Vulnerability factors for the psychiatric and behavioral effects of cannabis

Pharmaceuticals

Volumn 3, Issue 9, 2010, Pages 2799-2820

  Bortolato, Marco ^a,b   Bini, Valentina ^b   Tambaro, Simone ^a,c  

^a UNIVERSITY OF SOUTHERN CALIFORNIA   (United States)

^b UNIVERSITY OF CAGLIARI   (Italy)

^c Parco Scientifico e Tecnologico della Sardegna   (Italy)

Author keywords

Cannabinoids; CB receptors; Vulnerability

Indexed keywords

4 AMINOBUTYRIC ACID; CANNABINOID; CANNABINOID 1 RECEPTOR; CANNABINOID 2 RECEPTOR; CANNABIS; DOPAMINE; DRONABINOL; ENDOCANNABINOID; GLUTAMIC ACID; NABILONE; NEUROLEPTIC AGENT;

AGE; ANXIETY DISORDER; BEHAVIOR CHANGE; BEHAVIOR DISORDER; CANNABIS ADDICTION; CLINICAL FEATURE; CLINICAL TRIAL; COGNITION; DRUG EFFICACY; DRUG EXPOSURE; EMOTION; GENE FREQUENCY; GENETIC PREDISPOSITION; GENETIC RISK; GENETIC VARIABILITY; GENOTYPE ENVIRONMENT INTERACTION; HUMAN; MOOD DISORDER; MULTIPLE DRUG ABUSE; NEUROPATHOLOGY; NONHUMAN; PHARMACOGENETICS; REVIEW; RISK FACTOR; SCHIZOPHRENIA; SELF MEDICATION; SEX DIFFERENCE; SINGLE NUCLEOTIDE POLYMORPHISM; TRANQUILIZING ACTIVITY; UNSPECIFIED SIDE EFFECT;

EID: 77957253600     PISSN: None     EISSN: 14248247     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.3390/ph3092799     Document Type: Review

References (217)

1. Substance Abuse and Mental Health Services Administration. Results from the 2008 National Survey on Drug Use and Health: National Findings; Office of Applied Studies: Rockville, MD, USA, 2009. NSDUH Series H-36, HHS Publication No. SMA 09-4434.
2. Gledhill-Hoyt, J.; Lee, H.; Strote, J.; Wechsler, H. Increased use of marijuana and other illicit drugs at US colleges in the 1990s: results of three national surveys. Addiction 2000, 95, 1655-1667.
3. Degenhardt, L.; Lynskey, M.; Hall, W. Cohort trends in the age of initiation of drug use in Australia. Aust. N.Z.J. Public. Health 2000, 24, 421-426.
4. Arseneault, L.; Cannon, M.; Witton, J.; Murray, R.M. Causal association between cannabis and psychosis: examination of the evidence. Br. J. Psychiatry 2004, 184, 110-117.
5. Smit, F.; Bolier, L.; Cuijpers, P. Cannabis use and the risk of later schizophrenia: a review. Addiction 2004, 99, 425-430.
6. Semple, D.M.; McIntosh, A.M.; Lawrie, S.M. Cannabis as a risk factor for psychosis: systematic review. J. Psychopharmacol. 2005, 19, 187-194.
7. Ashton, C.H.; Moore, P.B.; Gallagher, P.; Young, A.H. Cannabinoids in bipolar affective disorder: a review and discussion of their therapeutic potential. J. Psychopharmacol. 2005, 19, 293-300.
8. Moore, T.H.; Zammit, S.; Lingford-Hughes, A.; Barnes, TR.; Jones, P.B.; Burke, M.; Lewis, G. Cannabis use and risk of psychotic or affective mental health outcomes: a systematic review. Lancet 2007, 370, 319-328.
9. van Laar, M.; van Dorsselaer, S.; Monshouwer, K.; de Graaf, R. Does cannabis use predict the first incidence of mood and anxiety disorders in the adult population? Addiction 2007, 102, 1251-1260.
10. Dixon, L.; Haas, G.; Weiden, P.; Sweeney, J.; Frances, A. Acute effects of drug abuse in schizophrenic patients: clinical observations and patients' self-reports. Schizophr. Bull. 1990, 16, 69-79.
11. Dixon, L.; Haas, G.; Weiden, P.J.; Sweeney, J.; Frances, A.J. Drug abuse in schizophrenic patients: clinical correlates and reasons for use. Am. J. Psychiatry 1991, 148, 224-230.
12. Häfner, H. Schizophrenia and depression. Eur. Arch. Psychiatry Clin. Neurosci. 2005, 255, 157-158.
13. Arendt, M.; Rosenberg, R.; Fjordback, L.; Brandholdt, J.; Foldager, L.; Sher, L.; Munk-Jørgensen, P. Testing the self-medication hypothesis of depression and aggression in cannabis-dependent subjects. Psychol. Med. 2007, 37, 935-945.
14. El-Sohly, M.A.; Slade, D. Chemical constituents of marijuana: the complex mixture of natural cannabinoids. Life Sci. 2005, 78, 539-548.
15. Izzo, A.A.; Borrelli, F.; Capasso, R.; Di Marzo, V.; Mechoulam, R. Non-psychotropic plant cannabinoids: new therapeutic opportunities from an ancient herb. Trends Pharmacol. Sci. 2009, 30, 515-527.
16. Gaoni, Y.; Mechoulam, R. Isolation, structure and partial synthesis of an active constituent of hashish. J. Amer. Chem. Soc. 1964, 86, 1646.
17. El-Alfy, A.T.; Ivey, K.; Robinson, K.; Ahmed, S.; Radwan, M.; Slade, D.; Khan, I.; El-Sohly, M.; Ross, S. Antidepressant-like effect of Delta9-tetrahydrocannabinol and other cannabinoids isolated from Cannabis sativa. Pharmacol. Biochem. Behav. 2010, 95, 434-442.
18. Zuardi, A.W. Cannabidiol: from an inactive cannabinoid to a drug with wide spectrum of action. Rev. Bras. Psiquiatr. 2008, 30, 271-280.
19. Scuderi, C.; Filippis, D.D.; Iuvone, T.; Blasio, A.; Steardo, A.; Esposito, G. Cannabidiol in medicine: a review of its therapeutic potential in CNS disorders. Phytother. Res. 23, 2009, 597-602.
20. Matsuda, L.A.; Lolait, S.J.; Brownstein, M.J.; Young, A.C.; Bonner, T.I. Structure of a cannabinoid receptor and functional expression of the cloned cDNA. Nature 1990, 346, 561-564.
21. Munro, S.; Thomas, K.L.; Abu-Shaar, M. Molecular characterization of a peripheral receptor for cannabinoids. Nature 1993, 365, 61-65.
22. Herkenham, M.; Lynn, A.B.; Little, M.D.; Johnson, M.R.; Melvin, L.S.; de Costa, B.R.; Rice, KC. Cannabinoid receptor localization in brain. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA 1990, 87, 1932-1936.
23. Herkenham, M.; Lynn, A.B.; Johnson, M.R.; Melvin, L.S.; de Costa, B.R.; Rice, K.C. Characterization and localization of cannabinoid receptors in rat brain: a quantitative in vitro autoradiographic study. J. Neurosci. 1991, 11, 563-583.
24. Glass, M.; Faull, R.L.M.; Dragunow, M. Cannabinoid receptors in the human brain: a detailed anatomical and quantitative autoradiographic study on the fetal neonatal and adult human brain. Neuroscience 1997, 77, 299-318.
25. Katona, I.; Rancz, E.A.; Acsady, L.; Ledent, C.; Mackie, K.; Hajos, N.; Freund, T.F. Distribution of CB1 cannabinoid receptors in the amygdala and their role in the control of GABAergic transmission. J. Neurosci. 2001, 21, 9506-9518.
26. Hajos, N.; Freund, T.F. Pharmacological separation of cannabinoid sensitive receptors on hippocampal excitatory and inhibitory fibers. Neuropharmacology 2002, 43, 503-510.
27. Galiègue, S.; Mary, S.; Marchand, J.; Dussossoy, D.; Carrière, D.; Carayon, P.; Bouaboula, M.; Shire, D.; Le Fur, G.; Casellas, P. Expression of central and peripheral cannabinoid receptors in human immune tissues and leukocyte subpopulations. Eur. J. Biochem. 1995, 232, 54-61.
28. Van Sickle, M.D.; Duncan, M.; Kingsley, P.J.; Mouihate, A.; Urbani, P.; Mackie, K.; Stella, N.; Makriyannis, A.; Piomelli, D.; Davison, J.S.; Marnett, L.J.; Di Marzo, V.; Pittman, Q.J.; Patel, K.D.; Sharkey, K.A. Identification and functional characterization of brainstem cannabinoid CB2 receptors. Science 2005, 310, 329-332.
29. Gong, J.P.; Onaivi, E.S.; Ishiguro, H.; Liu, Q.R.; Tagliaferro, P.A.; Brusco, A.; Uhl, G.R. Cannabinoid CB2 receptors: immunohistochemical localization in rat brain. Brain Res. 2006, 1071, 10-23.
30. Domenici, M.R.; Azad, S.C.; Marsicano, G.; Schierloh, A.; Wotjak, C.T.; Dodt, H.U.; Zieglgänsberger, W.; Lutz, B.; Rammes, G. Cannabinoid receptor type 1 located on presynaptic terminals of principal neurons in the forebrain controls glutamatergic synaptic transmission. J. Neurosci. 2006, 26, 5794-5799.
31. Kawamura, Y.; Fukaya, M.; Maejima, T.; Yoshida, T.; Miura, E.; Watanabe, M.; Ohno-Shosaku, T.; Kano, M. The CB1 cannabinoid receptor is the major cannabinoid receptor at excitatory presynaptic sites in the hippocampus and cerebellum. J. Neurosci. 2006, 26, 2991-3001.
32. Onaivi, E.S. Neuropsychobiological evidence for the functional presence and expression of cannabinoid CB2 receptors in the brain. Neuropsychobiology 2006, 54, 231-246.
33. Brusco, A.; Tagliaferro, P.; Saez, T.; Onaivi, E.S. Postsynaptic localization of CB2 cannabinoid receptors in the rat hippocampus. Synapse 2008, 62, 944-949.
34. Morishita, W.; Alger, B.E. Evidence for endogenous excitatory amino acids as mediators in DSI of GABA(A)ergic transmission in hippocampal CA1. J. Neurophysiol. 1999, 82, 2556-2564.
35. Wilson, R.I.; Nicoll, R.A. Endogenous cannabinoids mediate retrograde signalling at hippocampal synapses. Nature 2001, 410, 588-592.
36. Ohno-Shosaku, T.; Maejima, T.; Kano, M. Endogenous cannabinoids mediate retrograde signals from depolarized postsynaptic neurons to presynaptic terminals. Neuron 2001, 29, 729-738.
37. Varma, N.; Carlson, G.C.; Ledent, C.; Alger, B.E. Metabotropic glutamate receptors drive the endocannabinoid system in hippocampus. J. Neurosci. 2001, 21, RC188.
38. Hashimotodani, Y.; Ohno-Shosaku, T.; Kano, M. Endocannabinoids and synaptic function in the CNS. Neuroscientist 2007, 13, 127-137.
39. Hájos, N.; Katona, I.; Naiem, S.S.; MacKie, K.; Ledent, C.; Mody, I.; Freund, T.F. Cannabinoids inhibit hippocampal GABAergic transmission and network oscillations. Eur. J. Neurosci. 2000, 12, 3239-3249.
40. Wager-Miller, J.; Westenbroek, R.; Mackie, K. Dimerization of G protein-coupled receptors: CB1 cannabinoid receptors as an example. Chem. Phys. Lipids 2002, 121, 83-89.
41. Mackie, K. Distribution of cannabinoid receptors in the central and peripheral nervous system. Handb. Exp. Pharmacol. 2005, 168, 299-325.
42. Hojo, M.; Sudo, Y.; Ando, Y.; Minami, K.; Takada, M.; Matsubara, T.; Kanaide, M.; Taniyama, K.; Sumikawa, K.; Uezono, Y. mu-Opioid receptor forms a functional heterodimer with cannabinoid CB1 receptor: electrophysiological and FRET assay analysis. J. Pharmacol. Sci. 2008, 108, 308-319.
43. Devane, W.A.; Hanus, L.; Breuer, A.; Pertwee, R.G.; Stevenson, L.A.; Griffin, G.; Gibson, D.; Mandelbaum, A.; Etinger, A.; Mechoulam, R. Isolation and structure of a brain constituent that binds to the cannabinoid receptor. Science 1992, 258, 1946-1949.
44. Mechoulam, R.; Ben-Shabat, S.; Hanus, L.; Ligumsky, M.; Kaminski, N.E.; Schatz, A.R.; Gopher, A.; Almog, S.; Martin, B.R.; Compton, D.R. Identification of an endogenous 2monoglyceride, present in canine gut, that binds to cannabinoid receptors. Biochem. Pharmacol. 1995, 50, 83-90.
45. Sugiura, T.; Kondo, S.; Sukagawa, A.; Nakane, S.; Shinoda, A.; Itoh, K.; Yamashita, A.; Waku, K. 2-Arachidonoylglycerol: a possible endogenous cannabinoid receptor ligand in brain. Biochem. Biophys. Res. Commun. 1995, 215, 89-97.
46. Di Marzo, V.; Fontana, A.; Cadas, H.; Schinelli, S.; Cimino, G.; Schwartz, J.C.; Piomelli, D. Formation and inactivation of endogenous cannabinoid anandamide in central neurons. Nature 1994, 372, 686-691.
47. Cadas, H.; di Tomaso, E.; Piomelli, D. Occurrence and biosynthesis of endogenous cannabinoid precursor, N-arachidonoyl phosphatidylethanolamine, in rat brain. J. Neurosci. 1997, 17, 1226-1242.
48. Gerdeman, G.L.; Ronesi, J.; Lovinger, D.M. Postsynaptic endocannabinoid release is critical to long-term depression in the striatum. Nat. Neurosci. 2002, 5, 446-451.
49. Robbe, D.; Alonso, G.; Chaumont, S.; Bockaert, J.; Manzoni, O.J. Role of p/q-Ca2+ channels in metabotropic glutamate receptor 2/3-dependent presynaptic long-term depression at nucleus accumbens synapses. J. Neurosci. 2002, 22, 4346-4356.
50. Sjostrom, P.J.; Turrigiano, G.G.; Nelson, S.B. Neocortical LTD via coincident activation of presynaptic NMDA and cannabinoid receptors. Neuron 2003, 39, 641-654.
51. Jung, K.M.; Mangieri, R.; Stapleton, C.; Kim, J.; Fegley, D.; Wallace, M.; Mackie, K.; Piomelli, D. Stimulation of endocannabinoid formation in brain slice cultures through activation of group I metabotropic glutamate receptors. Mol. Pharmacol. 2005, 68, 1196-1202.
52. Kim, J.; Alger, B.E. Inhibition of cyclooxygenase-2 potentiates retrograde endocannabinoid effects in hippocampus. Nat. Neurosci. 2004, 7, 697-698.
53. Makara, J.K.; Mor, M.; Fegley, D.; Szabo, S.I.; Kathuria, S.; Astarita, G.; Duranti, A.; Tontini, A.; Tarzia, G.; Rivara, S.; Freund, T.F.; Piomelli, D. Selective inhibition of 2-AG hydrolysis enhances endocannabinoid signaling in hippocampus. Nat. Neurosci. 2005, 8, 1139-1141.
54. Giuffrida, A.; Parsons, L.H.; Kerr, T.M.; Rodriguez de Fonseca, F.; Navarro, M.; Piomelli, D. Dopamine activation of endogenous cannabinoid signaling in dorsal striatum. Nat. Neurosci. 1999, 2, 358-363.
55. Gobbi, G.; Bambico, F.R.; Mangieri, R.; Bortolato, M.; Campolongo, P.; Solinas, M.; Cassano, T.; Morgese, M.G.; Debonnel, G.; Duranti, A.; Tontini, A.; Tarzia, G.; Mor, M.; Trezza, V.; Goldberg, S.R.; Cuomo, V.; Piomelli, D. Antidepressant-like activity and modulation of brain monoaminergic transmission by blockade of anandamide hydrolysis. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA 2005, 102, 18620-18625.
56. Muntoni, A.L.; Pillolla, G.; Melis, M.; Perra, S.; Gessa, G.L.; Pistis, M. Cannabinoids modulate spontaneous neuronal activity and evoked inhibition of locus coeruleus noradrenergic neurons. Eur. J. Neurosci. 2006, 23, 2385-2394.
57. Weidenfeld, J.; Feldman, S.; Mechoulam, R. Effect of the brain constituent anandamide, a cannabinoid receptor agonist, on the hypothalamo-pituitary-adrenal axis in the rat. Neuroendocrinology 1994, 59, 110-122.
58. Manzanares, J.; Corchero, J.; Romero J.; Fernandez-Ruiz, J.J.; Ramos, J.A.; Fuentes, J.A. Pharmacological and biochemical interactions between opioids and cannabinoids. Trends Pharmacol. Sci. 1999, 20, 287-294.
59. Beinfeld, M.C.; Connolly, K. Activation of CB1 cannabinoid receptors in rat hippocampal slices inhibits potassium-evoked cholecystokinin release, a possible mechanism contributing to the spatial memory defects produced by cannabinoids. Neurosci. Lett. 2001, 301; 69-71.
60. Valverde, O.; Ledent, C.; Beslot, F.; Parmentier, M.; Roques, B.P. Reduction of stress-induced analgesia but not of exogenous opioid effects in mice lacking CB1 receptors. Eur. J. Neurosci. 2000, 12, 533-539.
61. Ghozland, S.; Matthes, H.W.; Simonin, F.; Filliol, D.; Kieffer, B.L.; Maldonado, R. Motivational effects of cannabinoids are mediated by mu-opioid and kappa-opioid receptors. J. Neurosci. 2002, 22, 1146-1154.
62. Romero, E.M.; Fernandez, B.; Sagredo, O.; Gomez, N.; Uriguen, L.; Guaza, C.; De Miguel, R.; Ramos, J.A.; Viveros, M.P. Antinociceptive, behavioural and neuroendocrine effects of CP 55,940 in young rats. Brain Res. Dev. Brain Res. 2002, 136, 85-92.
63. Hill, M.N.; Titterness, A.K.; Morrish, A.C.; Carrier, E.J.; Lee, T.T.; Gil-Mohapel, J.; Gorzalka, B.B.; Hillard, C.J.; Christie, B.R. Endogenous cannabinoid signaling is required for voluntary exercise-induced enhancement of progenitor cell proliferation in the hippocampus. Hippocampus 2010, 20, 513-523.
64. López-Moreno, J.A.; González-Cuevas, G.; Moreno, G.; Navarro, M. The pharmacology of the endocannabinoid system: functional and structural interactions with other neurotransmitter systems and their repercussions in behavioral addiction. Addict. Biol. 2008, 13, 160-187.
65. Atha, M.J.; Blanchard, S. Regular users. Self-reported drug consumption patterns and attitudes towards drugs among 1333 regular cannabis users. IDMU publications: Vigan, UK, 1999.
66. Perez-Reyes, M. The psychologic and physiologic effects of active cannabinoids. In Marihuana and Medicine; Nahas, G.; Sutin, K.M., Harvey, D.J., Agurell, S., Eds.; Humana Press: Totowa, NJ, USA, 1999; pp. 245-252.
67. Reilly, D.; Didcott, P.; Swift, W.; Hall, W. Long-term cannabis use: characteristics of users in an Australian rural area. Addiction 1998, 93, 837-846.
68. Boys, A.; Marsden, J.; Griffiths, P.; Fountain, J.; Stillwell, G.; Strang, J. Substance use among young people: the relationship between perceived functions and intentions. Addiction 1999, 94, 1043-1050.
69. Hollister, L.E. Health aspects of cannabis. Pharmacol. Rev. 1986, 38, 1-20.
70. Thomas, H. A community survey of adverse effects of cannabis use. Drug Alcohol Depend. 1996, 42, 201-207.
71. Hall, W.; Solowij, N. Adverse effects of cannabis. Lancet 1998, 352, 1611-1616.
72. Patton, G.C.; Coffey, C.; Carlin, J.B.; Degenhardt, L.; Lynskey, M.; Hall, W. Cannabis use and mental health in young people: cohort study. BMJ. 2002, 325, 1195-1198.
73. Green, B.; Kavanagh, D.; Young, R. Being stoned: a review of self-reported cannabis effects. Drug Alcohol Rev. 2003, 22, 453-460.
74. Tournier, M.; Sorbara, F.; Gindre, C.; Swendsen, J.D.; Verdoux, H. Cannabis use and anxiety in daily life: a naturalistic investigation in a non-clinical population. Psychiatry Res. 2003, 118, 1-8.
75. Dannon, P.N.; Lowengrub, K.; Amiaz, R.; Grunhaus, L.; Kotler, M. Comorbid cannabis use and panic disorder: short term and long term follow-up study. Hum. Psychopharmacol. 2004, 19, 97-101.
76. D'Souza, D.C.; Perry, E.; MacDougall, L.; Ammerman, Y.; Cooper, T.; Wu, Y.T.; Braley, G.; Gueorguieva, R.; Krystal, J.H. The psychotomimetic effects of intravenous delta-9tetrahydrocannabinol in healthy individuals: implications for psychosis. Neuropsychopharmacology 2004, 29, 1558-1572.
77. Favrat, B.; Ménétrey, A.; Augsburger, M.; Rothuizen, L.E.; Appenzeller, M.; Buclin, T.; Pin, M.; Mangin, P.; Giroud, C. Two cases of cannabis acute psychosis following the administration of oral cannabis. BMC Psychiatry 2005, 1, 5-17.
78. Johns, A. Psychiatric effects of cannabis. Br. J. Psychiatry 2001, 178,116-122.
79. Chopra, G.S.; Smith, J.W. Psychotic reactions following cannabis use in East Indians. Arch Gen Psychiatry 1974, 30, 24-27.
80. Solowij, N.; Michie, P.T.; Fox, A.M. Effects of long-term cannabis use on selective attention: an event-related potential study. Pharmacol. Biochem. Behav. 1991, 40, 683-688.
81. Solowij, N. Do cognitive impairments recover following cessation of cannabis use? Life Sci. 1995, 56, 2119-2126.
82. Carlini, E.A. The good and the bad effects of (-) trans-delta-9-tetrahydrocannabinol (Delta 9THC) on humans. Toxicon 2004, 44, 461-467.
83. Solowij, N.; Pesa, N. Cognitive abnormalities and cannabis use. Rev. Bras. Psiquiatr. 2010, 32, S31-S40.
84. Kelly, T.H.; Foltin, R.W.; Rose, A.J.; Fischman, M.W.; Brady, J.V. Smoked marijuana effects on tobacco cigarette smoking behavior. J. Pharmacol. Exp. Ther. 1990, 252, 934-944.
85. Roy-Byrne, P.P.; Uhde, T.W. Exogenous factors in panic disorder: clinical and research implications. J. Clin. Psychiatry 1998, 49, 56-61.
86. Crippa, J.A.; Zuardi, A.W.; Martín-Santos, R.; Bhattacharyya, S.; Atakan, Z.; McGuire, P.; Fusar-Poli, P. Cannabis and anxiety: a critical review of the evidence. Hum. Psychopharmacol. 2009, 24, 515-523.
87. Onaivi, E.S.; Green, M.R.; Martin, B.R. Pharmacological characterization of cannabinoids in the elevated plus maze. J. Pharmacol. Exp. Ther. 1990, 253, 1002-1009.
88. McGregor, I.S.; Dastur, F.N.; McLellan, R.A.; Brown, R.E. Cannabinoid modulation of rat pup ultrasonic vocalizations. Eur. J. Pharmacol. 1996, 313, 43-49.
89. Rodriguez de Fonseca, F.; Rubio, P.; Menzaghi, F.; Merlo-Pich, E.; Rivier, J.; Koob, G.F.; Navarro, M. Corticotropin-releasing factor (CRF) antagonist [D-Phe12,Nle21,38,C alpha MeLeu37]CRF attenuates the acute actions of the highly potent cannabinoid receptor agonist HU210 on defensive-withdrawal behavior in rats. J. Pharmacol. Exp. Ther. 1996, 276, 56-64.
90. Rodriguez de Fonseca, F.; Carrera, M.R.; Navarro, M.; Koob, G.F.; Weiss, F. Activation of corticotropin-releasing factor in the limbic system during cannabinoid withdrawal. Science 1997, 276, 2050-2054.
91. Chaperon, F.; Thiebot, M.H. Behavioral effects of cannabinoid agents in animals. Crit. Rev. Neurobiol. 1999, 13, 243-281.
92. Arevalo, C.; De Miguel, R.; Hernandez-Tristan, R. Cannabinoid effects on anxiety-related behaviours and hypothalamic neurotransmitters. Pharmacol. Biochem. Behav. 2001, 70, 123-131.
93. Berrendero F.; Maldonado R. Involvement of the opioid system in the anxiolytic-like effects induced by Delta(9)-tetrahydrocannabinol. Psychopharmacology 2002, 163, 111-117.
94. Marin, S.; Marco, E.; Biscaia, M.; Fernandez, B.; Rubio, M.; Guaza, C.; Schmidhammer, H.; Viveros, M.P. Involvement of the kappa-opioid receptor in the anxiogenic-like effect of CP 55,940 in male rats. Pharmacol. Biochem. Behav. 2003, 74, 649-656.
95. Genn, R.F.; Tucci, S.; Marco, E.M.; Viveros, M.P.; File, S.E. Unconditioned and conditioned anxiogenic effects of the cannabinoid receptor agonist CP 55,940 in the social interaction test. Pharmacol. Biochem. Behav. 2004, 77, 567-573.
96. Bambico, F.R.; Katz, N.; Debonnel, G.; Gobbi, G. Cannabinoids elicit antidepressant-like behavior and activate serotonergic neurons through the medial prefrontal cortex. J. Neurosci. 2007, 27, 11700-11711.
97. Jentsch, J.D.; Andrusiak, E.; Tran, A.; Bowers, M.B. Jr.; Roth, R.H. Delta 9-tetrahydrocannabinol increases prefrontal cortical catecholaminergic utilization and impairs spatial working memory in the rat: blockade of dopaminergic effects with HA966. Neuropsychopharmacology 1997, 16, 426-432.
98. Schneider, M.; Koch, M. The cannabinoid agonist WIN 55,212-2 reduces sensorimotor gating and recognition memory in rats. Behav. Pharmacol. 2002, 13, 29-37.
99. Castellano, C.; Rossi-Arnaud, C.; Cestari, V.; Costanzi, M. Cannabinoids and memory: animal studies. Curr. Drug Targets CNS Neurol. Disord. 2003, 2, 389-402.
100. Kosiorek, P.; Hryniewicz, A.; Bialuk, I.; Zawadzka, A.; Winnicka, M.M. Cannabinoids alter recognition memory in rats. Pol. J. Pharmacol. 2003, 55, 903-910.
101. Arguello P.A.; Jentsch J.D. Cannabinoid CB1 receptor-mediated impairment ofvisuospatial attention in the rat. Psychopharmacology 2004, 177, 141-150.
102. Kathuria, S.; Gaetani, S.; Fegley, D.; Valino, F.; Duranti, A.; Tontini, A.; Mor, M.; Tarzia, G.; La Rana, G.; Calignano, A.; Giustino, A.; Tattoli, M.; Palmery, M.; Cuomo, V.; Piomelli, D. Modulation of anxiety through blockade of anandamide hydrolysis. Nat. Med. 2003, 9, 76-81.
103. Bortolato, M.; Campolongo, P.; Mangieri, R.A.; Scattoni, M.L.; Frau, R.; Trezza, V.; La Rana, G.; Russo, R.; Calignano, A.; Gessa, G.L.; Cuomo, V.; Piomelli, D. Anxiolytic-like properties of the anandamide transport inhibitor AM404. Neuropsychopharmacology 2006, 31, 2652-2659.
104. Bortolato, M.; Mangieri, R.A.; Fu, J.; Kim, J.H.; Arguello, O.; Duranti, A.; Tontini, A.; Mor, M.; Tarzia, G.; Piomelli, D. Antidepressant-like activity of the fatty acid amide hydrolase inhibitor URB597 in a rat model of chronic mild stress. Biol. Psychiatry 2007, 62, 1103-1110.
105. Marchalant, Y.; Cerbai, F.; Brothers, H.M.; Wenk, G.L. Cannabinoid receptor stimulation is anti- inflammatory and improves memory in old rats. Neurobiol. Aging 2008, 29, 1894-1901.
106. Marchalant, Y.; Brothers, H.M.; Wenk, G.L. New neuron production can be increased in the hippocampus of aged rats following cannabinoid treatment. Mol. Psychiatry 2009, 14, 1068-1069.
107. Rubino, T.; Parolaro, D. Long lasting consequences of cannabis exposure in adolescence. Mol. Cell. Endocrinol. 2008, 286, S108-S113.
108. Tennant, F.S., Jr.; Groesbeck, C.J. Psychiatric effects of hashish. Arch. Gen. Psychiatry 1972, 27, 133-136.
109. Millman, R.B.; Sbriglio, R. Patterns of use and psychopathology in chronic marijuana users. Psychiatr. Clin. North Am. 1986, 9, 533-545.
110. Dorard, G.; Berthoz, S.; Haviland, M.G.; Phan, O.; Corcos, M.; Bungener, C. Multimethod alexithymia assessment in adolescents and young adults with a cannabis use disorder. Compr. Psychiatry 2008, 49, 585-592.
111. Chait, L.D.; Perry, J.L. Factors influencing self-administration of, and subjective response to, placebo marijuana. Behav. Pharmacol. 1992, 3, 545-552.
112. Miller, L.L.; Branconnier, R.J. Cannabis: effects on memory and the cholinergic limbic system. Psychol. Bull. 1983, 93, 441-456.
113. Whitlow, C.T.; Liguori, A.; Livengood, L.B.; Hart, S.L.; Mussat-Whitlow, B.J.; Lamborn, C.M.; Laurienti, P.J.; Porrino, L.J. Long-term heavy marijuana users make costly decisions on a gambling task. Drug Alcohol Depend. 2004, 76, 107-111.
114. McHale, S.; Hunt, N. Executive function deficits in short-term abstinent cannabis users. Hum. Psychopharmacol. 2008, 23, 409-415.
115. Voytek, B.; Berman, S.M.; Hassid, B.D.; Simon, S.L.; Mandelkern, M.A.; Brody, A.L.; Monterosso, J.; Ling, W.; London, E.D. Differences in regional brain metabolism associated with marijuana abuse in methamphetamine abusers. Synapse 2005, 57, 113-115.
116. Degenhardt, L.; Hall, W.; Lynskey, M. The relationship between cannabis use, depression and anxiety among Australian adults: findings from the National Survey of Mental Health and Well-Being. Soc. Psychiatry Psychiatr Epidemiol. 2001, 36, 219-227.
117. Koenen, K.C.; Lyons, M.J.; Goldberg, J.; Simpson, J.; Williams, W.M.; Toomey, R.; Eisen, S.A.; True, W.; Tsuang, M.T. Co-twin control study of relationship among combat exposure, combat- related PTSD, and other mental disorders. J. Trauma Stress 2003, 16, 433-438.
118. Swadi, H.; Bobier, C. Substance use disorder comorbidity among inpatient youths with psychiatric disorder. Aust. Nzj. Psychiatry 2003, 37, 294-298.
119. Okulate, G.T.; Jones, O.B. Post-traumatic stress disorder, survivor guilt and substance use a study of hospitalised Nigerian army veterans. S. Afr. Med. J. 2006, 96, 144-146.
120. Zvolensky, M.J.; Bernstein, A.; Sachs-ericsson, N.; Schmidt, N.B.; Bucker, J.D.; Bonn-Miller, M.O. Lifetime associations between cannabis, use, abuse, and dependence and panic attacks in a representative sample. J. Pevchiatr. Res. 2006, 40, 477-486.
121. Hayatbakhsh, M.R.; Najman, J.M.; Jamrozik, K.; Mamun, A.A.; Alati, R.; Bor, W. Cannabis and anxiety and depression in young adults: a large prospective syudy. J. Am. Acad. Child Adolesc. Psychiatry 2007, 46, 408-417.
122. Arseneault, L.; Cannon, M.; Poulton, R.; Murray, R.; Caspi, A.; Moffitt, T.E. Cannabis use in adolescence and risk for adult psychosis: longitudinal prospective study. BMJ. 2002, 325, 1212-1213.
123. Fergusson, D.M.; Horwood, L.J.; Swain-Campbell, N. Cannabis use and psychosocial adjustment in adolescence and young adulthood. Addiction 2002, 97, 1123-1135.
124. Rey, J.M.; Sawyer, M.G.; Raphael, B.; Patton, G.C.; Lynskey, M. Mental health of teenagers who use cannabis. Results of an Australian survey. Br. J. Psychiatry 2002, 180, 216-221.
125. Szuster, R.R.; Pontieri, F.E.; Campos, P.E. Marijuana sensitivity and panic anxiety, J. Clin. Psychiatr. 1988, 49, 427-429.
126. Strakowski, S.M.; DelBello, M.P.; Fleck, D.E.; Arndt, S. The impact of substance abuse on the course of bipolar disorder. Biol. Psychiatry 2000, 48, 477-485.
127. Baethge, C.; Baldessarini, R.J.; Khalsa, H.M.; Hennen, J.; Salvatore, P.; Tohen, M. Substance abuse in first-episode bipolar I disorder: indications for early intervention. Am. J. Psychiatry 2005, 162, 1008-1010.
128. Strakowski, S.M.; Del Bello, M.P.; Fleck, D.E.; Adler, C.M.; Anthenelli, R.M.; Keck, P.E. Jr, Arnold, L.M.; Amicone, J. Effects of co-occurring cannabis use disorders on the course of bipolar disorder after a first hospitalization for mania. Arch. Gen. Psychiatry, 2007, 64, 57-64.
129. Gruber, A.J.; Pope, H.G. Jr, Brown, M.E. Do patients use marijuana as an antidepressant? Depression 1996, 4, 77-80.
130. Stewart, S.H.; Karp, J.; Pihl, R.O.; Peterson, R.A. Anxiety sensitivity and self-reported reasons for drug use. J. Subst. Abuse 1997, 9, 223-240.
131. Grinspoon, L.; Bakalar, J.B. The use of cannabis as a mood stabilizer in bipolar disorder: anecdotal evidence and the need for clinical research. J. Psychoactive Drugs 1998, 30,171-177.
132. Ogborne, A.C.; Smart, R.G.; Adlaf, E.M. Self-reported medical use of marijuana: a survey of the general population. CMAJ 2000, 162, 1685-1686.
133. Agosti, V.; Nunes E, Levin F. Rates of psychiatric comorbidity among U.S. residents with lifetime cannabis dependence. Am. J. Drug Alcohol Abuse 2002, 28, 643-652.
134. Wittchen, H.U.; Fröhlich, C.; Behrendt, S.; Günther, A.; Rehm, J.; Zimmermann, P.; Lieb, R.; Perkonigg, A. Cannabis use and cannabis use disorders and their relationship to mental disorders: a 10-year prospective-longitudinal community study in adolescents. Drug Alcohol Depend. 2007, 88, S60-S70.
135. Buckner, J.; Schmidt, N.; Lang, A.; Small, J.; Schlauch, R.; Lewinsohn, P. Specificity of social anxiety disorder as a risk factor for alcohol and cannabis dependence. J. Psychiatr. Res. 2008, 42, 230-239.
136. Glass, R.M.; Uhlenhuth, E.H.; Hartel, F.W.; Schuster, C.R.; Fischman, M.W. A single dose study of nabilone, a synthetic cannabinoid. Psychopharmacology, 1980, 71, 137-142.
137. Fabre, L.F.; McLendon, D. The efficacy and safety of nabilone (a synthetic cannabinoid) in the treatment of anxiety. J. Clin. Pharmacol. 1981, 21, S377-S382.
138. Ilaria, R.L.; Thornby, J.I.; Fann, W.E. Nabilone, a cannabinol derivative, in the treatment of anxiety neurosis. Curr. Ther. Res. 1981, 29, 943-949.
139. Vinod, K.Y.; Hungund B.L. Role of the endocannabinoid system in depression and suicide. Trends Pharmacol. Sci. 2006, 27, 539-545.
140. Bortolato, M.; Piomelli, D. The endocannabinoid system and anxiety responses Handbook of Behavioral Neuroscience 17: Handbook of anxiety and fear, Elsevier: Amsterdam, Netherlands, 2008; Chapter 4.5, pp. 303-324.
141. Parolaro, D.; Realini, N.; Vigano, D.; Guidali, C.; Rubino, T. The endocannabinoid system and psychiatric disorders. Exp. Neurol. 2010, 224, 3-14.
142. Hill, M.N.; Gorzalka, B.B. Pharmacological enhancement of cannabinoid CB1 receptor activity elicits an antidepressant-like response in the rat forced swim test. Eur. Neuropsychopharmacol. 2005, 15, 593-599.
143. Bersani, G.; Orlandi, V.; Kotzalidis, G.D.; Pancheri, P. Cannabis and schizophrenia: impact on onset, course, psychopathology and outcomes. Eur. Arch. Psychiatry Clin. Neurosci. 2002, 252, 86-92.
144. Degenhardt, L.; Hall, W.; Lynskey, M. Testing hypotheses about the relationship between cannabis use and psychosis. Drug Alcohol Depend. 2003, 71, 37-48.
145. Fergusson, D.M.; Poulton, R.; Smith, P.F.; Boden, J.M. Cannabis and psychosis. B.M.J. 2006, 332, 172-175.
146. Andréasson, S.; Allebeck, P.; Engström, A.; Rydberg, U. Cannabis and schizophrenia. A longitudinal study of Swedish conscripts. Lancet 1987, 2, 1483-1486.
147. van Os, J.; Bak, M.; Hanssen, M.; Bijl, R.V.; de Graaf, R.; Verdoux, H. Cannabis use andpsychosis: a longitudinal population-based study. Am. J. Epidemiol. 2002, 156, 319-327.
148. Barnett, J.H.; Werners, U.; Secher, S.M.; Hill, K.E.; Brazil, R.; Masson, K.; Pernet, D.E.; Kirkbride, J.B.; Murray, G.K.; Bullmore, E.T.; Jones, P.B. Substance use in a population-based clinic sample of people with first-episode psychosis. Br. J. Psychiatry 2007, 190, 515-520.
149. Lindenmann, E.; Malamud, W. Experimental analysis of the psychopathological effects of intoxication drugs. Am. J. Psychiatry 1934, 90, 853-881.
150. D'Souza, D.C.; Abi-Saab, W.M.; Madonick, S.; Forselius-Bielen, K.; Doersch, A.; Braley, G.; Gueorguieva, R.; Cooper, T.B.; Krystal, J.H. Delta-9-tetrahydrocannabinol effects in schizophrenia: implications for cognition, psychosis, and addiction. Biol. Psychiatry 2005, 57, 594-608.
151. Bramon, E.; McDonald, C.; Croft, R.J.; Landau, S.; Filbey, F.; Gruzelier, J.H.; Sham, P.C.; Frangou, S.; Murray, R.M. Is the P300 wave an endophenotype for schizophrenia? A metaanalysis and a family study. Neuroimage 2005, 27, 960-968.
152. Roser, P.; Juckel, G.; Rentzsch, J.; Nadulski, T.; Gallinat, J.; Stadelmann, A.M. Effects of acute oral Delta9-tetrahydrocannabinol and standardized cannabis extract on the auditory P300 event- related potential in healthy volunteers. Eur. Neuropsychopharmacol. 2008, 18, 569-577.
153. Braff, D.L.; Geyer, M.A.; Swerdlow, N.R. Human studies of prepulse inhibition of startle: normal subjects, patient groups, and pharmacological studies. Psychopharmacology 2001, 156, 234-258.
154. Kedzior, K.K.; Martin-Iverson, M.T. Attention-dependent reduction in prepulse inhibition of the startle reflex in cannabis users and schizophrenia patients--a pilot study. Eur. J. Pharmacol. 2007, 560, 176-182.
155. Peralta, V.; Cuesta, M.J. Influence of cannabis abuse on schizophrenic psychopathology. Acta Psychiatr. Scand. 1992, 85, 127-130.
156. Schofield, D.; Tennant, C.; Nash, L.; Degenhardt, L.; Cornish, A.; Hobbs, C.; Brennan, G. Reasons for cannabis use in psychosis. Aust. N. Z. J. Psychiatry 2006, 40, 570-574.
157. Test, M.A.; Wallisch, L.S.; Allness, D.J.; Ripp, K. Substance use in young adults with schizophrenic disorders. Schizophr. Bull. 1989, 15, 465-476.
158. Fernandez-Espejo, E.; Viveros, M.P.; Núñez, L.; Ellenbroek, B.A.; Rodriguez de Fonseca, F. Role of cannabis and endocannabinoids in the genesis of schizophrenia. Psychopharmacology 2009, 206, 531-549.
159. Dean, B.; Sundram, S.; Bradbury, R.; Scarr, E.; Copolov, D. Studies on [3H]CP-55940 binding in the human central nervous system: regional specific changes in density of cannabinoid-1 receptors associated with schizophrenia and cannabis use. Neuroscience 2001,103, 9-15.
160. Zavitsanou, K.; Garrick, T.; Huang, X.F. Selective antagonist [3H]SR141716A binding to cannabinoid CB1 receptors is increased in the anterior cingulate cortex in schizophrenia. Prog. Neuropsychopharmacol. Biol. Psychiatry 2004, 28, 355-360.
161. Koethe, D.; Llenos, I.C.; Dulay, J.R.; Hoyer, C.; Torrey, E.F.; Leweke, F.M.; Weis, S. Expression of CB1 cannabinoid receptor in the anterior cingulate cortex in schizophrenia, bipolar disorder, and major depression. J. Neural. Transm. 2007, 114, 1055-63.
162. Eggan, S.M.; Hashimoto, T.; Lewis, D.A. Reduced cortical cannabinoid 1 receptor messenger RNA and protein expression in schizophrenia. Arch. Gen. Psychiatry 2008, 65, 772-784.
163. Leweke, F.M.; Giuffrida, A.; Koethe, D.; Schreiber, D.; Nolden, B.M.; Kranaster, L.; Neatby, M.A.; Schneider, M.; Gerth, C.W.; Hellmich, M.; Klosterkötter, J.; Piomelli, D. Anandamide levels in cerebrospinal fluid of first-episode schizophrenic patients: impact of cannabis use. Schizophr. Res. 2007, 94, 29-36.
164. Giuffrida, A.; Leweke, F.M.; Gerth, C.W.; Schreiber, D.; Koethe, D.; Faulhaber, J.; Klosterkotter, J.; Piomelli, D. Cerebrospinal anandamide levels are elevated in acute schizophrenia and are inversely correlated with psychotic symptoms. Neuropsychopharmacology 2004, 29, 2108-2114.
165. Bossong, M.G.; Niesink, R.J. Adolescent brain maturation, the endogenous cannabinoid system and the neurobiology of cannabis-induced schizophrenia. Prog. Neurobiol. 2010, doi:10.1016/j.pneurobio.2010.06.010.
166. Schneider, M.; Koch, M. Chronic pubertal, but not adult chronic cannabinoid treatment impairs sensorimotor gating, recognition memory, and the performance in a progressive ratio task in adult rats. Neuropsychopharmacology 2003, 28, 1760-1769.
167. Bortolato, M.; Aru, G.N.; Frau, R.; Orrù, M.; Luckey, G.C.; Boi, G.; Gessa, G.L. The CB receptor agonist WIN 55,212-2 fails to elicit disruption of prepulse inhibition of the startle in Sprague-Dawley rats. Psychopharmacology 2005, 177, 264-271.
168. McGuire, P.K.; Jones, P.; Harvey, I.; Williams, M.; McGuffin, P.; Murray, R.M. Morbid risk of schizophrenia for relatives of patients with cannabis-associated psychosis. Schizophr. Res. 1995, 15, 277-281.
169. Zhang, P.W.; Ishiguro, H.; Ohtsuki, T.; Hess, J.; Carillo, F.; Walther, D.; Onaivi, E.S.; Arinami, T.; Uhl, G.R. Human cannabinoid receptor 1',5'-exons, candidate regulatory regions, polymorphisms, haplotypes and association with polysubstance abuse. Mol. Psychiatry 2004, 9, 916-931.
170. Comings, D.E.; Muhleman, D.; Gade, R.; Johnson, P.; Verde, R.; Saucier, G.; MacMurray, J. Cannabinoid receptor gene (CNR1), association with i.v. drug use. Mol. Psychiatry 1997, 2, 161-168.
171. Ponce, G.; Hoenicka, J.; Rubio, G.; Ampuero, I.; Jiménez-Arriero, M.A.; Rodríguez-Jiménez, R.; Palomo, T.; Ramos, J.A. Association between cannabinoid receptor gene (CNR1) and childhood attention deficit/hyperactivity disorder in Spanish male alcoholic patients. Mol. Psychiatry 2003, 8, 466-467.
172. Schmidt, L.G.; Samochowiec, J.; Finckh, U.; Fiszer-Piosik, E.; Horodnicki, J.; Wendel, B.; Rommelspacher, H.; Hoehe, M.R. Association of a CB1 cannabinoid receptor gene (CNR1) polymorphism with severe alcohol dependence. Drug Alcohol Depend. 2002, 65, 221-224.
173. Ehlers, C.L.; Slutske, W.S.; Lind, P.A.; Wilhelmsen, K.C. Association between single nucleotide polymorphisms in the cannabinoid receptor gene (CNR1) and impulsivity in southwest California Indians. Twin. Res. Hum. Genet. 2007, 10, 805-811.
174. Juhasz, G.; Chase, D.; Pegg, E.; Downey, D.; Toth, Z.G.; Stones, K.; Platt, H.; Mekli, K.; Payton, A.; Elliott, R.; Anderson, I.M.; Deakin, J.F. CNR1 gene is associated with high neuroticism and low agreeableness and interacts with recent negative life events to predict current depressive symptoms. Neuropsychopharmacology 2009, 34, 2019-2027.
175. Chakrabarti, B.; Kent, L.; Suckling, J.; Bullmore, E.; Baron-Cohen, S. Variations in the human cannabinoid receptor (CNR1) gene modulate striatal responses to happy faces. Eur. J. Neurosci. 2006, 23, 1944-1948.
176. Domschke, K.; Dannlowski, U.; Ohrmann, P.; Lawford, B.; Bauer, J.; Kugel, H.; Heindel, W.; Young, R.; Morris, P.; Arolt, V.; Deckert, J.; Suslow, T.; Baune, B.T. Cannabinoid receptor 1 (CNR1) gene: impact on antidepressant treatment response and emotion processing in major depression. Eur. Neuropsychopharmacol. 2008, 18, 751-759.
177. Barrero, F.J.; Ampuero, I.; Morales, B.; Vives, F.; de Dios Luna Del Castillo, J.; Hoenicka, J.; García Yébenes, J. Depression in Parkinson's disease is related to a genetic polymorphism of the cannabinoid receptor gene (CNR1). Pharmacogenomics J. 2005, 5, 135-141.
178. Ujike, H.; Takaki, M.; Nakata, K.; Tanaka, Y.; Takeda, T.; Kodama, M.; Fujiwara, Y.; Sakai, A.; Kuroda, S. CNR1, central cannabinoid receptor gene, associated with susceptibility to hebephrenic schizophrenia. Mol. Psychiatry 2002, 7, 515-518.
179. Chavarría-Siles, I.; Contreras-Rojas, J.; Hare, E.; Walss-Bass, C.; Quezada, P.; Dassori, A.; Contreras, S.; Medina, R.; Ramírez, M.; Salazar, R.; Raventos, H.; Escamilla, M.A. Cannabinoid receptor 1 gene (CNR1) and susceptibility to a quantitative phenotype for hebephrenic schizophrenia. Am. J. Med. Genet. B. Neuropsychiatr. Genet. 2008, 147, 279-284.
180. Seifert, J.; Ossege, S.; Emrich, H.M.; Schneider, U.; Stuhrmann, M. No association of CNR1 gene variations with susceptibility to schizophrenia. Neurosci. Lett. 2007, 426, 29-33.
181. Hamdani, N.; Tabeze, J.P.; Ramoz, N.; Ades, J.; Hamon, M.; Sarfati, Y.; Boni, C.; Gorwood, P. The CNR1 gene as a pharmacogenetic factor for antipsychotics rather than a susceptibility gene for schizophrenia. Eur. Neuropsychopharmacol. 2008, 18, 34-40.
182. Henquet, C.; Di Forti, M.; Morrison, P.; Kuepper, R.; Murray, R.M. Gene-environment interplay between cannabis and psychosis. Schizophr. Bull. 2008, 34, 1111-1121.
183. Caspi, A.; Moffitt, T.E.; Cannon, M.; McClay, J.; Murray, R.; Harrington, H.; Taylor, A.; Arseneault, L.; Williams, B.; Braithwaite, A.; Poulton, R.; Craig, I.W. Moderation of the effect of adolescent-onset cannabis use on adult psychosis by a functional polymorphism in the catechol-Omethyltransferase gene: longitudinal evidence of a gene X environment interaction. Biol. Psychiatry 2005, 57, 1117-1127.
184. Henquet, C.; Rosa, A.; Krabbendam, L.; Papiol, S.; Fananás, L.; Drukker, M.; Ramaekers, J.G.; van Os, J. An experimental study of catechol-o-methyltransferase Val158Met moderation of delta-9-tetrahydrocannabinol-induced effects on psychosis and cognition. Neuropsychopharmacology 2006, 31, 2748-2757.
185. Boucher, A.A.; Arnold, J.C.; Duffy, L.; Schofield, P.R.; Micheau, J.; Karl, T. Heterozygous neuregulin 1 mice are more sensitive to the behavioural effects of Delta9-tetrahydrocannabinol. Psychopharmacology 2007, 192, 325-336.
186. Benyamina, A.; Bonhomme-Faivre, L.; Picard, V.; Sabbagh, A.; Richard, D.; Blecha, L.; Rahioui, H.; Karila, L.; Lukasiewicz, M.; Farinotti, R.; Picard, V.; Marill, C.; Reynaud, M. Association between ABCB1 C3435T polymorphism and increased risk of cannabis dependence. Prog. Neuropsychopharmacol. Biol. Psychiatry 2009, 33, 1270-1274.
187. Alenius, M.; Wadelius, M.; Dahl, M.L.; Hartvig, P.; Lindström, L. Hammarlund-Udenaes M. Gene polymorphism influencing treatment response in psychotic patients in a naturalistic setting. J. Psychiatr. Res. 2008, 42, 884-893.
188. Kato, M.; Fukuda, T.; Serretti, A.; Wakeno, M.; Okugawa, G.; Ikenaga, Y.; Hosoi, Y.; Takekita, Y.; Mandelli, L.; Azuma, J.; Kinoshita, T. ABCB1 (MDR1) gene polymorphisms are associated with the clinical response to paroxetine in patients with major depressive disorder. Prog. Neuropsychopharmacol. Biol. Psychiatry. 2008, 32, 398-404.
189. Pope, H.G., Jr; Gruber, A.J.; Hudson, J.I.; Huestis, M.A.; Yurgelun-Todd, D. Neuropsychological performance in long-term cannabis users. Arch. Gen. Psychiatry 2001, 58, 909-915.
190. Jacobsen, L.K.; Mencl, W.E.; Westerveld, M.; Pugh, K.R. Impact of cannabis use on brain function in adolescents. Ann. N. Y. Acad. Sci. 2004, 1021, 384-390.
191. Novaes, M.A.; Guindalini, C.; Almeida, P.; Jungerman, F.; Bolla, K.; Laranjeira, R.; Lacerda, A.; Bressan, R.A. Cannabis use before age 15 years is associated with poorer attention and executive function. Biol. Psychiatry 2008, 63, S18-S19.
192. Galve-Roperh, I.; Aguado, T.; Palazuelos, J.; Guzmán, M. The endocannabinoid system and neurogenesis in health and disease. Neuroscientist 2007, 13, 109-114.
193. Giedd, J.N.; Jeffries, N.O.; Blumenthal, J.; Castellanos, F.X.; Vaituzis, A.C.; Fernandez, T.; Hamburger, S.D.; Liu, H.; Nelson, J.; Bedwell, J.; Tran, L.; Lenane, M.; Nicolson, R.; Rapoport, J.L. Childhood-onset schizophrenia: progressive brain changes during adolescence. Biol. Psychiatry 1999, 46, 892-898.
194. Crews, F.; He, J.; Hodge, C. Adolescent cortical development: a critical period of vulnerability for addiction. Pharmacol. Biochem. Behav. 2007, 86, 189-199.
195. Rapoport, J.L.; Addington, A.M.; Frangou, S.; Psych, M.R. The neurodevelopmental model of schizophrenia: update 2005. Mol. Psychiatry 2005, 10, 434-449.
196. Feeney, G.F.; Connor, J.P.; Young, R.M.; Tucker, J.; McPherson, A. Cannabis dependence and mental health perception amongst people diverted by police after arrest for cannabis-related offending behaviour in Australia. Crim. Behav. Ment. Health 2005, 15, 249-260.
197. Fattore, L.; Fratta, W. How important are sex differences in cannabinoid action? Br. J. Pharmacol. 2010, 160, 544-548.
198. O'Shea, M.; Singh, M.E.; McGregor, I.S.; Mallet, P.E. Chronic cannabinoid exposure produces lasting memory impairment and increased anxiety in adolescent but not adult rats. J. Psychopharmacol. 2004, 18, 502-508.
199. O'Shea, M.; McGregor, I.S.; Mallet, P.E. Repeated cannabinoid exposure during perinatal.; adolescent or early adult ages produces similar long-lasting deficits in object recognition and reduced social interaction in rats. Psychopharmacol 2006, 20, 611-621.
200. Rubino, T.; Realini, N.; Braida, D.; Alberio, T.; Capurro, V.; Viganò, D.; Guidali, C.; Sala, M.; Fasano, M.; Parolaro, D. The depressive phenotype induced in adult female rats by adolescent exposure to THC is associated with cognitive impairment and altered neuroplasticity in the prefrontal cortex. Neurotox. Res. 2009, 15, 291-302.
201. Naliboff, B.D.; Rickles, W.H.; Cohen, M.J.; Naimark, R.S. Interactions of marijuana and induced stress: forearm blood flow, heart rate, and skin conductance. Psychophysiology 1976, 13, 517-522.
202. Stark-Adamec, C.; Adamec, R.E.; Pihl, R.O. The subjective marijuana experience: great expectations. Int. J. Addict. 1981, 16, 1169-1181.
203. Davidson, E.S.; Schenk, S. Variability in subjective responses to marijuana: initial experiences of college students. Addict. Behav. 1994, 19, 531-538.
204. Manzanares, J.; Urigüen, L.; Rubio, G.; Palomo, T. Role of endocannabinoid system in mental diseases. Neurotox. Res. 2004, 6, 213-224.
205. Henquet, C.; Murray, R.; Linszen, D.; van Os, J. The environment and schizophrenia: the role of cannabis use. Schizophr. Bull. 2005, 31, 608-612.
206. Cougnard, A.; Marcelis, M.; Myin-Germeys, I.; De Graaf, R.; Vollebergh, W.; Krabbendam, L.; Lieb, R.; Wittchen, H.U.; Henquet, C.; Spauwen, J.; Van Os, J. Does normal developmental expression of psychosis combine with environmental risk to cause persistence of psychosis? A psychosis proneness-persistence model. Psychol. Med. 2007, 37, 513-527.
207. Harley, M.; Kelleher, I.; Clarke, M.; Lynch, F.; Arseneault, L.; Connor, D.; Fitzpatrick, C.; Cannon, M. Cannabis use and childhood trauma interact additively to increase the risk of psychotic symptoms in adolescence. Psychol. Med. 2009, 9, 1-8.
208. Kendler, K.S.; Schmitt, E.; Aggen, S.H.; Prescott, C.A. Genetic and environmental influences on alcohol, caffeine, cannabis, and nicotine use from early adolescence to middle adulthood. Arch. Gen. Psychiatry. 2008, 65, 674-682.
209. Ramsay, M.; Percy, A. Drug misuse declared: results of the 1994 British Crime Survey. Home Office Research and Statistics Department: Croydon, UK, 1996
210. Pertwee, R. The evidence for the existence of cannabinoid receptors. Gen. Pharmacol. 1993, 24, 811-824.
211. Zuardi, A.W.; Guimaraes, F.S.; Moreira, A.C. Effect of cannabidiol on plasma prolactin, growth hormone and cortisol in human volunteers. Braz. J. Med. Biol. Res. 1993, 26, 213-217.
212. Malone, D.T.; Kearn, C.S.; Chongue, L.; Mackie, K.; Taylor, D.A. Effect of social isolation on CB1 and D2 receptor and fatty acid amide hydrolase expression in rats. Neuroscience 2008, 152, 265-272.
213. Sciolino, N.R.; Bortolato, M.; Eisenstein, S.A.; Fu, J.; Oveisi, F.; Hohmann, A.G.; Piomelli, D. Social isolation and chronic handling alter endocannabinoid signaling and behavioral reactivity to context in adult rats. Neuroscience 2010, 168, 371-386.
214. Burns, H.D.; Van Laere, K.; Sanabria-Bohórquez, S.; Hamill, T.G.; Bormans, G.; Eng, W.S.; Gibson, R.; Ryan, C.; Connolly, B.; Patel, S.; Krause, S.; Vanko, A.; Van Hecken, A.; Dupont, P.; De Lepeleire, I.; Rothenberg, P.; Stoch, S.A.; Cote, J.; Hagmann, W.K.; Jewell, J.P.; Lin, L.S.; Liu, P.; Goulet, M.T.; Gottesdiener, K.; Wagner, J.A.; de Hoon, J.; Mortelmans, L.; Fong, T.M.; Hargreaves, R.J. [18F]MK-9470, a positron emission tomography (PET) tracer for in vivo human PET brain imaging of the cannabinoid-1 receptor. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA 2007, 104, 9800-9805.
215. Hamill, T.G.; Lin, L.S.; Hagmann, W.; Liu, P.; Jewell, J.; Sanabria, S.; Eng, W.; Ryan, C.; Fong, T.M.; Connolly, B.; Vanko, A.; Hargreaves, R.; Goulet, M.T.; Burns, H.D. PET imaging studies in rhesus monkey with the cannabinoid-1 (CB1) receptor ligand [11C]CB-119. Mol. Imaging. Biol. 2009, 11, 246-252.
216. Van Laere, K.; Goffin, K.; Casteels, C.; Dupont, P.; Mortelmans, L.; de Hoon, J.; Bormans, G. Gender-dependent increases with healthy aging of the human cerebral cannabinoid-type 1 receptor binding using [(18)F]MK-9470 PET. Neuroimage 2008, 39, 1533-5314.
217. Van Laere, K.; Goffin, K.; Bormans, G.; Casteels, C.; Mortelmans, L.; de Hoon, J.; Grachev, I.; Vandenbulcke, M.; Pieters, G. Relationship of type 1 cannabinoid receptor availability in the human brain to novelty-seeking temperament. Arch. Gen. Psychiatry 2009, 66, 196-204.