Mechanical testing of bones: The positive synergy of finite-element models and in vitro experiments

Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society A: Mathematical, Physical and Engineering Sciences

Volumn 368, Issue 1920, 2010, Pages 2725-2763

  Cristofolini, Luca ^a,b   Schileo, Enrico ^b   Juszczyk, Mateusz ^a,b   Taddei, Fulvia ^b   Martelli, Saulo ^a,b   Viceconti, Marco ^b  

^a UNIVERSITY OF BOLOGNA   (Italy)

^b RIZZOLI ORTHOPAEDIC INSTITUTE   (Italy)

Author keywords

Experimental validation; Human bones; Mechanical in vitro testing; Numerical modelling; Sensitivity analysis; Skeletal biomechanics

Indexed keywords

BIOMECHANICS; BIOPHYSICS; BONE; COMPUTER SIMULATION; FINITE ELEMENT METHOD; MATERIALS PROPERTIES; MATHEMATICAL MODELS; MECHANICAL PROPERTIES; MECHANICAL TESTING; MERGERS AND ACQUISITIONS; MODELS; NUMERICAL METHODS; SENSITIVITY ANALYSIS; STRAIN;

EXPERIMENTAL VALIDATIONS; HUMAN BONES; IN-VITRO; NUMERICAL MODELLING; SKELETAL BIOMECHANICS;

EXPERIMENTS;

BIOLOGICAL MODEL; BIOMEDICAL ENGINEERING; BONE; COMPRESSIVE STRENGTH; COMPUTER SIMULATION; EQUIPMENT DESIGN; FINITE ELEMENT ANALYSIS; HUMAN; INSTRUMENTATION; METHODOLOGY; PHYSIOLOGY; REVIEW; TENSILE STRENGTH; YOUNG MODULUS;

BIOMEDICAL ENGINEERING; BONE AND BONES; COMPRESSIVE STRENGTH; COMPUTER SIMULATION; ELASTIC MODULUS; EQUIPMENT DESIGN; FINITE ELEMENT ANALYSIS; HUMANS; MODELS, BIOLOGICAL; TENSILE STRENGTH;

EID: 77953515441     PISSN: 1364503X     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1098/rsta.2010.0046     Document Type: Article

References (166)

1. Aamodt, A., Lund-Larsen, J., Eine, J., Andersen, E., Benum, P. & Husby, O. S. 1997 In vivo measuments show tensile axial strain in the proximal lateral aspect of the human femur. J. Orthop. Res. 15, 927-931. (doi:10.1002/jor.1100150620) (Pubitemid 28121508)
2. Ajovalasit, A. & Zuccarello, B. 2005 Local reinforcement effect of a strain gauge installation on low modulus materials. J. Strain Anal. Eng. Des. 40, 643-654. (doi:10.1243/030932405X30894) (Pubitemid 41563445)
3. Anderson, A. E., Peters, C. L., Tuttle, B. D. & Weiss, J. A. 2005 Subject-specific finite element model of the pelvis: development, validation and sensitivity studies. J. Biomech. Eng. 127, 364-373. (doi:10.1115/1.1894148) (Pubitemid 40881151)
4. Arjmand, N., Gagnon, D., Plamondon, A., Shirazi-Adl, A. & Lariviere, C. 2009 Comparison of trunk muscle forces and spinal loads estimated by two biomechanical models. Clin. Biomech. 24, 533-541. (doi:10.1016/j.clinbiomech. 2009.05.008)
5. Babuska, I. & Oden, J. T. 2004 Verification and validation in computational engineering and science: basic concepts. Comput. Methods Appl. Mech. Eng. 193, 4057-4066. (doi:10.1016/j.cma.2004.03.002) (Pubitemid 39142612)
6. Beraudi, A., Stea, S., Bordini, B., Baleani, M. & Viceconti, M. 2010 Osteon classification in human fibular shaft by circularly polarized light. Cells Tissues Organs. 191, 260-268. (doi:10.1159/000240045)
7. Bergmann, G. 2001 Hip 98-Loading of the hip joint. Berlin, Germany: Free University of Berlin.
8. Bergmann, G. (ed.) 2008 OrthoLoad, Charité- Universitätsmedizin Berlin. See http://www.orthoload.com.
9. Bergmann, G., Deuretzbacher, G., Heller, M., Graichen, F., Rohlmann, A., Strauss, J. & Duda, G. N. 2001 Hip contact forces and gait patterns from routine activities. J. Biomech. 34, 859-871. (doi:10.1016/S0021-9290 (01) 00040-9)
10. Besl, P. & McKay, N. 1992 A method for registration of 3-D shapes. IEEE Trans. Pattern Anal. Mach. Intell. 14, 239-256. (doi:10.1109/34.121791)
11. Bessho, M., Ohnishi, I., Matsuyama, J., Matsumoto, T., Imai, K. & Nakamura, K. 2007 Prediction of strength and strain of the proximal femur by a CT-based finite element method. J. Biomech. 40, 1745-1753. (doi:10.1016/j. jbiomech.2006.08.003) (Pubitemid 46702134)
12. Britton, J. R., Walsh, L. A. & Prendergast, P. J. 2003 Mechanical simulation of muscle loading on the proximal femur: analysis of cemented femoral component migration with and without muscle loading. Clin. Biomech. 18, 637-646. (doi:10.1016/S0268-0033 (03) 00113-X)
13. Carter, D. R. & Hayes, W. C. 1977 The compressive behavior of bone as a two-phase porous structure. J. Bone Joint Surg. Am. 59, 954-962.
14. Cheal, E. J., Spector, M. & Hayes, W. C. 1992 Role of loads and prostheses material properties on the mechanics of the proximal femur after total hip arthroplasty. J. Orthop. Res. 10, 405-422. (doi:10.1002/jor. 1100100314)
15. Cody, D. D., Gross, G. J., Hou, F. J., Spencer, H. J., Goldstein, S. A. & Fyhrie, D. P. 1999 Femoral strength is better predicted by finite element models than QCT and DXA. J. Biomech. 32, 1013-1020. (doi:10.1016/S0021-9290 (99) 00099-8)
16. Cody, D. D., Hou, F. J., Divine, G. W. & Fyhrie, D. P. 2000 Femoral structure and stiffness in patients with femoral neck fracture. J. Orthop. Res. 18, 443-448. (doi:10.1002/jor.1100180317)
17. Collier, J. P., Mayor, M. B., Chae, J. C., Surprenant, V. A., Surprenant, H. P. & Dauphinais, L. A. 1988 Macroscopic and microscopic evidence of prosthetic fixation with porous-coated materials. Clin. Orthop. Relat. Res. 235, 173-180.
18. Colombo, M., Raimondi, M., Villa, T., Quaglini, V. & Pietrabissa, R. 2002 The biomechanics of intramedullary nailing: a protocol for laboratory testing. J. Mech. Med. Biol. 2, 81-97. (doi:10.1142/S0219519402000277)
19. Cotton, D. W. K., Whitehead, C. L., Vyas, S., Cooper, C. & Patterson, E. A. 1994 Are hip fractures caused by falling and breaking or breaking and falling? Photoelastic stress analysis. Forensic Sci. Int. 65, 105-112. (doi:10.1016/0379-0738 (94) 90265-8)
20. Crawford, R. P., Cann, C. E. & Keaveny, T. M. 2003 Finite element models predict in vitro vertebral body compressive strength better than quantitative computed tomography. Bone 33, 744-750. (doi:10.1016/S8756-3282 (03) 00210-2)
21. Cristofolini, L. 1997 A critical analysis of stress shielding evaluation of hip prostheses. Crit. Rev. Biomed. Eng. 25, 409-483.
22. Cristofolini, L. In press. Anatomical reference frames for long bones: biomechanical applications. In Handbook of anthropometry: physical measures of human form in health and disease (ed. V. R. Preedy). New York, NY: Springer.
23. Cristofolini, L. & Viceconti, M. 1997 Comparison of uniaxial and triaxial rosette gauges for strain measurement in the femur. Exp. Mech. 37, 350-354. (doi:10.1007/BF02317430)
24. Cristofolini, L. & Viceconti, M. 1999a In vitro stress shielding measurements can be affected by large errors. J. Arthroplasty 14, 215-219. (doi:10.1016/S0883-5403 (99) 90129-8)
25. Cristofolini, L. & Viceconti, M. 1999b Towards the standardization of in vitro load transfer investigations of hip prostheses. J. Strain Anal. Eng. Des. 34, 1-15. (doi:10.1243/0309324991513579)
26. Cristofolini, L. & Viceconti, M. 2000 Mechanical validation of whole bone composite tibia models. J. Biomech. 33, 279-288. (doi:10.1016/S0021-9290 (99) 00186-4)
27. Cristofolini, L., Cappello, A. & Toni, A. 1994 Experimental errors in the application of photoelastic coatings on human femurs with uncemented hip stems. Strain 30, 95-103. (doi:10.1111/j.1475-1305.1994.tb00929.x)
28. Cristofolini, L., Viceconti, M., Toni, A. & Giunti, A. 1995 Influence of thigh muscles on the axial strains in a proximal femur during early stance in gait. J. Biomech. 28, 617-624. (doi:10.1016/0021-9290 (94) 00106-E)
29. Cristofolini, L., Viceconti, M., Cappello, A. & Toni, A. 1996 Mechanical validation of whole bone composite femur models. J. Biomech. 29, 525-535. (doi:10.1016/0021-9290 (95) 00084-4)
30. Cristofolini, L., McNamara, B. P., Freddi, A. & Viceconti, M. 1997 In-vitro measured strains in the loaded femur: quantification of experimental error. J. Strain Anal. Eng. Des. 32, 193-200. (doi:10.1243/0309324971513337)
31. Cristofolini, L., Juszczyk, M., Pallini, F., Martelli, S., Taddei, F. & Viceconti, M. 2006 Biomechanical testing of the proximal femoral epiphysis: intact and implanted condition. In 8th Biennial Conf. on Engineering Systems Design and Analysis ASME-ESDA 2006, vol. ASME-ESDA 8 (ed. F. Profumo), paper 95145. Turin, Italy: ASME.
32. Cristofolini, L., Juszczyk, M., Martelli, S., Taddei, F. & Viceconti, M. 2007a In vitro replication of spontaneous fractures of the proximal human femur. J. Biomech. 40, 2837-2845. (doi:10.1016/j.jbiomech.2007.03.015) (Pubitemid 47385818)
33. Cristofolini, L., Saponara Teutonico, A., Savigni, P., Erani, P. & Viceconti, M. 2007b Pre-clinical assessment of the long-term endurance of cemented hip stems. Part 1: effect of daily activities-a comparison of two load histories. Proc. Inst. Mech. Eng. H 221, 569-584. (doi:10.1243/09544119JEIM183) (Pubitemid 47553521)
34. Cristofolini, L., Varini, E. & Viceconti, M. 2007c In-vitro method for assessing femoral implant-bone micromotions in resurfacing hip implants under different loading conditions. Proc. Inst. Mech. Eng. H 221, 943-950. (doi:10.1243/09544119JEIM278) (Pubitemid 351176306)
35. Cristofolini, L., Affatato, S., Erani, P., Leardini, W., Tigani, D. & Viceconti, M. 2008a Long-term implant-bone fixation of the femoral component in total knee replacement. Proc. Inst. Mech. Eng. H 222, 319-331. (doi:10.1243/09544119JEIM328)
36. Cristofolini, L., Taddei, F., Baleani, M., Baruffaldi, F., Stea, S. & Viceconti, M. 2008b Multiscale investigation of the functional properties of the human femur. Phil. Trans. R. Soc. A 366, 3319-3341. (doi:10.1098/rsta.2008. 0077)
37. Cristofolini, L., Juszczyk, M., Taddei, F., Field, R. E., Rushton, N. & Viceconti, M. 2009a Stress-shielding and stress-concentration of contemporary epiphyseal hip prostheses. Proc. Inst. Mech. Eng. H 223, 27-44. (doi:10.1243/09544119JEIM470)
38. Cristofolini, L., Juszczyk, M., Taddei, F. & Viceconti, M. 2009b Strain distribution in the proximal human femoral metaphysis. Proc. Inst. Mech. Eng. H 223, 273-288. (doi:10.1243/09544119JEIM497)
39. Cristofolini, L., Conti, G., Juszczyk, M., Cremonini, S., Van Sint Jan, S. & Viceconti, M. 2010 Structural behaviour and strain distribution of the long bones of the human lower limbs. J. Biomech. 43, 826-835. (doi:10.1016/j.jbiomech.2009.11.022)
40. Currey, J. 2008 Whole-bone mechanics: 'the best is the enemy of the good'. Vet. J. 177, 1-2. (doi:10.1016/j.tvjl.2007.10.010)
41. Currey, J. D., Brear, K., Zioupos, P. & Reilly, G. C. 1995 Effect of formaldehyde fixation on some mechanical properties of bovine bone. Biomaterials 16, 1267-1271. (doi:10.1016/0142-9612 (95) 98135-2)
42. Dally, J. W. & Riley, W. F. 2005 Experimental stress analysis, 4th edn. Knoxville, TN: College House Enterprises.
43. Dorey, F. J. & Amstutz, H. C. 2002 Editorial: the need to account for patient activity when evaluating the results of total hip arthroplasty with survivorship analysis. J. Bone Joint Surg. Am. 84, 709-710.
44. Doyle, J. F. & Phillips, J. W. 1989 Manual on experimental stress analysis, 5th edn. Betel, CT: SEM.
45. Duda, G. N., Schneider, E. & Chao, E. Y. S. 1997 Internal forces and moments in the femur during walking. J. Biomech. 30, 933-941. (doi:10.1016/S0021-9290 (97) 00057-2)
46. Duda, G. N., Heller, M., Albinger, J., Schulz, O., Schneider, E. & Claes, L. 1998 Influence of muscle forces on femoral strain distribution. J Biomech. 31, 841-846. (doi:10.1016/S0021-9290 (98) 00080-3)
47. Duncan, J. L. 1992 Strain measurement by thermoelastic emission. In Strain measurement in biomechanics (eds A. W. Miles & K. E. Tanner), pp. 156-168. London, UK: Chapman & Hall.
48. Dunlap, J. T., Chong, A. C., Lucas, G. L. & Cooke, F. W. 2008 Structural properties of a novel design of composite analogue humeri models. Ann. Biomed. Eng. 36, 1922-1926. (doi:10.1007/s10439-008-9568-y)
49. Field, R. E. & Rushton, N. 1989 Proximal femoral surface strain gauge analysis of a new epiphyseal prosthesis. J. Biomed. Eng. 11, 123-129. (doi:10.1016/0141-5425 (89) 90121-0)
50. Finlay, J. B., Rorabeck, C. H., Bourne, R. B. & Tew, W. M. 1989 In vitro analysis of proximal femoral strains using PCA femoral implants and a hip-abductor muscle simulator. J. Arthroplasty 4, 335-349. (doi:10.1016/S0883- 5403 (89) 80035-X)
51. Frigg, R. & Hartmann, S. 2008 Models in science. In The Stanford encyclopedia of philosophy (ed. E. N. Zalta). Stanford, CA: Metaphysics Research Lab, Stanford University. See http://plato.stanford.edu/archives/fall2008/ entries/models-science/.
52. Fritsch, A. & Hellmich, C. 2007 'Universal' microstructural patterns in cortical and trabecular, extracellular and extravascular bone materials: micromechanics-based prediction of anisotropic elasticity. J. Theor. Biol. 244, 597-620. (doi:10.1016/j.jtbi.2006.09.013) (Pubitemid 46148973)
53. Fritsch, A., Dormieux, L., Hellmich, C. & Sanahuja, J. 2009 Mechanical behavior of hydroxyapatite biomaterials: an experimentally validated micromechanical model for elasticity and strength. J. Biomed. Mater. Res. A 88, 149-161. (doi:10.1002/jbm.a.31727)
54. Fung, Y. C. 1980 Bone and cartilage. In Biomechanics-mechanical properties of living tissues, pp. 383-415. New York, NY: Springer.
55. Fung, Y. C. 1990 Biomechanics: motion, flow, stress, and growth. New York, NY: Springer.
56. Galilei, G. 1638 Discorsi e dimostrazioni matematiche intorno a due nuove scienze. (Reprinted by P. Boringhieri, Turin 1958.)
57. Goodman, S. B. 1994 The effects of micromotion and particulate materials on tissue differentiation. Bone chamber studies in rabbits. Acta Orthop. Scand. 65, 2-43.
58. Grassi, L., Schileo, E., Taddei, F., Zani, L., Juszczyk, M., Cristofolini, L. & Viceconti, M. 2010 Subject-specific FE models can predict strain levels and failure characteristics of the human femur in side-fall conditions. In 17th Conf. of the European Society of Biomechanics, Edinburgh, 5-8 July 2010, paper 740.
59. Gupta, S., van der Helm, F. C. T., Sterk, J. C., van Keulen, F. & Kaptein, B. L. 2004 Development and experimental validation of a three-dimensional finite element model of the human scapula. Proc. Inst. Mech. Eng. H 218, 127-142. (doi:10.1243/09544110 4322984022)
60. Hayes, W. C., Swenson Jr, L. W. & Schurman, D. J. 1978 Axisymmetric finite element analysis of the lateral tibial plateau. J. Biomech. 11, 21-33. (doi:10.1016/0021-9290 (78) 90040-4)
61. Heiner, A. D. & Brown, T. D. 2001 Structural properties of a new design of composite replicate femurs and tibias. J. Biomech. 34, 773-781. (doi:10.1016/S0021-9290 (01) 00015-X)
62. Helgason, B., Perilli, E., Schileo, E., Taddei, F., Brynjolfsson, S. & Viceconti, M. 2008a Mathematical relationships between bone density and mechanical properties: a literature review. Clin. Biomech. 23, 135-146. (doi:10.1016/j.clinbiomech.2007.08.024) (Pubitemid 351181239)
63. Helgason, B., Taddei, F., Palsson, H., Schileo, E., Cristofolini, L., Viceconti, M. & Brynjolfsson, S. 2008b A modified method for assigning material properties to FE models of bones. Med. Eng. Phys. 30, 444-453. (doi:10.1016/j.medengphy.2007.05.006) (Pubitemid 351615205)
64. Heller, M., Bergmann, G., Deuretzbacher, G., Dürselen, L., Pohl, M., Claes, L., Haas, N. P. & Duda, G. 2001 Musculo-skeletal loading conditions at the hip during walking and stair climbing. J. Biomech. 34, 883-893. (doi:10.1016/S0021-9290 (01) 00039-2)
65. Hellmich, C., Kober, C. & Erdmann, B. 2008 Micromechanics-based conversion of CT data into anisotropic elasticity tensors, applied to FE simulations of a mandible. Ann. Biomed. Eng. 36, 108-122. (doi:10.1007/s10439- 007-9393-8)
66. Hodgskinson, R. & Currey, J. D. 1992 Young's modulus, density and material properties in cancellous bone over a large density range. J. Mater. Sci. Mater. Med. 3, 377-381. (doi:10.1007/BF00705371)
67. Huiskes, R., Janssen, J. D. & Sloof, T. J. 1981 A detailed comparison of experimental and theoretical stress-analyses of a human femur. In Mechanical properties of bone (ed. S. C. Cowin), pp. 211-234. New York, NY: ASME.
68. Jeffery, C. C. 1974 Spontaneous fractures of the femoral neck. Orthop. Clin. North Am. 5, 713-727.
69. Jewett, D. L. 2005 What's wrong with single hypotheses. The Scientist 19, 10.
70. Juszczyk, M., Cristofolini, L., Kaniuk, J., Schileo, E. & Viceconti, M. In press a. Novel method to determine time and location of initiation of abrupt fracture in bones. J. Strain Anal. Eng. Des.
71. Juszczyk, M., Schileo, E., Martelli, S., Cristofolini, L. & Viceconti, M. In press b. A method to improve experimental validation of finite-element models of long bones. Strain. (doi:10.1111/j.1475-1305.2008. 00500.x)
72. Kalender, W. A. 1992 A phantom for standardization and quality control in spinal bone mineral measurements by QCT and DXA: design considerations and specifications. Med. Phys. 19, 583-586. (doi:10.1118/1.596899)
73. Keaveny, T. M. & Bartel, D. L. 1993 Effects of porous coating and collar support on early load transfer for a cementless hip prosthesis. J. Biomech. 26, 1205-1216. (doi:10.1016/0021-9290 (93) 90068-P)
74. Keaveny, T. M., Pinilla, T. P., Crawford, R. P., Kopperdahl, D. L. & Lou, A. 1997 Systematic and random errors in compression testing of trabecular bone. J. Orthop. Res. 15, 101-110. (doi:10.1002/jor.1100150115) (Pubitemid 27111207)
75. Keller, T. S. 1994 Predicting the compressive mechanical behavior of bone. J. Biomech. 27, 1159-1168. (doi:10.1016/0021-9290 (94) 90056-6)
76. Keyak, J. H., Meagher, J. M., Skinner, H. B. & Mote Jr, C. D. 1990 Automated three-dimensional finite element modelling of bone: a new method. J. Biomed. Eng. 12, 389-397. (doi:10.1016/0141-5425 (90) 90022-F)
77. Keyak, J. H., Fourkas, M. G., Meagher, J. M. & Skinner, H. B. 1993 Validation of an automated method of three-dimensional finite element modelling of bone. J. Biomed. Eng. 15, 505-509. (doi:10.1016/0141-5425 (93) 90066-8)
78. Keyak, J. C., Rossi, S. A., Jones, K. A. & Skinner, H. B. 1998 Prediction of femoral fracture load using automated finite element modeling. J Biomech. 31, 125-133. (doi:10.1016/S0021-9290 (97) 00123-1)
79. Keyak, J. H., Kaneko, T. S., Tehranzadeh, J. & Skinner, H. B. 2005 Predicting proximal femoral strength using structural engineering models. Clin. Orthop. Relat. Res. 437, 219-228.
80. Koch, J. C. 1917 The laws of bone architecture. Am. J. Anat. 21, 177-298. (doi:10.1002/aja.1000210202)
81. Kotzar, G. M., Davy, D. T., Goldberg, V. M., Heiple, K. G., Berilla, J., Heiple, K. G. J., Brown, R. H. & Burstein, A. H. 1991 Telemeterized in vivo hip joint force data: a report on two patients after total hip surgery. J. Orthop. Res. 9, 621-633. (doi:10.1002/jor.1100090502)
82. Lakes, R. S. & Katz, J. L. 1979a Viscoelastic properties of wet cortical bone. II. Relaxation mechanisms. J. Biomech. 12, 679-687. (doi:10.1016/0021-9290 (79) 90017-4)
83. Lakes, R. S. & Katz, J. L. 1979b Viscoelastic properties of wet cortical bone. III. A non-linear constitutive equation. J. Biomech. 12, 689-698. (doi:10.1016/0021-9290 (79) 90018-6)
84. Lambert, K. L. 1971 The weight-bearing function of the fibula. A strain gauge study. J. Bone Joint Surg. Am. 53, 507-513.
85. Lanyon, I. E. 1980 Bone remodelling, mechanical stress, and osteoporosis. In Osteoporosis (ed. H. F. De Luca), pp. 129-138. Baltimore, MD: University Park Press.
86. Lengsfeld, M., Weiss, H. & Kienapfel, H. 1992 Morphological and numerical studies of the stress compatibility of patella implants. Biomed. Tech. (Berl.) 37, 222-229. (doi:10.1515/bmte.1992.37.10.222)
87. Lievers, W. B., Waldman, S. D. & Pilkey, A. K. 2010 Minimizing specimen length in elastic testing of end-constrained cancellous bone. J. Mech. Behav. Biomed. Mater. 3, 22-30. (doi:10.1016/j.jmbbm.2009.02.001)
88. Linde, F. & Sorensen, H. C. 1993 The effect of different storage methods on the mechanical properties of trabecular bone. J. Biomech. 26, 1249-1252. (doi:10.1016/0021-9290 (93) 90072-M)
89. Lochmüller, E.-M., Groll, O., Kuhn, V. & Eckstein, F. 2002 Mechanical strength of the proximal femur as predicted from geometric and densitometric bone properties at the lower limb versus the distal radius. Bone 30, 207-216. (doi:10.1016/S8756-3282 (01) 00621-4)
90. Long, J. P. & Bartel, D. L. 2006 Surgical variables affect the mechanics of a hip resurfacing system. Clin. Orthop. Relat. Res. 453, 115-122. (doi:10.1097/01.blo.0000238873.09390.6f) (Pubitemid 44900969)
91. Lotz, J. C., Cheal, E. J. & Hayes, W. C. 1991 Fracture prediction for the proximal femur using finite element models: part I. Linear analysis. J. Biomech. Eng. 113, 353-360. (doi:10.1115/1.2895412)
92. Malandrino, A., Taddei, F., Schileo, E., Juszczyk, M., Cristofolini, L. & Viceconti, M. 2008 Prediction of failure load and location on proximal femur under a single stance loading condition. J. Biomech. 41, S201. (doi:10.1016/S0021-9290 (08) 70201-X)
93. Martelli, S., Moindreau, M., Rushton, N., Field, R. & Viceconti, M. 2006 An explorative finite element study of a new conservative proximal epiphyseal replacement. J. Biomech. 39 (Suppl 1), S125-S125. (doi:10.1016/S0021-9290 (06) 83402-0)
94. Martelli, S., Taddei, F., Moindreau, M., Cristofolini, L. & Viceconti, M. 2008 Pre-clinical validation of a new proximal epiphyseal replacement: design revision and optimisation by means of finite element models. J. Biomech. 41, S34-S34. (doi:10.1016/S0021-9290 (08) 70034-4)
95. Martens, M., Van Audekercke, R., De Meester, P. & Mulier, J. C. 1986 Mechanical behaviour of femoral bones in bending loading. J. Biomech. 19, 443-454. (doi:10.1016/0021-9290 (86) 90021-7)
96. McMinn, D. & Daniel, J. 2006 History and modern concepts in surface replacement. Proc. Inst. Mech. Eng. H 220, 239-251. (doi:10.1243/ 095441105X68944)
97. Montgomery, D. C. 2005 Design and analysis of experiments, 6th edn. New York, NY: Wiley.
98. Monti, L., Cristofolini, L. & Viceconti, M. 1999 Methods for quantitative analysis of the primary stability in uncemented hip prostheses. Artif. Organs 23, 851-859. (doi:10.1046/j.1525-1594.1999.06287.x) (Pubitemid 29449119)
99. Morgan, E. F., Bayraktar, H. H. & Keaveny, T. M. 2003 Trabecular bone modulus-density relationships depend on anatomic site. J. Biomech. 36, 897-904. (doi:10.1016/S0021-9290 (03) 00071-X)
100. Morita, S., Yamamoto, H., Furuya, K., Ishihara, K. & Nakabayashi, N. 1997 Enhanced strength in cemented stem fixation using adhesive acrylic cement as a metal coating material. J. Biomed. Mater. Res. 34, 171-175. (doi:10.1002/(SICI) 1097-4636 (199702) 34:2<171::AID-JBM5>3.0.CO;2-N)
101. NIH. 2000 Consensus statement on osteoporosis prevention, diagnosis, and therapy, NIH consensus statement online, vol. 17, pp. 1-36. Bethesda, MD: US Department of Health and Human Services, National Institutes of Health.
102. O'Connor, J. J. 1992 Load simulation problems in model testing. In Strain measurement in biomechanics (eds A. W. Miles & K. E. Tanner), pp. 14-38. London, UK: Chapman & Hall.
103. O'Connor, D. O., Burke, D. W., Jasty, M., Sedlacek, R. C. & Harris, W. H. 1996 In vitro measurement of strain in the bone cement surrounding the femoral component of total hip replacements during simulated gait and stair-climbing. J. Orthop. Res. 14, 769-777. (doi:10.1002/jor.1100140514) (Pubitemid 26376522)
104. Ohman, C., Baleani, M., Perilli, E., Dall'Ara, E., Tassani, S., Baruffaldi, F. & Viceconti, M. 2007 Mechanical testing of cancellous bone from the femoral head: experimental errors due to off-axis measurements. J. Biomech. 40, 2426-2433. (doi:10.1016/j.jbiomech.2006.11.020) (Pubitemid 47086321)
105. Ohman, C., Dall'Ara, E., Baleani, M., Van Sint Jan, S. & Viceconti, M. 2008 The effects of embalming using a 4% formalin solution on the compressive mechanical properties of human cortical bone. Clin. Biomech. 23, 1294-1298. (doi:10.1016/j.clinbiomech. 2008.07.007)
106. Orne, D. & Young, D. R. 1976 The effects of variable mass and geometry, pretwist, shear deformation and rotatory inertia on the resonant frequencies of intact long bones: a finite element model analysis. J. Biomech. 9, 763-770. (doi:10.1016/0021-9290 (76) 90183-4)
107. Ota, T., Yamamoto, I. & Morita, R. 1999 Fracture simulation of the femoral bone using the finite-element method: how a fracture initiates and proceeds. J. Bone Miner. Metab. 17, 108-112. (doi:10.1007/s007740050072) (Pubitemid 29258479)
108. Paul, J. P. 1966-1967 Forces transmitted by joints in the human body. Proc. Inst. Mech. Eng. 181, 8-15.
109. Pedersen, D. R., Brand, R. A. & Davy, D. T. 1997 Pelvic muscle and acetabular contact forces during gait. J. Biomech. 30, 959-965. (doi:10.1016/S0021-9290 (97) 00041-9)
110. Peindl, R. D., Harrow, M. E., Connor, P. M., Banks, D. M. & D'Alessandro, D. F. 2004 Photoelastic stress freezing analysis of total shoulder replacement systems. Exp. Mech. 44, 228-234. (doi:10.1007/BF02427887)
111. Perilli, E., Baruffaldi, F., Visentin, M., Bordini, B., Traina, F., Cappello, A. & Viceconti, M. 2007 MicroCT examination of human bone specimens: effects of polymethylmethacrylate embedding on structural parameters. J. Microsc. 225, 192-200. (doi:10.1111/j.1365-2818.2007.01731.x) (Pubitemid 46376192)
112. Perry, C. C. 1985 Strain-gage reinforcement effects on low-modulus materials. Exp. Tech. 9, 25-27. (doi:10.1111/j.1747-1567.1985.tb02224.x)
113. Perry, C. C. 1986 Strain-gage reinforcement effects on orthotropic materials. Exp. Tech. 10, 20-24. (doi:10.1111/j.1747-1567.1986.tb01386.x)
114. Platt, J. R. 1964 Strong inference. Certain systematic methods of scientific thinking may produce much more rapid progress than others. Sci. New Ser. 146, 347-353.
115. Polgar, K., Gill, H. S., Viceconti, M., Murray, D. & O'Connor, J. J. 2003 Strain distribution within the human femur due to physiological and simplified loading: finite element analysis using the muscle standardized femur model. Proc. Inst. Mech. Eng. H 217, 173-189. (doi:10.1243/095441103765212677)
116. Popper, K. 2003 The logic of scientific discovery. London, UK: Taylor and Francis.
117. Reilly, D. T., Burstein, A. H. & Frankel, V. H. 1974 The elastic modulus for bone. J. Biomech. 7, 271-275. (doi:10.1016/0021-9290 (74) 90018-9)
118. Rockwood, C. A. J., Green, D. P. & Bucholz, R. W. 1991 Rockwood and Green's fractures in adults, vol. 3. Philadelphia, PA: J. B. Lippincott.
119. Rohl, L., Larsen, E., Linde, F., Odgaard, A. & Jorgensen, J. 1991 Tensile and compressive properties of cancellous bone. J. Biomech. 24, 1143-1149. (doi:10.1016/0021-9290 (91) 90006-9)
120. Rohlmann, A., Zander, T., Rao, M. & Bergmann, G. 2009 Realistic loading conditions for upper body bending. J. Biomech. 42, 884-890. (doi:10.1016/j.jbiomech.2009.01.017)
121. Ruimerman, R., Hilbers, P., van Rietbergen, B. & Huiskes, R. 2005 A theoretical framework for strain-related trabecular bone maintenance and adaptation. J. Biomech. 38, 931-941. (doi:10.1016/j.jbiomech.2004.03.037) (Pubitemid 40248478)
122. Rybicki, E. F. & Simonen, F. A. 1977 Mechanics of oblique fracture fixation using a finite-element model. J. Biomech. 10, 141-148. (doi:10.1016/0021-9290 (77) 90077-X)
123. Schileo, E., Taddei, F., Malandrino, A., Cristofolini, L. & Viceconti, M. 2007 Subject-specific finite element models can accurately predict strain levels in long bones. J. Biomech. 40, 2982-2989. (doi:10.1016/j. jbiomech.2007.02.010) (Pubitemid 47385813)
124. Schileo, E., Dall'ara, E., Taddei, F., Malandrino, A., Schotkamp, T., Baleani, M. & Viceconti, M. 2008a An accurate estimation of bone density improves the accuracy of subject-specific finite element models. J. Biomech. 41, 2483-2491. (doi:10.1016/j.jbiomech.2008. 05.017)
125. Schileo, E., Taddei, F., Cristofolini, L. & Viceconti, M. 2008b Subject-specific finite element models implementing a maximum principal strain criterion are able to estimate failure risk and fracture location on human femurs tested in vitro. J. Biomech. 41, 356-367. (doi:10.1016/j.jbiomech.2007. 09.009)
126. Schileo, E., Taddei, F., Martelli, S., Cristofolini, L., Moindreau, M. & Viceconti, M. 2008c FE probabilistic approach to define the clinical indications of a new proximal epiphyseal replacement. J. Biomech. 41, S35. (doi:10.1016/S0021-9290 (08) 70035-6)
127. Sharir, A., Barak, M. M. & Shahar, R. 2008 Whole bone mechanics and mechanical testing. Vet. J. 177, 8-17. (doi:10.1016/j.tvjl.2007.09.012) (Pubitemid 351753678)
128. Simkin, A. & Robin, G. 1973 The mechanical testing of bone in bending. J. Biomech. 6, 31-39. (doi:10.1016/0021-9290 (73) 90035-3)
129. Simon, B. R., Woo, S. L., Stanley, G. M., Olmstead, S. R., McCarty, M. P., Jemmott, G. F. & Akeson, W. H. 1977 Evaluation of one-, two-, and three-dimensional finite element and experimental models of internal fixation plates. J. Biomech. 10, 79-86. (doi:10.1016/0021-9290 (77) 90071-9)
130. Slemon, D., O'Donnell, P. & Little, E. G. 1991 The use of photoelastic coatings to investigate the pelvic strain variations resulting from the introduction of cementless metal backed acetabular cups. Strain 27, 143-153. (doi:10.1111/j.1475-1305.1991.tb00773.x)
131. Stein, I. D. 1976 Rib structure and bending strength: an autopsy study. Calcif. Tissue Res. 20, 61-73. (doi:10.1007/BF02546398)
132. Stolk, J., Verdonschot, N. & Huiskes, R. 2001 Hip-joint abductor-muscle forces adequately represent in vivo loading of a cemented total hip reconstruction. J. Biomech. 34, 917-926. (doi:10.1016/S0021-9290 (00) 00225-6)
133. Stolk, J., Verdonschot, N., Cristofolini, L., Toni, A. & Huiskes, R. 2002a Finite element and experimental models of cemented hip joint reconstructions can produce similar bone and cement strains in pre-clinical tests. J. Biomech. 35, 499-510. (doi:10.1016/S0021-9290 (01) 00213-5)
134. Stolk, J., Verdonschot, N. & Huiskes, R. 2002b Stair climbing is more detrimental to the cement in hip replacement than walking. Clin. Orthop. Relat. Res. 405, 294-305. (doi:10.1097/00003086-200212000-00037)
135. Szivek, J. A., Benjamin, J. B. & Anderson, P. L. 2000 An experimental method for the application of lateral muscle loading and its effect on femoral strain distributions. Med. Eng. Phys. 22, 109-116. (doi:10.1016/S1350-4533 (00) 00020-5)
136. Taddei, F., Viceconti, M., Manfrini, M. & Toni, A. 2003 Mechanical strength of a femoral reconstruction in paediatric oncology: a finite element study. Proc. Inst. Mech. Eng. H 217, 111-119. (doi:10.1243/09544110360579321)
137. Taddei, F., Cristofolini, L., Martelli, S., Gill, H. S. & Viceconti, M. 2006 Subject-specific finite element models of long bones: an in vitro evaluation of the overall accuracy. J. Biomech. 39, 2457-2467. (doi:10.1016/j.jbiomech.2005.07.018) (Pubitemid 44349093)
138. Taddei, F., Schileo, E., Helgason, B., Cristofolini, L. & Viceconti, M. 2007 The material mapping strategy influences the accuracy of CT-based finite element models of bones: an evaluation against experimental measurements. Med. Eng. Phys. 29, 973-979. (doi:10.1016/j.medengphy. 2006.10.014)
139. Taddei, F., Martelli, S., Gill, H. S., Cristofolini, L. & Viceconti, M. 2010 Finite element modelling of resurfacing hip prosthesis: estimation of accuracy through experimental validation. J. Biomech. Eng. 132, 021002. (doi:10.1115/1.4000065)
140. Takebe, K., Nakagawa, A., Minami, H., Kanazawa, H. & Hirohata, K. 1984 Role of the fibula in weight-bearing. Clin. Orthop. Relat. Res. 184, 289-292.
141. Taylor, J. R. 1997 An introduction to error analysis. The study of uncertainties in physical measurements, 2nd edn. Sausalito, CA: University Science Books.
142. Taylor, S. J. G. & Walker, P. S. 2001 Forces and moments telemetered from two distal femoral replacements during various activities. J. Biomech. 34, 839-848. (doi:10.1016/S0021-9290 (01) 00042-2)
143. Trabelsi, N., Yosibash, Z. & Milgrom, C. 2009 Validation of subject-specific automated p-FE analysis of the proximal femur. J. Biomech 42, 234-241. (doi:10.1016/j.jbiomech. 2008.10.039)
144. Van Rietbergen, B., Huiskes, R., Eckstein, F. & Ruegsegger, P. 2003 Trabecular bone tissue strains in the healthy and osteoporotic human femur. J. Bone Miner. Res. 18, 1781-1788. (doi:10.1359/jbmr.2003.18.10.1781) (Pubitemid 37322555)
145. Van Sint Jan, S. & Della Croce, U. 2005 Identifying the location of human skeletal landmarks: why standardized definitions are necessary-a proposal. Clin. Biomech. 20, 659-660. (doi:10.1016/j.clinbiomech.2005.02.002) (Pubitemid 40775907)
146. Verdonschot, N. J., Huiskes, R. & Freeman, M. A. 1993 Pre-clinical testing of hip prosthetic designs: a comparison of finite element calculations and laboratory tests. Proc. Inst. Mech. Eng. H 207, 149-154.
147. Viceconti, M. & Taddei, F. 2003 Automatic generation of finite element meshes from computed tomography data. Crit. Rev. Biomed. Eng. 31, 27-72. (doi:10.1615/CritRevBiomedEng. v31.i12.20)
148. Viceconti, M., Toni, A. & Giunti, A. 1992 Strain gauge analysis of hard tissues: factors influencing measurements. In Experimental mechanics. Technology transfer between high tech engineering and biomechanics (ed. E. G. Little), pp. 177-184. Amsterdam, The Netherlands: Elsevier Science.
149. Viceconti, M., Bellingeri, L., Cristofolini, L. & Toni, A. 1998 A comparative study on different methods of automatic mesh generation of human femurs. Med. Eng. Phys. 20, 1-10. (doi:10.1016/S1350-4533 (97) 00049-0)
150. Viceconti, M., Davinelli, M., Taddei, F. & Cappello, A. 2004 Automatic generation of accurate subject-specific bone finite element models to be used in clinical studies. J. Biomech. 37, 1597-1605. (doi:10.1016/j.jbiomech. 2003.12.030) (Pubitemid 39141853)
151. Viceconti, M., Olsen, S., Nolte, L. P. & Burton, K. 2005 Extracting clinically relevant data from finite element simulations. Clin. Biomech. 20, 451-454. (doi:10.1016/j.clinbiomech.2005.01.010)
152. Villa, T., Pietrabissa, R. & Quaglini, V. 2000 Testing procedure for biomechanical evaluation of nailed femur. In Proc. 12th Conf. of ESB (eds P. J. Prendergast, T. C. Lee & A. J. Carr). Dublin, Ireland: Royal Academy of Medicine in Ireland.
153. Villarraga, M. L., Anderson, R. C., Hart, R. T. & Dinh, D. H. 1999 Contact analysis of a posterior cervical spine plate using a three-dimensional canine finite element model. J. Biomech. Eng. 121, 206-214. (doi:10.1115/1. 2835105)
154. Vishay Micro-Measurements. 2005 Application note VMM-8 (doc 11171). In Installation verification, pp. 1-4. Malvern, PA: Vishay Micro-Measurements.
155. Vishay Micro-Measurements. 2009 Application note B-129-8 (doc 11129). In Surface preparation for strain gauge bonding, pp. 1-7. Malvern, PA: Vishay Micro-Measurements.
156. Voide, R., Schneider, P., Stauber, M., Wyss, P., Stampanoni, M., Sennhauser, U., van Lenthe, G. H. & Muller, R. 2009 Time-lapsed assessment of microcrack initiation and propagation in murine/cortical bone at submicrometer resolution. Bone 45, 164-173. (doi:10.1016/j.bone. 2009.04.248)
157. Wang, Q., Whittle, M., Cunningham, J. & Kenwright, J. 1996 Fibula and its ligaments in load transmission and ankle joint stability. Clin. Orthop. Relat. Res. 330, 261-270. (doi:10.1097/00003086-199609000-00034)
158. WHO. 1994 Assessment of fracture risk and its application to screening for postmenopausal osteoporosis. Report of a WHO study group. WHO Technical Report Series, no. 843, pp. 1-130, World Health Organization, Geneva, Switzerland.
159. Wirtz, D. C., Schiffers, N., Pandorf, T., Radermacher, K., Weichert, D. & Forst, R. 2000 Critical evaluation of known bone material properties to realize anisotropic FE-simulation of the proximal femur. J. Biomech. 33, 1325-1330. (doi:10.1016/S0021-9290 (00) 00069-5)
160. Wolff, J. 1892 Das Gesetz der Transformation der Knochen. Berlin, Germany: Verlag von August Hirschwald.
161. Yang, K.-H., Shen, K. L., Demetropoulos, C. K., King, A. I., Kolodziej, P., Levine, R. S. & Fitzgerald, R. H. J. 1996 The relationship between loading conditions and fracture patterns of the proximal femur. J. Biomech. Eng. 118, 575-578. (doi:10.1115/1.2796045)
162. Yosibash, Z., Padan, R., Joskowicz, L. & Milgrom, C. 2007a A CT-based high-order finite element analysis of the human proximal femur compared to in-vitro experiments. J. Biomech. Eng. 129, 297-309. (doi:10.1115/1.2720906) (Pubitemid 47066843)
163. Yosibash, Z., Trabelsi, N. & Milgrom, C. 2007b Reliable simulations of the human proximal femur by high-order finite element analysis validated by experimental observations. J. Biomech. 40, 3688-3699. (doi:10.1016/j.jbiomech. 2007.06.017) (Pubitemid 350122514)
164. Zandman, F., Redner, S. S. & Riegner, E. I. 1962 Reinforcing effect of birefringent coatings. Exp. Mech. 2, 55-64. (doi:10.1007/BF02325694)
165. Zhou, X. M., Walker, P. S. & Robertson, D. D. 1990 Effect of press-fit femoral stems on strains in the femur. A photoelastic coating study. J. Arthroplasty 5, 71-82. (doi:10.1016/S0883-5403 (06) 80013-6)
166. Zienkiewicz, O. C. 1967 The finite element method in structural and continuum mechanics: numerical solution of problems in structural and continuum mechanics. London, UK: McGraw-Hill.