsive to clozapine: A double-blind, placebo-controlled study. British Journal of Psychiatry 171, 569-573.
302. Sikich L, Hamer RM, Bashford RA, et al. (2004) A pilot study of risperidone, olanzapine, and haloperidol in psychotic youth: A double-blind, randomized, 8-week trial. Neuropsychopharmacology 29, 133-145.
303. Siris SG (2000) Depression in schizophrenia: Perspective in the era of "Atypical" antipsychotic agents. The American Journal of Psychiatry 157, 1379-1389.
304. Siris SG, Bermanzohn PC, Mason SE, et al. (1994) Maintenance imipramine therapy for secondary depression in schizophrenia: A controlled trial. Archives of General Psychiatry 51, 109-115.
305. Small JG, Hirsch SR, Arvanitis LA, et al. (1997) Quetiapine in patients with schizophrenia: A high-and low-dose double-blind comparison with placebo. Seroquel Study Group. Archives of General Psychiatry 54, 549-557.
306. Soares KV and McGrath JJ (2001) Vitamin E for neuroleptic-induced tardive dyskinesia. The Cochrane Database of Systematic Reviews CD000209.
307. Speller JC, Barnes TR, Curson DA, et al. (1997) One-year, low-dose neuroleptic study of in-patients with chronic schizophrenia characterised by persistent negative symptoms: Amisulpride v. haloperidol. British Journal of Psychiatry 171, 564-568.
308. Spencer EK, Kafantaris V, Padron-Gayol MV, et al. (1992) Haloperidol in schizophrenic children: Early findings from a study in progress. Psychopharmacology Bulletin 28, 183-186.
309. Spina E and de Leon J (2007) Metabolic drug interactions with newer ant ip-sychotics: A comparative review. Journal of Basic and Clinical Physiology and Pharmacology 100, 4-22.
310. Stroup TS, Lieberman JA, McEvoy JP, et al. (2006) Effectiveness of olanzapine, quetiapine, risperidone, and ziprasidone in patients with chronic schizophrenia following discontinuation of a previous atypical antipsychotic. The American Journal of Psychiatry 163, 611-622.
311. Stroup TS, McEvoy JP, Swartz MS, et al. (2003) The National Institute of Mental Health Clinical Antipsychotic Trials of Intervention Effectiveness (CATIE) project: Schizophrenia trial design and protocol development. Schizophrenia Bulletin 29, 15-31.
312. Sur C, Mallorga PJ, Wittmann M, et al. (2003) N-desmethylclozapine, an allosteric agonist at muscarinic 1 receptor, potentiates N-methyl-D-aspar-tate receptor activity. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America 100, 13674-13679.
313. Tandon R and Jibson MD (2003) Efficacy of newer generation antipsy-chotics in the treatment of schizophrenia. Psychoneuroendocrinology 28 (Suppl 1), 9-26.
314. Tiihonen J, Halonen P, Wahlbeck K, et al. (2005) Topiramate add-on in treatment-resistant schizophrenia: A randomized, double-blind, placebo-controlled, crossover trial. Journal of Clinical Psychiatry 66, 1012-1015.
315. Tiihonen J, Walhbeck K, Lonnqvist J, et al. (2006) Effectiveness of antipsychotic treatments in a nationwide cohort of patients in community care after first hospitalisation due to schizophrenia and schizoaffective disorder: Observational follow-up study. British Medical Association (Clinical Research Ed.) 333, 224.
316. Tohen M, Vieta E, Calabrese J, et al. (2003) Efficacy of olanzapine and olan-zapine-fluoxetine combination in the treatment of bipolar I depression. Archives of General Psychiatry 60, 1079-1088.
317. Tollefson GD and Sanger TM (1997) Negative symptoms: A path analytic approach to a double-blind, placebo-and haloperidol-controlled clinical trial with olanzapine. The American Journal of Psychiatry 154, 466-474.
318. Trixler M and Tenyi T (1997) Antipsychotic use in pregnancy. What are the best treatment options? Drug Safety 16, 403-410.
319. Turrone P, Kapur S, Seeman MV, et al. (2002) Elevation of prolactin levels by atypical antipsychotics. The American Journal of Psychiatry 159, 133-135.
320. van Beijsterveldt LE, Geerts RJ, Leysen JE, et al. (1994) Regional brain distribution of risperidone and its active metabolite 9-hydroxy-risperidone in the rat. Psycho pharmacology 114, 53-62.
321. Van Putten T, Marder SR, Wirshing WC, et al. (1991) Neuroleptic plasma levels. Schizophrenia Bulletin 17, 197-216.
322. VanderZwaag C, McGee M, McEvoy JP, et al. (1996) Response of patients with treatment-refractory schizophrenia to clozapine within three serum level ranges. The American Journal of Psychiatry 153, 1579-1584.
323. Volavka J, Czobor P, Nolan K, et al. (2004) Overt aggression and psychotic symptoms in patients with schizophrenia treated with clozapine, olanzapine, risperidone, or haloperidol. Journal of Clinical Psychopharmacology 24, 225-228.
324. Volavka J, Czobor P, Sheitman B, et al. (2002) Clozapine, olanzapine, risperidone, and haloperidol in the treatment of patients with chronic schizophrenia and schizoaffective disorder. The American Journal of Psychiatry 159, 255-262.
325. Waddington J and Casey D (2000) Comparative pharmacology of classical and novel (second-generation) antipsychotics. In Schizophrenia and Mood Disorders: The New Drug Therapies in Clinical Practice, Buckley PF and Waddington JL (eds). Butterworth-Heinemann, Woburn, MA, USA, pp 3-13.
326. Wahlbeck K, Cheine M, Essali A, et al. (1999) Evidence of clozapine's effectiveness in schizophrenia: A systematic review and meta-analysis of randomized trials. The American Journal of Psychiatry 156, 990-999.
327. Wakade CG, Mahadik SP, Waller JL, et al. (2002) A typical neuroleptics stimulate neurogenesis in adult rat brain. Journal of Neuroscience Research 69, 72-79.
328. Wang HD, Dunnavant FD, Jarman T, et al. (2004) Effects of antipsychotic drugs on neurogenesis in the forebrain of the adult rat. Neuropsychopharmacology 29, 1230-1238.
329. Wang PS, Schneeweiss S, Avorn J, et al. (2005) Risk of death in elderly users of conventional vs. atypical antipsychotic medications. New England Journal of Medicine 353, 2335-2341.
330. Wang PS, Walker AM, Tsuang MT, et al. (2002) Dopamine antagonists and the development of breast cancer. Archives of General Psychiatry 59, 1147-1154.
331. White FJ and Wang RY (1983) Differential effects of classical and atypical antipsychotic drugs on A9 and A10 dopamine neurons. Science 221, 1054-1057.
332. Williams R (2001) Optimal dosing with risperidone: Updated recommend at ions. Journal of Clinical Psychiatry 62, 282-289.
333. Windgassen K, Wesselmann U, and Schulze MH (1996) Galactorrhea and hyperprolactinemia in schizophrenic patients on neuroleptics: Frequency and etiology. Neuropsychobiology 33, 142-146.
334. Winslow RS, Stillner V, Coons DJ, et al. (1986) Prevention of acute dystonic reactions in patients beginning high-potency neuroleptics. The American Journal of Psychiatry 143, 706-710.
335. Woerner MG, Robinson DG, Alvir JM, et al. (2003) Clozapine as a first treatment for schizophrenia. The American Journal of Psychiatry 160, 1514-1516.
336. Woodward ND, Purdon SE, Meltzer HY, et al. (2005) A meta-analysis of neuropsychological change to clozapine, olanzapine, quetiapine, and risperidone in schizophrenia. International Journal of Neuropsychopharmacology 8, 457-472.
337. Worrel JA, Marken PA, Beckman SE, et al. (2000) Atypical antipsychotic agents: A critical review. American Journal of Health-System Pharmacy 57, 238-255.
338. Wyatt RJ (1991) Neuroleptics and the natural course of schizophrenia. Schizophrenia Bulletin 17, 325-351.
339. Wyatt RJ (1995) Early intervention for schizophrenia-Can the course of the illness be altered? Biological Psychiatry 38, 1-3.
340. Wyatt RJ, Green MF, and Tuma AH (1997) Long-term morbidity associated with delayed treatment of first admission schizophrenic patients: A re-analysis of the Camarillo State Hospital data. Psychological Medicine 27, 261-268.
341. Xiberas X, Martinot JL, Mallet L, et al. (2001) In vivo extrastriatal and striatal D2 dopamine receptor blockade by amisulpride in schizophrenia. Journal of Clinical Psycho pharmacology. 21, 207-214.
342. Yaeger D, Smith HG, and Altshuler LL (2006) Atypical antipsychotics in the treatment of schizophrenia during pregnancy and the postpartum. The American Journal of Psychiatry 163, 2064-2070.
343. Yap YG and Camm J (2000) Risk of torsades de pointes with non-cardiac drugs: Doctors need to be aware that many drugs can cause qt prolongation. British Medical Journal (Clinical Research Ed.) 320, 1158-1159.
344. Yasui-Furukori N, Kondo T, Suzuki A, et al. (2002) Comparison of prolactin concentrations between haloperidol and risperidone treatments in the same female patients with schizophrenia. Psychopharmacology 162, 63-66.
345. Yokoi F, Grunder G, Biziere K, et al. (2002) Dopamine D2 and D3 receptor occupancy in normal humans treated with the antipsychotic drug arip-iprazole (OPC 14597): A study using positron emission tomography and [11C]raclopride. Neuropsychopharmacology 27, 248-259.
346. Yung AR and McGorry PD (1996) The initial prodrome in psychosis: Descriptive and qualitative aspects. Australian and New Zealand Journal of Psychiatry 30, 587-599.
347. Zimbroff DL, Kane JM, Tamminga CA, et al. (1997) Controlled, dose-response study of sertindole and haloperidol in the treatment of schizophrenia. Sertindole Study Group. The American Journal of Psychiatry 154, 782-791.