Chapter 13 Cellular adaptation to amino acid availability: Mechanisms involved in the regulation of gene expression and protein metabolism

Cell and Molecular Response to Stress

Volumn 3, Issue C, 2002, Pages 189-206

  Mordier, Sylvie ^a   Bruhat, Alain ^a   Averous, Julien ^a   Fafournoux, Pierre ^a  

^a CEMAGREF   (France)

Author keywords

[No Author keywords available]

Indexed keywords

EID: 77957023046     PISSN: 15681254     EISSN: None     Source Type: Book Series    
DOI: 10.1016/S1568-1254(02)80015-8     Document Type: Chapter

References (114)

1. Andrulis I.L., Chen J., and Ray P.N. Isolation of human cDNAs for asparagine synthetase and expression in Jensen rat sarcoma cells. Mol. Cell. Biol. 7 (1987) 2435-2443
2. Anthony J.C., Yoshizawa F., Anthony T.G., Vary T.C., Jefferson L.S., and Kimball S.R. Leucine stimulates translation initiation in skeletal muscle of postabsorptive rats via a rapamycin-sensitive pathway. J. Nutr. 130 (2000) 2413-2419
3. Aoki T.T., Brennan M.F., Muller W.A., Soeldner J.S., Alpert J.S., Saltz S.B., Kaufmann R.L., Tan M.H., and Cahill G.F. Amino acid levels across normal forearm muscle and splanchnic bed after a protein meal. Am. J. Clin. Nutr. 29 (1976) 340-350
4. Attaix D., Combaret L., Tilignac T., and Taillandier D. Adaptation of the ubiquitin-proteasome proteolytic pathway in cancer cachexia. Mol. Biol. Rep. 26 (1999) 77-82
5. Aulak K.S., Mishra R., Zhou L., Hyatt S.L., de Jonge W., Lamers W., Snider M., and Hatzoglou M. Posttranscriptional regulation of the arginine transporter Cat-1 by amino acid availability. J. Biol. Chem. 274 (1999) 30424-30432
6. Baertl J.M., Placko R.P., and Graham G.G. Serum proteins and plasma free amino acids in severe malnutrition. Am. J. Clin. Nutr. 27 (1974) 733-742
7. Barbosa-Tessmann I.P., Chen C., Zhong C., Schuster S.M., Nick H.S., and Kilberg M.S. Activation of the unfolded protein response pathway induces human asparagine synthetase gene expression. J. Biol. Chem. 274 (1999) 31139-31144
8. Barbosa-Tessmann I.P., Chen C., Zhong C., Siu F., Schuster S.M., Nick H.S., and Kilberg M.S. Activation of the human asparagine synthetase gene by the amino acid response and the endoplasmic reticulum stress response pathways occurs by common genomic elements. J. Biol. Chem. 275 (2000) 26976-26985
9. Beretta L., Gingras A.C., Svitkin Y.V., Hall M.N., and Sonenberg N. Rapamycin blocks the phosphorylation of 4E-BP1 and inhibits cap-dependent initiation of translation. EMBO J. 15 (1996) 658-664
10. Blommaart E.F., Luiken J.J., Blommaart P.J., van Woerkom G.M., and Meijer A.J. Phosphorylation of ribosomal protein S6 is inhibitory for autophagy in isolated rat hepatocytes. J. Biol. Chem. 270 (1995) 2320-2326
11. Blommaart E.F., Luiken J.J., and Meijer A.J. Autophagic proteolysis, control and specificity. Histochem. J. 29 (1997) 365-385
12. Brown E.J., Beal P.A., Keith C.T., Chen J., Shin T.B., and Schreiber S.L. Control of p70 s6 kinase by kinase activity of FRAP in vivo. Nature 377 (1995) 441-446
13. Bruhat A., and Fafournoux P. Recent advances on molecular mechanisms involved in amino acid control of gene expression. Curr. Opin. Clin. Nutr. Metab. Care 4 (2001) 439-443
14. Bruhat A., Jousse C., Carraro V., Reimold A.M., Ferrara M., and Fafournoux P. Amino acids control mammalian gene transcription, activating transcription factor 2 is essential for the amino acid responsiveness of the CHOP promoter. Mol. Cell. Biol. 20 (2000) 7192-7204
15. Bruhat A., Jousse C., Wang X.Z., Ron D., Ferrara M., and Fafournoux P. Amino acid limitation induces expression of CHOP, a CCAAT/enhancer binding protein-related gene, at both transcriptional and post-transcriptional levels. J. Biol. Chem. 272 (1997) 17588-17593
16. Cynober L., Le Boucher J., and Vasson M.P. Arginine metabolism in mammals. J. Nutr. Biochem. 6 (1995) 402-412
17. Diggle T.A., Redpath N.T., Heesom K.J., and Denton R.M. Regulation of protein-synthesis elongation-factor-2 kinase by cAMP in adipocytes. Biochem. J. 336 (1998) 525-529
18. Doering C.B., and Danner D.J. Amino acid deprivation induces translation of branched-chain alphaketoacid dehydrogenase kinase. Am. J. Physiol. Cell Physiol. 279 (2000) C1588-C1594
19. Duplus E., Glorian M., and Forest C. Fatty acid regulation of gene transcription. J. Biol. Chem. 275 (2000) 30749-30752
20. Everson W.V., Flaim K.E., Susco D.M., Kimball S.R., and Jefferson L.S. Effect of amino acid deprivation on initiation of protein synthesis in rat hepatocytes. Am. J. Physiol. 256 (1989) C18-C27
21. Fafournoux P., Remesy C., and Demigne C. Fluxes and membrane transport of amino acids in rat liver under different protein diets. Am. J. Physiol. 259 (1990) E614-E625
22. Fafournoux P., Bruhat A., and Jousse C. Amino acid regulation of gene expression. Biochem. J. 351 (2000) 1-12
23. Fernandez J., Yaman I., Mishra R., Merrick W.C., Snider M.D., Lamers W.H., and Hatzoglou M. Internal ribosome entry site-mediated translation of a mammalian mRNA is regulated by amino acid availability. J. Biol. Chem. 276 (2001) 12285-12291
24. Foufelle F., Girard J., and Ferre P. Glucose regulation of gene expression. Curr. Opin. Clin. Nutr. Metab. Care 1 (1998) 323-328
25. Fox H.L., Kimball S.R., Jefferson L.S., and Lynch C.J. Amino acids stimulate phosphorylation of p70S6k and organization of rat adipocytes into multicellular clusters. Am. J. Physiol. 274 (1998) C206-C213
26. Fox H.L., Pham P.T., Kimball S.R., Jefferson L.S., and Lynch C.J. Amino acid effects on translational repressor 4E-BP1 are mediated primarily by L-leucine in isolated adipocytes. Am. J. Physiol. 275 (1998) C1232-C1238
27. Gietzen D.W. Neural mechanisms in the responses to amino acid deficiency. J. Nutr. 123 (1993) 610-625
28. Gietzen D.W. Amino acid recognition in the central nervous system. In: Berthoud H.R., and Seeley R.J. (Eds). Neural and Metabolic Control of Macronutrient Intake (2000), CRC Press, Boca-Raton, FL 339-357
29. Gietzen D.W., Leung P.M.B., Castonguay T.W., Hartmann W.J., and Rogers G.R. Time course of food intake and plasma and brain amino acid concentrations in rat fed amino acid-imbalanced or-deficient diet. Interation of the Chemical Senses with Nutrition (1986), Academic Press, New York 415-456
30. Gingras A.C., Raught B., Gygi S.P., Niedzweicka A., Miron M., Burley S.K., Polakiewicz R.D., Wyslouch-Cieszyuska A., Aebersold R., and Sonenberg N. Hierarchical phosphorylation of the translation inhibitor 4E-BP1. Genes Dev. 15 (2001) 2852-2864
31. Gong S.S., Guerrini L., and Basilico C. Regulation of asparagine synthetase gene expression by amino acid starvation. Mol. Cell Biol. 11 (1991) 6059-6066
32. Gray N.K., and Wickens M. Control of translation initiation in animals. Annu. Rev. Cell. Dev. Biol. 14 (1998) 399-458
33. Grimaldi P.A. Fatty acid regulation of gene expression. Curr. Opin. Clin. Nutr. Metab. Care 4 (2001) 433-437
34. Grimble R.F., and Whitehead R.G. Fasting serum-amino acid patterns in kwashiorkor and after administration of different levels of protein. Lancet 1 (1970) 918-920
35. Guerrini L., Gong S.S., Mangasarian K., and Basilico C. Cis-and trans-acting elements involved in amino acid regulation of asparagine synthetase gene expression. Mol. Cell. Biol. 13 (1993) 3202-3212
36. Gupta S., Campbell D., Derijard B., and Davis R.J. Transcription factor ATF2 regulation by the JNK signal transduction pathway. Science 267 (1995) 389-393
37. Hara K., Yonezawa K., Weng Q.P., Kozlowski M.T., Belham C., and Avruch J. Amino acid sufficiency and mTOR regulate p70 S6 kinase and eIF-4E BP1 through a common effector mechanism. J. Biol. Chem. 273 (1998) 14484-14494
38. Harding H.P., Novoa I.I., Zhang Y., Zeng H., Wek R., Schapira M., and Ron D. Regulated translation initiation controls stress-induced gene expression in mammalian cells. Mol. Cell 6 (2000) 1099-1108
39. Hershko A., and Ciechanover A. The ubiquitin system. Annu. Rev. Biochem. 67 (1998) 425-479
40. Hutson R.G., and Kilberg M.S. Cloning of rat asparagine synthetase and specificity of the amino acid-dependent control of its mRNA content. Biochem. J. 304 (1994) 745-750
41. Hutson R.G., Kitoh T., Moraga Amador D.A., Cosic S., Schuster S.M., and Kilberg M.S. Amino acid control of asparagine synthetase, relation to asparaginase resistance in human leukemia cells. Am. J. Physiol. 272 (1997) C1691-C1699
42. Iiboshi Y., Papst P.J., Kawasome H., Hosoi H., Abraham R.T., Houghton P.J., and Terada N. Amino acid-dependent control of p70 (s6k). Involvement of tRNA aminocylation in the regulation. J. Biol. Chem. 274 (1999) 1092-1099
43. Jeejeebhoy K.N. Protein nutrition in clinical practice. Br. Med. Bull. 37 (1981) 11-17
44. Jeevanandam M., Horowitz G.D., Lowry S.F., and Brennan M.F. Cancer cachexia and protein metabolism. Lancet 1 (1984) 1423-1426
45. Jefferies H.B., Fumagalli S., Dennis P.B., Reinhard C., Pearson R.B., and Thomas G. Rapamycin supresses 5′TOP mRNA translation through inhibition of p70s6k. EMBO J. 16 (1997) 3693-3704
46. Jefferies H.B., Reinhard C., Kozma S.C., and Thomas G. Rapamycin selectively represses translation of the "polypyrimidine tract" mRNA family. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA 91 (1994) 4441-4445
47. Jousse C., Bruhat A., Ferrara M., and Fafouroux P. Physiological concentration of amino acids regulates insulin-like-growth-factor-binding protein 1 expression. Biochem. J. 334 (1998) 147-153
48. Jousse C., Bruhat A., Ferrara M., and Fafournoux P. Evidence for multiple signaling pathways in the regulation of gene expression by amino acids in human cell lines. J. Nutr. 130 (2000) 1555-1560
49. Jousse C., Bruhat A., Harding H.P., Ferrara M., Ron D., and Fafournoux P. Amino acid limitation regulates CHOP expression through a specific pathway independent of the unfolded protein response. FEBS Lett. 448 (1999) 211-216
50. Kamada Y., Funakoshi T., Shintani T., Nagano K., Ohsumi M., and Ohsumi Y. Tor-mediated induction of autophagy via an Apg1 protein kinase complex. J. Cell. Biol. 150 (2000) 1507-1513
51. Kilberg M.S., Hutson R.J., and Laine R.O. Amino acid-regulated gene expression in eukaryotic cells. FASEB J. 8 (1994) 13-19
52. Kim J., and Klionsky D.J. Autophagy, cytoplasmto-vacuole targeting pathway, and pexophagy in yeast and mammalian cells. Annu. Rev. Biochem. 69 (2000) 303-342
53. Kimball S.R., Horetsky R.L., and Jefferson L.S. Implication of eIF2B rather than eIF4E in the regulation of global protein synthesis by amino acids in L6 myoblasts. J. Biol. Chem. 273 (1998) 30945-30953
54. Kimball S.R., Shantz L.M., Horetsky R.L., and Jefferson L.S. Leucine regulates translation of specific mRNAs in L6 myoblasts through mTOR-mediated changes in availability of eIF4E and phosphorylation of ribosomal protein S6. J. Biol. Chem. 274 (1999) 11647-11652
55. Klionsky D.J., and Emr S.D. Autophagy as a regulated pathway of cellular degradation. Science 290 (2000) 1717-1721
56. Lee P.D., Conover C.A., and Powell D.R. Regulation and function of insulin-like growth factor-binding protein-1. Proc. Soc. Exp. Biol. Med. 204 (1993) 4-29
57. Livingstone C., Patel G., and Jones N. ATF-2 contains a phosphorylation-dependent transcriptional activation domain. EMBO J. 14 (1995) 1785-1797
58. Luethy J.D., and Holbrook N.J. Activation of the gadd153 promoter by genotoxic agents, a rapid and specific response to DNA damage. Cancer Res. 52 (1992) 5-10
59. Lynch C.J. Role of leucine in the regulation of mTOR by amino acids, revelations from structure-activity studies. j. Nutr. 131 (2001) 861S-865S
60. Mizushima N., Noda T., Yoshimori T., Tanaka Y., Ishii T., George M.D., Klionsky D.J., Ohsumi M., and Ohsumi Y. A protein conjugation system essential for autophagy. Nature 395 (1998) 395-398
61. Mordier S., Deval C., Bechet D., Tassa A., and Ferrara M. Leucine limitation induces autophagy and activation of lysosome-dependent proteolysis in C2C12 myotubes through a mammalian target of rapamycin-independent signaling pathway. J. Biol. Chem. 275 (2000) 29900-29906
62. Mortimore G.E., Poso A.R., and Lardeux B.R. Mechanism and regulation of protein degradation in liver. Diabetes Metab. Rev. 5 (1989) 49-70
63. Munro H.N. Mammalian Protein Metabolism (1970), Academic Press, New York
64. Munro H.N. Second Boyd Orr Memorial Lecture. Regulation of body protein metabolism in relation to diet. Proc. Nutr. Soc. 35 (1976) 297-308
65. Murata K., Wu J., and Brautigan D.L. B cell receptor-associated protein alpha4 displays rapamycinsensitive binding directly to the catalytic subunit of protein phosphatase 2A. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA 94 (1997) 10624-10629
66. Nave B.T., Ouwens M., Withers D.J., Alessi D.R., and Shepherd P.R. Mammalian target of rapamycin is a direct target for protein kinase B, identification of a convergence point for opposing effects of insulin and amino-acid deficiency on protein translation. Biochem. J. 344 (1999) 427-431
67. Noda T., and Ohsumi Y. Tor, a phosphatidylinositol kinase homologue, controls autophagy in yeast. J. Biol. Chem. 273 (1998) 3963-3966
68. Ozalp I., Young V.R., Nagchaudhuri J., Tontisirin K., and Scrimshaw N.S. Plasma amino acid response in young men given diets devoid of single essential amino acids. J. Nutr. 102 (1972) 1147-1158
69. Pain V.M. Translational control during amino acid starvation. Biochimie 76 (1994) 718-728
70. Pearson R.B., Dennis P.B., Han J.W., Williamson N.A., Kozma S.C., Wetternhall R.E., and Thomas G. The principal target of rapamycin-induced p70s6k inactivation is a novel phosphorylation site within a conserved hydrophobic domain. EMBO J. 14 (1995) 5279-5287
71. Pégorier J.P. Regulation of gene expression by fatty acids. Curr. Opin. Clin. Nutr. Metab. Care 1 (1998) 329-334
72. Peng Y., and Harper A.E. Amino acid balance and food intake, effect of different dietary amino acid patterns on the plasma amino acid pattern of rats. J. Nutr. 100 (1970) 429-437
73. Peterson R.T., Beal P.A., Comb M.J., and Schreiber S.L. FKBP12-rapamycin-associated protein (FRAP) autophosphorylates at serine 2481 under translationally repressive conditions. J. Biol. Chem. 275 (2000) 7416-7423
74. Peterson R.T., Desai B.N., Hardwick J.S., and Schreiber S.L. Protein phosphatase 2A interacts with the 70-kDa s6 kinase and is activated by inhibition of FKBP12-rapamycin-associated protein. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA 96 (1999) 4438-4442
75. Peyrollier K., Hajduch E., Blair A.S., Hyde R., and Hundal H.S. L-leucine availability regulates phosphatidylinositol 3-kinase, p70 S6 kinase and glycogen synthase kinase-3 activity in L6 muscle cells, evidence for the involvement of the mammalian target of rapamycin (mTOR) pathway in the L-leucine-induced up-regulation of system A amino acid transport. Biochem. J. 350 (2000) 361-368
76. Pham P.T., Heydrick S.J., Fox H.L., Kimball S.R., Jefferson L.S., and Lynch C.J. Assessment of cell-signaling pathways in the regulation of mammalian target of rapamycin (mTOR) by amino acids in rat adipocytes. J. Cell. Biochem. 79 (2000) 427-441
77. Pickart C.M. Ubiquitin in chains. Trends Biochem. Sci. 25 (2000) 544-548
78. Proud C.G., and Denton R.M. Molecular mechanisms for the control of translation by insulin. Biochem. J. 328 (1997) 329-341
79. Redpath N.T., Foulstone E.J., and Proud C.G. Regulation of translation elongation factor-2 by insulin via a rapamycin-sensitive signalling pathway. EMBO J. 15 (1996) 2291-2297
80. Rogers Q.R., and Leung P.M.B. The control of food intake, when and how are amino acids involved?. In: Kare M.R., and Maller O. (Eds). The Chemical Senses and Nutrition (1977), Academic Press, New York 213-249
81. Ron D., and Habener J.F. CHOP, a novel developmentally regulated nuclear protein that dimerizes with transcription factors C/EBP and LAP and functions as a dominant-negative inhibitor of gene transcription. Genes Dev. 6 (1992) 439-453
82. Sano Y., Harada J., Tashiro S., Gotoh-Mandeville R., Maekawa T., and Ishii S. ATF-2 is a common nuclear target of Smad and TAK1 pathways in trans-forming growth factor-beta signaling. J. Biol. Chem. 274 (1999) 8949-8957
83. Schmitt-Ney M., and Habener J.F. CHOP/GADD153 gene expression response to cellular stresses inhibited by prior exposure to ultraviolet light wavelength band C (UVC). Inhibitory sequence mediating the UVC response localized to exon 1. J. Biol. Chem. 275 (2000) 40839-40845
84. Scott S.V., Nice D.C., Nau J.J., Weisman L.S., Kamada Y., Keizer-Gunnink I., Funakoshi T., Veenhuis M., Ohsumi Y., and Klionsky D.J. Apg 13p and Vac8p are part of a complex of phosphoproteins that are required for cytoplasm to vacuole targeting. J. Biol. Chem. 275 (2000) 25840-25849
85. Shigemitsu K., Tsujishita Y., Hara K., Nanahoshi M., Avruch J., and Yonezawa K. Regulation of translational effectors by amino acid and mammalian target of rapamycin signaling pathways. Possible involvement of autophagy in cultured hepatoma cells. J. Biol. Chem. 274 (1999) 1058-1065
86. Siu F., Chen C., Zhong C., and Kilberg M.S. CCAAT/Enhancer-binding protein-beta is a mediator of the nutrient-sensing response pathway that activates the human asparagine synthetase gene. J. Biol. Chem. 276 (2001) 48100-48107
87. Straus D.S. Nutritional regulation of hormones and growth factors that control mammalian growth. FASEB J. 8 (1994) 6-12
88. Straus D.S., Burke E.J., and Marten N.W. Induction of insulin-like growth factor binding protein-1 gene expression in liver of protein-restricted rats and in rat hepatoma cells limited for a single amino acid. Endocrinology 132 (1993) 1090-1100
89. Stromhaug P.E., Berg T.O., Fengsrud M., and Seglen P.O. Purification and characterization of autophagosomes from rat hepatocytes. Biochem. J. 335 (1998) 217-224
90. Svanberg E., Jefferson L.S., Lundholm K., and Kimball S.R. Postprandial stimulation of muscle protein synthesis is independent of changes in insulin. Am. J. Physiol. 272 (1997) E841-E847
91. Sylvester S.L., ap Rhys C.M., Luethy-Martindale J.D., and Holbrook N.J. Induction of GADD153, a CCAAT/enhancer-binding protein (C/EBP)-related gene, during the acute phase response in rats. Evidence for the involvement of C/EBPs in regulating its expression [published erratum appears in J. Biol. Chem. 1995; 270, 14842]. J. Biol. Chem. 269 (1994) 20119-20125
92. Talloczy Z., Jiang W., Virgin H.W., Leib D.A., Scheuner D., Kaufman R.J., Eskelinen E.-L., and Levine B. Regulation of starvation and virus-induced autophagy by the eIF2α kinase signaling pathway. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. 99 (2002) 190-195
93. Tang H., Hornstein E., Stolovich M., Levy G., Livingstone M., Templeton D., Avruch J., and Meyuhas O. Amino acid-induced translation of TOP mRNAs is fully dependent on phosphatidylinositol 3-kinasemediated signaling, is partially inhibited by rapamycin and is independent of S6K1 and rpS6 phosphorylation. Mol. Cell. Biol. 21 (2001) 8671-8683
94. Towle H.C. Metabolic regulation of gene transcription in mammals. J. Biol. Chem. 270 (1995) 23235-23238
95. Tsukada M., and Ohsumi Y. Isolation and characterization of autophagy-defective mutants of Saccharomyces cerevisiae. FEBS Lett. 333 (1993) 169-174
96. Turk V., Turk B., and Turk D. Lysosomal cysteine proteases, facts and opportunities. EMBO J. 20 (2001) 4629-4633
97. Ubeda M., Vallejo M., and Habener J.F. CHOP enhancement of gene transcription by interactions with Jun/Fos AP-1 complex proteins. Mol. Cell. Biol. 19 (1999) 7589-7599
98. Vary T.C., Jefferson L.S., and Kimball S.R. Amino acid-induced stimulation of translation initiation in rat skeletal muscle. Am. J. Physiol. 277 (1999) E1077-E1086
99. Vaulont S., Vasseur-Cognet M., and Kahn A. Glucose regulation of gene transcription. J. Biol. Chem. 275 (2000) 31555-31558
100. Voges D., Zwickl P., and Baumeister W. The 26S proteasome, a molecular machine designed for controlled proteolysis. Annu. Rev. Biochem. 68 (1999) 1015-1068
101. Wang L., Wang X., and Proud C.G. Activation of mRNA translation in rat cardiac myocytes by insulin involves multiple rapamycin-sensitive steps. Am. J. Physiol. 278 (2000) H1056-H1068
102. Wang X., Campbell L.E., Miller C.M., and Proud C.G. Amino acid availability regulates p70 S6 kinase and multiple translation factors [published erratum appears in Biochem. J. 1998; 335, 711]. Biochem. J. 334 (1998) 261-267
103. Wang X., Li W., Williams M., Terada N., Alessi D.R., and Proud C.G. Regulation of elongation factor 2 kinase by p90(RSK1) and p70 S6 kinase. EMBO J. 20 (2001) 4370-4379
104. Wang X., Paulin F.E., Campbell L.E., Gomez E., O'Brien K., Morrice N., and Proud C.G. Eukaryotic initiation factor 2B, identification of multiple phosphorylation sites in the epsilon-subunit and their functions in vivo. EMBO J. 20 (2001) 4349-4359
105. Wang X.Z., Lawson B., Brewer J.W., Zinszner H., Sanjay A., Mi L.J., Boorstein R., Kreibich G., Hendershot L.M., and Ron D. Signals from the stressed endoplasmic reticulum induce C/EBP-homologous protein (CHOP/GADD153). Mol. Cell. Biol. 16 (1996) 4273-4280
106. Weng Q.P., Andrabi K., Kozlowski M.T., Grove J.R., and Avruch J. Multiple independent inputs are required for activation of the p70 S6 kinase. Mol. Cell. Biol. 15 (1995) 2333-2340
107. Weng Q.P., Kozlowski M., Belham C., Zhang A., Comb M.J., and Avruch J. Regulation of the p70 S6 kinase by phosphorylation in vivo. Analysis using sitespecific anti-phosphopeptide antibodies. J. Biol. Chem. 273 (1998) 16621-16629
108. Wing S.S., and Goldberg A.L. Glucocorticoids activate the ATP-ubiquitin-dependent proteolytic system in skeletal muscle during fasting. Am. J. Physiol. 264 (1993) E668-E676
109. Wolfe R.R., Jahoor F., and Hartl W.H. Protein and amino acid metabolism after injury. Diabetes Metab. Rev. 5 (1989) 149-164
110. Xu G., Kwon G., Marshall C.A., Lin T.A., Lawrence J.C., and McDaniel M.L. Branched-chain amino acids are essential in the regulation of PHAS-I and p70 S6 kinase by pancreatic beta-cells. A possible role in protein translation and mitogenic signaling. J. Biol. Chem. 273 (1998) 28178-28184
111. Yoshida H., Okada T., Haze K., Yanagi H., Yura T., Negishi M., and Mori K. ATF6 activated by proteolysis binds in the presence of NF-Y (CBF) directly to the cis-acting element responsible for the mammalian unfolded protein response. Mol. Cell. Biol. 20 (2000) 6755-6767
112. Yoshizawa F., Endo H., Ide H., Yagasaki K., and Funabiki R. Translational regulation of protein synthesis in the liver and skeletal muscle of mice in response to refeeding. Nutr. Biochem. 6 (1995) 130-136
113. Vol. 33. Young V.R., El-Khoury A.E., Melchor S., and Castillo L. The biochemistry and physiology of protein and amino acid metabolism, with reference to protein nutrition. In: Niels C.R.R. (Ed). Protein Metabolism during Infancy (1994), Nestec Ltd. Vevey/Raven Press, Ltd., New York 1-28
114. Ziegler T.R., Gatzen C., and Wilmore D.W. Strategies for attenuating protein-catabolic responses in the critically ill. Annu. Rev. Med. 45 (1994) 459-480